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a genus of bacteria
rod-shaped Gram-negative enterobacteria; cause typhoid fever and food poisoning; can be used as a bioweapon

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サルモネラ菌(食中毒の原因になる)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/02/16 21:58:20」(JST)

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This article is about the bacterium. For the disease, see Salmonellosis.

Salmonella /ˌsælməˈnɛlə/ is a genus of rod-shaped, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, predominantly motile enterobacteria with diameters around 0.8 to 1.5 µm, lengths from 2 to 5 µm, and peritrichous flagella, (flagella that are all around the cell body). They are chemoorganotrophs, obtaining their energy from oxidation and reduction reactions using organic sources, and are facultative anaerobes. There are only two species of Salmonella; Salmonella bongori and Salmonella enterica of which there are around six subspecies and innumerable serovars. Salmonella belongs to the same family as Escherichia, which has as a species E.coli. Most subspecies of Salmonella produce hydrogen sulfide,^{[citation needed]}^[1] which can readily be detected by growing them on media containing ferrous sulfate, such as is used in the triple sugar iron test (TSI). Most isolates exist in two phases: a motile phase I and a nonmotile phase II. Cultures that are nonmotile upon primary culture may be switched to the motile phase using a Cragie tube.^{[citation needed]}

Salmonella is found worldwide in both cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals, and in the environment. They cause illnesses such as typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever, and food poisoning.^[2]

Salmonella as pathogens[edit]

Salmonella bacteria are zoonotic and can be transferred between humans and other animals. Many infections are due to ingestion of contaminated food. For example, recent FDA studies link Guatemalan cantaloupes with Salmonella panama.^[3] In speaking of other salmonella serotypes, enteritis Salmonella and Salmonella typhoid/paratyphoid Salmonella, the latter—because of a special virulence factor and a capsule protein (virulence antigen)—can cause serious illness, such as Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi. Salmonella typhi is adapted to humans and does not occur in other animals.

Salmonella species are facultative intracellular pathogens^[4] that enter cells via macropinosomes.^[5]

Enteritis salmonellosis or food poisoning Salmonella[edit]

This is a group consisting of potentially every other serotype (over a thousand) of the Salmonella bacteria, most of which have never been found in humans. These are encountered in various Salmonella species, most having never been linked to a specific host, but can also infect humans. It is therefore a zoonotic disease.

The organism enters through the digestive tract and must be ingested in large numbers to cause disease in healthy adults. Gastric acidity is responsible for the destruction of the majority of ingested bacteria. Bacterial colonies may become trapped in mucus produced in the oesophagus.

Salmonellosis is a disease incurred by eating food (often raw or undercooked, or too frequently re-heated) which is contaminated by S. enterica. Infection usually occurs when a person ingests foods that contain a high concentration of the bacteria, similar to a culture medium. In otherwise healthy adults, the symptoms can be mild. Normally, no sepsis occurs, but it can occur exceptionally as a complication in the immunocompromised.

However, infants and young children are much more susceptible to infection, easily achieved by ingesting a small number of bacteria. In infants, contamination through inhalation of bacteria-laden dust is possible. After a short incubation period of a few hours to one day, the bacteria multiply in the intestinal lumen, causing an intestinal inflammation with diarrhea that is often mucopurulent (containing mucus or pus) and bloody. In infants, dehydration can cause a state of severe toxicity. Extraintestinal localizations are possible, especially Salmonella meningitis in children, osteitis, etc.

Enteritis Salmonella (e.g., Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar enteritidis) can cause diarrhea, which usually does not require antibiotic treatment. However, in people at risk such as infants, small children, the elderly, Salmonella infections can become very serious, leading to complications. If these are not treated, HIV patients and those with suppressed immunity can become seriously ill. Children with sickle cell anaemia who are infected with Salmonella may develop osteomyelitis. Treatment of osteomyelitis, in this case, will be to use fluoroquinolones (Ciproflaxacin, Levofloxacin, etc. and Nalidixic acid).

Salmonella bacteria can survive for weeks outside a living body, and they are not destroyed by freezing.^[6]^[7] Ultraviolet radiation and heat accelerate their demise; they perish after being heated to 55 °C (131 °F) for 90 min, or to 60 °C (140 °F) for 12 min.^[8] To protect against Salmonella infection, heating food for at least ten minutes at 75 °C (167 °F) is recommended, so the centre of the food reaches this temperature.^[9]^[10]

Most people with salmonellosis develop diarrhea, fever, vomiting, and abdominal cramps 12 to 72 hours after infection. In most cases, the illness lasts four to seven days, and most people recover without treatment. In some cases, though, the diarrhea may be so severe, the patient becomes dangerously dehydrated and must be taken to a hospital. At the hospital, the patient may receive intravenous fluids to treat the dehydration, and may be given medications to provide symptomatic relief, such as fever reduction. In severe cases, the Salmonella infection may spread from the intestines to the blood stream, and then to other body sites, and can cause death, unless the person is treated promptly with antibiotics. The elderly, infants, and those with impaired immune systems are more likely to develop severe illness.

An infectious process can only begin after living salmonellae (not only their toxins) reach the gastrointestinal tract. Some of the microorganisms are killed in the stomach, while the surviving salmonellae enter the small intestine and multiply in tissues (localized form). By the end of the incubation period, the macro-organisms are poisoned by endotoxins released from the dead salmonellae. The local response to the endotoxins is enteritis and gastrointestinal disorder. In the generalized form of the disease, salmonellae pass through the lymphatic system of the intestine into the blood of the patients (typhoid form) and are carried to various organs (liver, spleen, kidneys) to form secondary foci (septic form). Endotoxins first act on the vascular and nervous apparatus, manifested by increased permeability and decreased tone of the vessels, upset thermal regulation, vomiting and diarrhea. In severe forms of the disease, enough liquid and electrolytes are lost to upset the water-salt metabolism, to decrease the circulating blood volume and arterial pressure, and to cause hypovolemic shock. Septic shock may develop. Shock of mixed character (with signs of both hypovolemic and septic shock) are more common in severe salmonellosis. Oliguria and azotemia develop in severe cases as a result of renal involvement due to hypoxia and toxemia.

A small number of people afflicted with salmonellosis experience reactive arthritis, which can last months or years and can lead to chronic arthritis.

In Germany, food poisoning infections must be reported.^[11] Between 1990 and 2005, the number of officially recorded cases decreased from approximately 200,000 to approximately 50,000 cases. In the USA, about 40,000 cases of Salmonella infection are reported each year.^[12] According to the World Health Organization, over 16 million people worldwide are infected with typhoid fever each year, with 500,000 to 600,000 fatal cases.^{[citation needed]}

The AvrA toxin injected by the type three secretion system of Salmonella Typhimurium works to inhibit the innate immune system by virtue of its serine/threonine acetyltransferase activity, and requires binding to eukaryotic target cell phytic acid (IP6).^[13] This leaves the host more susceptible to infection. In a 2011 paper,^[14] Yale University School of Medicine researchers described in detail how Salmonella is able to make these proteins line up in just the right sequence to invade host cells. "These mechanisms present us with novel targets that might form the basis for the development of an entirely new class of antimicrobials," said Professor Dr. Jorge Galan, senior author of the paper and the Lucille P. Markey Professor of Microbial Pathogenesis and chair of the Section of Microbial Pathogenesis at Yale. In the new National Institutes of Health-funded study, Galan and colleagues identify what they call a bacterial sorting platform, which attracts needed proteins and lines them up in a specific order. If the proteins do not line up properly, Salmonella, as well as many other bacterial pathogens, cannot "inject" them into host cells to commandeer host cell functions, the lab has found. Understanding how this machine works raises the possibility of new therapies that disable this protein delivery machine, thwarting the ability of the bacterium to become pathogenic. The process would not kill the bacteria as most antibiotics do, but would cripple its ability to do harm. In theory, this means bacteria such as Salmonella might not develop resistance to new therapies as quickly as they usually do to conventional antibiotics.

History[edit]

The genus Salmonella was named after Daniel Elmer Salmon, an American veterinary pathologist. While Theobald Smith was the actual discoverer of the type bacterium (Salmonella enterica var. Choleraesuis) in 1885, Dr. Salmon was the administrator of the USDA research program, and thus the organism was named after him by Smith.^[15] Smith and Salmon had been searching for the cause of common hog cholera and proposed this organism as the causal agent. Later research, however, would show this organism (now known as Salmonella enterica) rarely causes enteric symptoms in pigs,^[16] and was thus not the agent they were seeking (which was eventually shown to be a virus). However, related bacteria in the genus Salmonella were eventually shown to cause other important infectious diseases. The genus Salmonella was finally formally adopted in 1900 by J. Lignières for the many species of Salmonella, after Smith's first type-strain Salmonella cholera.

Salmonella nomenclature[edit]

Initially, each Salmonella "species" was named according to clinical considerations,^[17] e.g., Salmonella typhi-murium (mouse typhoid fever), S. cholerae-suis. After it was recognized that host specificity did not exist for many species, new strains (or serovars, short for serological variants) received species names according to the location at which the new strain was isolated. Later, molecular findings led to the hypothesis that Salmonella consisted of only one species,^[18] S. enterica, and the serovars were classified into six groups,^[19] two of which are medically relevant. But as this now formalized nomenclature^[20]^[21] is not in harmony with the traditional usage familiar to specialists in microbiology and infectologists, the traditional nomenclature is common. Currently, there are two recognized species: S. enterica, and S. bongori. In 2005 a third species was thought to be added Salmonella subterranean, but this has since been ruled out and is seen as another serovar.^[22] There are six main subspecies recognised: enterica (I), salamae (II), arizonae (IIIa), diarizonae (IIIb), houtenae (IV), and indica (VI).^[23] Historically, serotype (V) was bongori, which is now considered its own species.

The serovar (i.e. serotype) is a classification of Salmonella into subspecies based on antigens that the organism presents. It is based on the Kauffman-White classification scheme that differentiates serological varieties from each other. Serotypes are usually put into subspecies groups after the genus and species, with the serovars/serotypes capitalized but not italicized: an example is Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Newer methods for Salmonella typing and subtyping include genome-based methods such as pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), Multiple Loci VNTR Analysis (MLVA), Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and (multiplex-) PCR-based methods.^[24]^[25]

Growth kinetics[edit]

Mathematical models of salmonella growth kinetics have been developed for chicken, pork, tomatoes, and melons.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30] Salmonella reproduce asexually with a cell division rate of 20 to 40 minutes under optimal conditions.^{[citation needed]}

Sources of infection[edit]

An infographic illustrating how Salmonella spreads from the farm

Infected food, often gaining an unusual look or smell, then is introduced into the stream of commerce;
Poor kitchen hygiene, especially problematic in institutional kitchens and restaurants because this can lead to a significant outbreak;
Excretions from either sick or infected but apparently clinically healthy people and animals (especially dangerous are caregivers and animals);
Polluted surface water and standing water (such as in shower hoses or unused water dispensers);
Unhygienically thawed fowl (the meltwater contains many bacteria);
An association with reptiles (pet tortoises, snakes, iguanas^[31]^[32] aquatic turtles, and also amphibians such as frogs) is well described.^[33]

Salmonella bacteria can survive for some time without a host; thus, they are frequently found in polluted water, contamination from the excrement of carrier animals being particularly important.

The most recent case of salmonella infection had been detected mid-2012 in seven EU countries. Over 400 people had been infected with Salmonella enterica serovar Stanley (S. Stanley) that usually appears in the regions of Southeast Asia. After several DNA analyses seemed to point to a specific Belgian strain, the "Joint ECDC/E FSA Rapid Risk Assessment" report detected turkey production as the source of infection.^[34]

Finally, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) highly recommends that when handling raw turkey meat consumers and people involved in the food supply chain shall pay attention to personal and food hygiene.^[35]

New antibiotic-resistant strains[edit]

Non-typhoidal salmonella (iNTS) Africa, a new form of the germ, emerged in the southeast of the continent 75 years ago, followed by a second wave, which came out of central Africa 18 years later. The second wave of iNTS began 35 years ago, possibly in the Congo Basin, and early in the event picked up a gene making it resistant to the antibiotic chloramphenicol. There is an urgency to develop an effective salmonella vaccine because of the recent outbreaks in Africa of antibiotic-resistant strains of the food-borne bacteria that is killing hundreds of thousands of people there, as well as the heavy annual worldwide death toll each year. People with HIV are greatly affected. A recently identified set of antigens (molecules in the invading bacteria that trigger an immune response) that is common to both mice and humans, provide a foundation for developing a protective salmonella vaccine that could be on the market as early as 2016. This is good news because no new, effective antibiotics are on the horizon. In sub-Saharan the variant is the cause of an enigmatic disease called invasive non-typhoidal salmonella (iNTS), which affects Africa far more than other continents. Its genetic makeup is evolving into a more typhoid-like bacteria, able to efficiently spread around the human body.

Vaccine status[edit]

Researchers say they have paved the way toward an effective Salmonella vaccine by identifying eight antigenic molecules from human and mouse infections. These antigens provide the research community with a foundation for developing a protective salmonella vaccine. ^[36]

Deaths[edit]

An estimated 142,000 Americans are infected each year with Salmonella Enteritidis from chicken eggs,^[37] and about 30 die.^{[citation needed]} The shell of the egg may be contaminated with Salmonella by feces or environment, or its interior (yolk) may be contaminated by penetration of the bacteria through the porous shell or from a hen whose infected ovaries contaminate the egg during egg formation.^[38]^[39]

Nevertheless, such interior egg yolk contamination is theoretically unlikely.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43] Even under natural conditions, the rate of infection was very small (0.6% in a study of naturally contaminated eggs^[44] and 3.0% among artificially and heavily infected hens^[45]). However, the natural infection rate would result in roughly one in fourteen cartons (one dozen eggs) to contain at least one egg with interior egg yolk contamination.

In 2010, an analysis of death certificates in the United States identified a total of 1,316 Salmonella-related deaths from 1990 to 2006. These were predominantly among older adults and those who were immunocompromised.^[46]

References[edit]

^ Clark MA, Barret EL (June 1987). "The phs gene and hydrogen sulfide production by Salmonella typhimurium.". J Bacteriology 169 (6): 2391–2397.
^ Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 362–8. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9.
^ Rothschild, Mary. "Del Monte Sues FDA Over Cantaloupe Recall, Import Restrictions". Marler Clark. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
^ Jantsch, J.; Chikkaballi, D.; Hensel, M. (2011). "Cellular aspects of immunity to intracellular Salmonella enterica". Immunological Reviews 240 (1): 185–195. doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00981.x . PMID 21349094. edit
^ Kerr, M. C.; Wang, J. T. H.; Castro, N. A.; Hamilton, N. A.; Town, L.; Brown, D. L.; Meunier, F. A.; Brown, N. F.; Stow, J. L.; Teasdale, R. D. (2010). "Inhibition of the PtdIns(5) kinase PIKfyve disrupts intracellular replication of Salmonella". The EMBO Journal 29 (8): 1331–1347. doi:10.1038/emboj.2010.28 . PMC 2868569. PMID 20300065. edit
^ Sorrells, K.M.; M. L. Speck and J. A. Warren (January 1970). "Pathogenicity of Salmonella gallinarum After Metabolic Injury by Freezing". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 19 (1): 39–43. PMC 376605. PMID 5461164. Retrieved 2010-08-19. "Mortality differences between wholly uninjured and predominantly injured populations were small and consistent (5% level) with a hypothesis of no difference." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Beuchat, L. R.; E. K. Heaton (June 1975). "Salmonella Survival on Pecans as Influenced by Processing and Storage Conditions". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 29 (6): 795–801. PMC 187082. PMID 1098573. Retrieved 2010-08-19. "Little decrease in viable population of the three species was noted on inoculated pecan halves stored at -18, -7, and 5°C for 32 weeks." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Goodfellow, S.J.; W.L. Brown (August 1978). "Fate of Salmonella Inoculated into Beef for Cooking". Journal of Food Protection Vol. 41 No.8 41 (8): 598–605. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Partnership for Food Safety Education (PFSE) Fight BAC! Basic Brochure.
^ USDA Internal Cooking Temperatures Chart. The USDA has other resources available at their Safe Food Handling fact-sheet page. See also the National Center for Home Food Preservation.
^ § 6 and § 7 of the German law on infectious disease prevention, Infektionsschutzgesetz
^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
^ Mittal R, Peak-Chew SY, Sade RS, Vallis Y, McMahon HT (2010). "The Acetyltransferase Activity of the Bacterial Toxin YopJ of Yersinia Is Activated by Eukaryotic Host Cell Inositol Hexakisphosphate". J Biol Chem 285 (26): 19927–34. doi:10.1074/jbc.M110.126581 . PMC 2888404. PMID 20430892.
^ María Lara-Tejero, Junya Kato, Samuel Wagner,Xiaoyun Liu, and Jorge E. Galán (February 2011). "A Sorting Platform Determines the Order of Protein Secretion in Bacterial Type III Systems". Science Express 331 (6021): 1188. doi:10.1126/science.1201476 .
^ "FDA/CFSAN - Food Safety A to Z Reference Guide - Salmonella". FDA - Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. 2008-07-03. Archived from the original on 2009-03-02. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
^ http://www.cgmh.org.tw/chldhos/intr/c4a00/academy/bugs/salchole.html S. Cholerasuis pathology. Accessed April 3, 2009
^ F. Kauffmann: Die Bakteriologie der Salmonella-Gruppe. Munksgaard, Kopenhagen, 1941
^ L. Le Minor, M. Y. Popoff: Request for an Opinion. Designation of Salmonella enterica. sp. nov., nom. rev., as the type and only species of the genus Salmonella. In: Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., Bd. 37, 1987, S. 465–468
^ Reeves MW, Evins GM, Heiba AA, Plikaytis BD, Farmer JJ (February 1989). "Clonal nature of Salmonella typhi and its genetic relatedness to other salmonellae as shown by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis, and proposal of Salmonella bongori comb. nov". J. Clin. Microbiol. 27 (2): 313–20. PMC 267299. PMID 2915026.
^ "The type species of the genus Salmonella Lignieres 1900 is Salmonella enterica (ex Kauffmann and Edwards 1952) Le Minor and Popoff 1987, with the type strain LT2T, and conservation of the epithet enterica in Salmonella enterica over all earlier epithets that may be applied to this species. Opinion 80". Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 55 (Pt 1): 519–20. January 2005. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63579-0 . PMID 15653929.
^ Tindall BJ, Grimont PA, Garrity GM, Euzéby JP (January 2005). "Nomenclature and taxonomy of the genus Salmonella". Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 55 (Pt 1): 521–4. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63580-0 . PMID 15653930.
^ Agbaje M, Begum RH, et al. Evolution of Salmonella nomenclature: a critical note. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 2011 Nov;56(6):497-503. doi: 10.1007/s12223-011-0075-4. Epub 2011 Nov 4. PMID 22052214
^ Janda JM, Abbott SL (2006). "The Enterobacteria", ASM Press.
^ Porwollik, S (editor) (2011). Salmonella: From Genome to Function. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-73-8.
^ Achtman, M.; Wain, J.; Weill, F. O. X.; Nair, S.; Zhou, Z.; Sangal, V.; Krauland, M. G.; Hale, J. L.; Harbottle, H.; Uesbeck, A.; Dougan, G.; Harrison, L. H.; Brisse, S.; S. Enterica MLST Study Group (2012). "Multilocus Sequence Typing as a Replacement for Serotyping in Salmonella enterica". In Bessen, Debra E. PLoS Pathogens 8 (6): e1002776. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002776 . PMC 3380943. PMID 22737074. edit
^ Dominguez, Silvia A. Modeling the Growth of Salmonella in Raw Poultry Stored under Aerobic Conditions.
^ Carmen Pin. Modelling Salmonella concentration throughout the pork supply chain by considering growth and survival in fluctuating conditions of temperature, pH and a. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.09.025 .
^ Pan, Wenjing. Modeling the Growth of Salmonella in Cut Red Round Tomatoes as a Function of Temperature.
^ Li, Di. Development and Validation of a_w Mathematical Model for Growth of Pathogens in Cut Melons. doi:10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-12-398 .
^ Li, Di. "Development and validation of a mathematical model for growth of salmonella in cantaloupe".
^ "Reptile-Associated Salmonellosis --- Selected States, 1998--2002". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 12 December 2003. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
^ Mermin J, Hoar B, Angulo FJ (March 1997). "Iguanas and Salmonella marina infection in children: a reflection of the increasing incidence of reptile-associated salmonellosis in the United States". PubMed 99 (3): 399–402. PMID 9041295. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)
^ "Ongoing investigation into reptile associated salmonella infections". Health Protection Report 3 (14). 9 April 2009. Retrieved 12 April 2009.
^ Multi-country outbreak of Salmonella Stanley infections Update EFSA Journal 2012;10(9):2893 [16 pp.]. Retrieved 04/23/2013
^ Multi-Country Outbreak Of Salmonella In Europe SGS SafeGuards Bulletin, Retrieved 04/18/2013
^ "Discovery paves way for salmonella vaccine". UC Davis.
^ "Playing It Safe With Eggs". FDA Food Facts. 2013-02-28. Retrieved 2013-03-02. "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) estimates that 142,000 illnesses each year are caused by consuming eggs contaminated with Salmonella."
^ Gantois, Inne; Richard Ducatelle, Frank Pasmans, Freddy Haesebrouck, Richard Gast, Tom J. Humphrey, Filip Van Immerseel (July 2009). "Mechanisms of egg contamination by Salmonella Enteritidis". FEMS Microbiology Reviews 33 (4): 718–738. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2008.00161.x . PMID 19207743. "Eggs can be contaminated on the outer shell surface and internally. Internal contamination can be the result of penetration through the eggshell or by direct contamination of egg contents before oviposition, originating from infection of the reproductive organs. Once inside the egg, the bacteria need to cope with antimicrobial factors in the albumen and vitelline membrane before migration to the yolk can occur" Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Humphrey, T. J. (January 1994). "Contamination of egg shell and contents with Salmonella enteritidis: a review". International Journal of Food Microbiology 21 (1–2): 31–40. doi:10.1016/0168-1605(94)90197-X . PMID 8155476. Retrieved 2010-08-19. "Salmonella enteritidis can contaminate the contents of clean, intact shell eggs as a result of infections of the reproductive tissue of laying hens. The principal site of infection appears to be the upper oviduct. In egg contents, the most important contamination sites are the outside of the vitelline membrane or the albumen surrounding it. In fresh eggs, only a few salmonellae are present. As albumen is an iron-restricted environment, growth only occurs with storage-related changes to vitelline membrane permeability, which allows salmonellas to invade yolk contents."
^ Stokes, J.L.; W.W. Osborne, H.G. Bayne (September 1956). "Penetration and Growth of Salmonella in Shell Eggs". Journal of Food Science 21 (5): 510–518. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1956.tb16950.x . "Normally, the oviduct of the hen is sterile and therefore the shell and internal contents of the egg are also free of microorganisms (10,16). In some instances, however, the ovaries and oviduct may be infected with Salmonella and these may be deposited inside the egg (12). More frequently, however, the egg becomes contaminated after it is laid." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Okamura, Masashi; Yuka Kamijima, Tadashi Miyamoto, Hiroyuki Tani, Kazumi Sasai, Eiichiroh Baba (2001). "Differences Among Six Salmonella Serovars in Abilities to Colonize Reproductive Organs and to Contaminate Egges in Laying Hens". Avian Diseases 45 (1): 61–69. doi:10.2307/1593012 . JSTOR 1593012. PMID 11332500. "when hens were artificially infected to test for transmission rate to yolks: "Mature laying hens were inoculated intravenously with 106 colony-forming units of Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Infantis, Salmonella Hadar, Salmonella Heidelberg, or Salmonella Montevideo to cause the systemic infection. Salmonella Enteritidis was recovered from three yolks of the laid eggs (7.0%), suggesting egg contamination from the transovarian transmission of S. enteritidis."" Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Gast, RK; D.R. Jones, K.E. Anderson, R. Guraya, J. Guard, P.S. Holt (August 2010). "In vitro penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis through yolk membranes of eggs from 6 genetically distinct commercial lines of laying hens". Poultry Science 89 (8): 1732–1736. doi:10.3382/ps.2009-00440 . PMID 20634530. Retrieved 2010-08-20. "In this study, egg yolks were infected at the surface of the yolk (vitelline membrane) to determine the percentage of yolk contamination (a measure used to determine egg contamination resistance, with numbers lower than 95% indicating increasing resistance): --Overall, the frequency of penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis into the yolk contents of eggs from individual lines of hens ranged from 30 to 58% and the mean concentration of Salmonella Enteritidis in yolk contents after incubation ranged from 0.8 to 2.0 log10 cfu/mL.--" Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Jaeger, Gerald (Jul-Aug 2009). "Contamination of eggs of laying hens with S. Enteritidis". Veterinary Survey (Tierärztliche Umschau) 64 (7–8): 344–348. Retrieved 2010-08-20. "The migration of the bacterium into the nutritionally rich yolk is constrained by the lysozyme loaded vitelline membrane, and would need warm enough storage conditions within days and weeks. The high concentration on of antibodies of the yolk does not inhibit the Salmonella multiplication. Only seldom does transovarian contamination of the developing eggs with S. Enteritidis make this bacterium occur in laid eggs, because of the bactericidal efficacy of the antimicrobial peptides" Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Humphrey, T.J.; A. Whitehead, A. H. L. Gawler, A. Henley and B. Rowe (1991). "Numbers of Salmonella enteritidis in the contents of naturally contaminated hens' eggs". Epidemiology and Infection 106 (3): 489–496. doi:10.1017/S0950268800067546 . PMC 2271858. PMID 2050203. Retrieved 2010-08-19. "Over 5700 hens eggs from 15 flocks naturally infected with Salmonella enteritidis were examined individually for the presence of the organism in either egg contents or on shells. Thirty-two eggs (0·6%) were positive in the contents. In the majority, levels of contamination were low." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Gast, Richard; Rupa Guraya, Jean Guard, Peter Holt, Randle Moore (March 2007). "Colonization of specific regions of the reproductive tract and deposition at different locations inside eggs laid by hens infected with Salmonella Enteritidis or Salmonella Heidelberg". Journal of Avian Diseases 51 (1): 40–44. PMID 17461265. Retrieved 2010-08-20. "when hens are artificially infected with unrealistically large doses (according to the author): --In the present study, groups of laying hens were experimentally infected with large oral doses of Salmonella Heidelberg, Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 13a, or Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 14b. For all of these isolates, the overall frequency of ovarian colonization (34.0%) was significantly higher than the frequency of recovery from either the upper (22.9%) or lower (18.1%) regions of the oviduct. No significant differences were observed between the frequencies of Salmonella isolation from egg yolk and albumen (4.0% and 3.3%, respectively)--." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Cummings, PL; Sorvillo F, Kuo T (November 2010). "Salmonellosis-related mortality in the United States, 1990-2006". Foodborne pathogens and disease 7 (11): 1393–9. doi:10.1089/fpd.2010.0588 . PMID 20617938. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salmonella.

Wikispecies has information related to: Salmonella

Background on Salmonella from the Food Safety and Inspection Service of the United States Department of Agriculture
Salmonella genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID
Questions and Answers about commercial and institutional sanitizing methods
Symptoms of Salmonella Poisoning
Salmonella as an emerging pathogen from IFAS
Notes on Salmonella nomenclature
Salmonella motility video
Avian Salmonella

UpToDate Contents

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1. Nontyphoidal Salmonella: Gastrointestinal infection and carriage
2. Nontyphoidal Salmonella: Microbiology and epidemiology
3. サルモネラ胃腸炎の病因 pathogenesis of salmonella gastroenteritis
4. 非チフス性サルモネラ菌血症 nontyphoidal salmonella bacteremia
5. 腸チフスの疫学、微生物学、臨床症状、および診断 epidemiology microbiology clinical manifestations and diagnosis of typhoid fever

English Journal

Transfer of foodborne pathogens during mechanical slicing and their inactivation by levulinic acid-based sanitizer on slicers.

Chen D, Zhao T, Doyle MP.Author information Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin, GA 30223, USA.AbstractThis study investigated the degree of cross-contamination between deli foods and slicers by Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli O157:H7, and their inactivation by levulinic acid (LA) plus sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) on slicers. The transfer rate of pathogens at 5 locations on the contaminated slicers (scenario I) and on food slices (scenario II) was determined. The antimicrobial efficacy of the LA + SDS sanitizers applied either as a liquid or as foam at three concentrations (0.5% LA + 0.05% SDS, 1% LA + 0.1% SDS, and 2% LA + 0.5% SDS) was determined for decontamination of the pathogens on the slicers at 21 °C. After slicing 10 slices, the pathogens recovered from slicer blades were significantly (P < 0.05) less than the recovery from some other contact locations (scenario I). With an initial inoculum at approximately 8.5 log CFU/blade, the populations of the pathogens transferred from blades to slices decreased logarithmically (R(2) > 0.9, scenario II). Contaminated slicer surfaces sprayed with 1% LA plus 0.1% SDS as a foam (45-55 psi) reduced within 1 min 6.0 to 8.0 log CFU/blade of the pathogens. Results revealed that cross-contamination can occur between deli foods and slicers. Also, LA-based sanitizer applied as foam can be a useful treatment to remove microbial contamination on the slicers.
Food microbiology.Food Microbiol.2014 Apr;38:263-9. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2013.10.004. Epub 2013 Oct 16.
This study investigated the degree of cross-contamination between deli foods and slicers by Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli O157:H7, and their inactivation by levulinic acid (LA) plus sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) on slicers. The transfer rate of pathogens at 5 locations on t
PMID 24290650

Current and emerging technologies for rapid detection and characterization of Salmonella in poultry and poultry products.

Park SH, Aydin M, Khatiwara A, Dolan MC, Gilmore DF, Bouldin JL, Ahn S, Ricke SC.Author information Cell and Molecular Biology Program, Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA; Center for Food Safety, Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA.AbstractSalmonella is the leading cause of foodborne illnesses in the United States, and one of the main contributors to salmonellosis is the consumption of contaminated poultry and poultry products. Since deleterious effects of Salmonella on public health and the economy continue to occur, there is an ongoing need to develop more advanced detection methods that can identify Salmonella accurately and rapidly in foods before they reach consumers. Rapid detection and identification methods for Salmonella are considered to be an important component of strategies designed to prevent poultry and poultry product-associated illnesses. In the past three decades, there have been increasing efforts towards developing and improving rapid pathogen detection and characterization methodologies for application to poultry and poultry products. In this review, we discuss molecular methods for detection, identification and genetic characterization of Salmonella associated with poultry and poultry products. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of the established and emerging rapid detection and characterization methods are addressed for Salmonella in poultry and poultry products. The methods with potential application to the industry are highlighted in this review.
Food microbiology.Food Microbiol.2014 Apr;38:250-62. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2013.10.002. Epub 2013 Oct 14.
Salmonella is the leading cause of foodborne illnesses in the United States, and one of the main contributors to salmonellosis is the consumption of contaminated poultry and poultry products. Since deleterious effects of Salmonella on public health and the economy continue to occur, there is an ongo
PMID 24290649

Tailoring the probiotic potential of non-starter Lactobacillus strains from ripened Parmigiano Reggiano cheese by in vitro screening and principal component analysis.

Solieri L, Bianchi A, Mottolese G, Lemmetti F, Giudici P.Author information Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via Amendola 2, Besta Building, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy. Electronic address: lisa.solieri@unimore.it.AbstractNon-starter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB) inhabiting fermented food have been recently revised as source of probiotic strains. Here, we in vitro assessed the potential probiotic aptitude of a de-replicated set of NSLAB previously isolated from long ripened Parmigiano Reggiano cheeses (22 Lactobacillus rhamnosus, 18 Lactobacillus paracasei, 3 Lactobacillus casei, 2 Lactobacillus harbinensis, and 2 Lactobacillus fermentum). Most strains showed moderate to good resistance to biological barriers, including bile salts, lysozyme, and simulated gastric and pancreatic juices. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests against seven antimicrobials belonging to different categories showed that most strains are susceptible towards all the antibiotics, with the exception of vancomycin and streptomycin. The strains lost the streptomycin resistance when assayed on agar medium containing 0.5% bile salts, suggesting that detergent-like properties of cholic acids increase membrane permeability and mediate streptomycin susceptibility. No isolate showed bile salt hydrolase (BSH) activities, supporting that bile salts resistance and BSH activity are unpaired traits. Finally, NSLAB strains had moderate to high auto-aggregative and hydrophobic phenotypes, whereas two subsets of 22 and 8 strains co-aggregated with Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica s. typhimurium, respectively. A multivariate analysis was effective to segregate one L. casei and two L. rhamnosus strains showing physiological characteristics compatible with probiotic properties.
Food microbiology.Food Microbiol.2014 Apr;38:240-9. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2013.10.003. Epub 2013 Oct 17.
Non-starter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB) inhabiting fermented food have been recently revised as source of probiotic strains. Here, we in vitro assessed the potential probiotic aptitude of a de-replicated set of NSLAB previously isolated from long ripened Parmigiano Reggiano cheeses (22 Lactobacill
PMID 24290648

Japanese Journal

海外技術選集 HACCPと飼料添加物でサルモネラ菌を制御

Ziggers Dick
鶏の研究 87(12), 61-63, 2012-12
NAID 40019490827

海外鶏情報ア・ラ・カルト HACCP and feed additive measure to control Salmonella//13 Aug 2012 (World Poultry, Vol.28,No. 6) サルモネラ制御のためのHACCPと飼料添加物対策

石垣克至
鶏卵肉情報 42(21), 40-43, 2012-11-10
NAID 40019472664

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「100Cases 33」「腸内細菌科」「サルモネラ症」「細胞内寄生菌」「急性尿細管間質性腎炎」
拡張検索	「Salmonella infection」「Salmonella enteritidis」「Salmonella food poisoning」

「100Cases 33」

Salmonella
Scientific classification
Superkingdom:	Bacteria
Kingdom:	Bacteria
Phylum:	Proteobacteria
Class:	Gammaproteobacteria
Order:	Enterobacteriales
Family:	Enterobacteriaceae
Genus:	Salmonella; Lignieres 1900
Species
	S. bongori; S. enterica

　　[★]

☆case33　頭痛と混乱

■glossary

accompany

vt.

(人)と同行する、(人)に随行する。(もの)に付随する。～と同時に起こる。～に加える(添える、同封する)(with)

slurred n. 不明瞭

強直間代痙攣 tonic-clonic convulsion

　意識消失とともに全身の随意筋に強直痙攣が生じ(強直痙攣期tonic convulsion)、次いで全身の筋の強直と弛緩とが律動的に繰り返される時期(間代痙攣期clonic convulsion)を経て、発作後もうろう状態を呈する一連の発作。

■症例

28歳、女性　黒人　南アフリカ　手術室看護師　ロンドン住在

主訴：頭痛と混乱

現病歴：過去3週間で頭痛が続いており、ひどくなってきた。現在も頭痛が持続しており、頭全体が痛い。友人曰く「過去六ヶ月で体重が10kg減っていて、最近、混乱してきたようだ」。発話は不明瞭。救急室にいる間に強直間代痙攣を起こした。

・診察 examination

やせている。55kg。38.5℃。口腔カンジダ症(oral candidiasis)。リンパ節腫脹無し。心血管、呼吸器系、消化器系正常。痙攣前における神経検査では時間、場所、人の見当識無し。神経局所症状無し(no focal neurological sign)。眼底両側に乳頭浮腫有り。

・検査 investigation

血算：白血球増多

血液生化学：ナトリウム低下

CT：供覧

■キーワード＆着目するポイント

・口腔カンジダ症(oral candidiasis)

・頭痛、精神症状、強直間代痙攣

・眼底両側に乳頭浮腫

・CT 所見

・低ナトリウム血症は二次的なもの

■アプローチ

・口腔カンジダ症(oral candidiasis)　→　細胞免疫低下状態(DM、免疫抑制、AIDSなど) or 常在細菌叢の攪乱(長期の抗菌薬の使用)

　・The occurrence of thrush in a young, otherwise healthy-appearing person should prompt an investigation for underlying HIV infection.(HIM.1254)

　・More commonly, thrush is seen as a nonspecific manifestation of severe debilitating illness.(HIM.1254)

・精神症状、強直間代痙攣　→　一次的、あるいは二次的な脳の疾患がありそう

・頭痛　→　漠然としていて絞れないが、他の症状からして機能性頭痛ではなく症候性頭痛っぽい。

・眼底両側に乳頭浮腫　→　脳圧亢進の徴候　→　原因は・・・脳腫瘍、ことにテント下腫瘍と側頭葉の腫瘍、クモ膜下出血、脳水腫など、そのほか、眼窩内病変、低眼圧などの局所的要因、悪性高血圧、血液疾患、大量出血、肺気腫などの全身的要因 (vindicate本のp342も参考になる)

　・頭痛と脳圧亢進　→　頭蓋内圧占拠性病変、脳炎(IMD.274)

・CT 所見　→　ringformの病変、脳浮腫、脳圧亢進

・低ナトリウム血症　→　脳ヘルニアに続発して起こることがあるらしい。実際には下垂体にトキソプラズマによる病変が形成されることにより起こりうる。

・そのほか出身地、体重減少もHIVを疑わせる点

パターン認識でHIV + 精神症状 + てんかん発作(強直間代痙攣) + 脳圧亢進 + CT 所見 = 一番ありそうなのはToxoplasma gondiiによるトキソプラズマ脳症 cerebral toxoplasosis (トキソプラズマ脳炎 toxoplasmic encephalitis)

■Toxoplasma gondii

　原虫　胞子原虫類

(感染予防学 080521のプリント、CASES p,92、HIM p.1305-)

・疫学：西洋では30-80%の成人がトキソプラズマの感染の既往がある・・・うぇ(CASES)。日本では10%前後(Wikipedia)。

・生活環

　・終宿主：ネコ：ネコの小腸上皮細胞で有性・無性生殖　糞便にオーシストの排泄

　・中間宿主：ヒト.ブタを含むほ乳類と鳥類：無性生殖で増殖、シストの形成

　　　急性期の増殖盛んな急増虫体 tachyzoiteとシスト内の緩増虫体 bradyzoite

・病原、病因 phathogenesis

　・緩増虫体(bradyzoite)、接合子嚢(oocyst)

・感染経路

　1. オーシストの経口摂取

　2. 中間宿主の生肉中のシストの経口摂取

　3. 初感染妊婦からの経胎盤感染。既感染なら胎盤感染しないらしい(HIM.1306)

　(4)移植臓器、輸血。確率は低い(at low rate)(HIM.1306)

・病態

　1. 先天性トキソプラズマ症　congenital toxoplasmosis

　　　①網脈絡膜炎、 ②水頭症、 ③脳内石灰化、 ④精神・運動障害

　2. 後天性トキソプラズマ症　acquired toxoplasmosis

　　(1) 健常者

　　　・多くは不顕性感染。発熱、リンパ節腫脹、皮疹(rash)

　　　・(少数例)筋肉痛、暈疼痛、腹痛、斑状丘疹状皮疹(maculopapular rash)、脳脊髄炎、混乱(HIM.1308)

　　　・(まれ)肺炎、心筋炎、脳症、心膜炎、多発筋炎

　　　・網膜、脈絡叢に瘢痕や、脳に小さい炎症性の病変を残すことあり(CASES)。

　　　・急性感染の症状は数週間で消失　筋肉や中枢神経系に緩増虫体が残存

　　(2)HIV 感染者、臓器移植例、がん化学療法例

　　　シスト内緩増虫体→急増虫体→播種性の多臓器感染

　　　AIDSでは、トキソプラズマ性脳炎が指標疾患 AIDS-defineing illness(CASES)

・治療

　(日本)アセチルスピラマイシン、ファンシダール(感染予防学 080521)

■トキソプラズマ脳炎 toxoplasmic encephalitis、トキソプラズマ脳症 cerebral toxoplasosis

・症状

　発熱、頭痛、混乱ｍ、痙攣、認知の障害、局所神経徴候(不全片麻痺、歯垢、脳神経損傷、視野欠損、感覚喪失)(CASES)

・画像検査

　(CT,MRI)多発性、両側性、ring-enhancing lesion、特に灰白質-白質境界、大脳基底核、脳幹、小脳が冒されやすい(CASES)

・鑑別診断(臨床症状・画像診断の所見で)

　リンパ腫、結核、転移性脳腫瘍(CASES)

・病歴と画像所見からの鑑別診断

　リンパ腫、結核、転移性腫瘍

？

このCTがcerebral toxoplasmosisに特徴的かは不明

□最後に残る疑問

　AIDSでWBC(leukocyte)の数はどうなるんだろう？？？AIDSの初診患者ではWBCが低い人が多いらしいし()、HIVはCD4+ T cellとmacrophageに感染して殺すから、これによってB cellは減るだろうし、CD8+ T cellも若干減少するだろうからWBCは減るんじゃないか？！好中球はAIDSとは関係ない？好中球は他の感染症に反応性に増加している？ちなみに、好酸球は寄生虫(原虫)の感染のために増える傾向にあるらしい(HIMのどこか)。

葉酸拮抗剤である。

サルファ剤と併用され、抗トキソプラズマ薬、抗ニューモシチス・カリニ薬として相乗的に働く。

ST 合剤

SMX-TMP

スルファメトキサゾール・トリメトプリム合剤 sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim mixture

□AIDSの定義(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC_Classification_System_for_HIV_Infection_in_Adults_and_Adolescents)

According to the US CDC definition, one has AIDS if he/she is infected with HIV and present with one of the following:

A CD4+ T-cell count below 200 cells/μl (or a CD4+ T-cell percentage of total lymphocytes of less than 14%).

or he/she has one of the following defining illnesses:

01. Candidiasis of bronchi, trachea, or lungs
02. Candidiasis esophageal
03. Cervical cancer (invasive)
04. Coccidioidomycosis, disseminated or extrapulmonary
05. Cryptococcosis, extrapulmonary
06. Cryptosporidiosis, chronic intestinal for longer than 1 month
07. Cytomegalovirus disease (other than liver, spleen or lymph nodes)
08. Encephalopathy (HIV-related)
09. Herpes simplex: chronic ulcer(s) (for more than 1 month); or bronchitis, pneumonitis, or esophagitis
10. Histoplasmosis, disseminated or extrapulmonary
11. Isosporiasis, chronic intestinal (for more than 1 month)
12. Kaposi's sarcoma
13. Lymphoma Burkitt's, immunoblastic or primary brain
14. Mycobacterium avium complex
15. Mycobacterium, other species, disseminated or extrapulmonary
16. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
17. Pneumonia (recurrent)
18. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
19. Salmonella septicemia (recurrent)
20. Toxoplasmosis of the brain
21. Tuberculosis
22. Wasting syndrome due to HIV

People who are not infected with HIV may also develop these conditions; this does not mean they have AIDS. However, when an individual presents laboratory evidence against HIV infection, a diagnosis of AIDS is ruled out unless the patient has not:

undergone high-dose corticoid therapy or other immunosuppressive/cytotoxic therapy in the three months before the onset of the indicator disease
OR been diagnosed with Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, lymphocytic leukemia, multiple myeloma, or any cancer of lymphoreticular or histiocytic tissue, or angioimmunoblastic lymphoadenopathy
OR a genetic immunodeficiency syndrome atypical of HIV infection, such as one involving hypogamma globulinemia

AND

the individual has had Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
OR one of the above defining illnesses AND a CD4+ T-cell count below 200 cells/μl (or a CD4+ T-cell percentage of total lymphocytes of less than 14%).

□AIDSのステージング

Revised World Health Organization (WHO) Clinical Staging of HIV/AIDS For Adults and Adolescents (2005)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO_Disease_Staging_System_for_HIV_Infection_and_Disease_in_Adults_and_Adolescents

■参考文献

HIM = Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 17th Edition

CASES = 100 Cases in Clinical Medicine Second edition

IMD = 内科診断学第2版

「腸内細菌科」

　　[★]

英: Enterobacteriaceae
関: 細菌

代表的なもの８つを覚ておく！

エンテロバクター属 Enterobacter
エシェリキア属  Escherichia
クレブシエラ属 Klebsiella
プロテウス属 Proteus
サルモネラ属 Salmonella
セラチア属 Serratia
シゲラ属 Shigella
エルシニア属 Yersinia

腸内細菌科 (SMB.163)

属	菌種	日和見感染菌	感染症
Citrobacter	Citrobacter freundii		尿路感染、骨髄炎、下痢
Edwardsiella	Edwardsiella tarda	○	腸管外感染症
Enterobacter	Enterobacter aerogenes	○	肺炎、尿路感染
	Enterobacter cloacae
	Enterobacter gergoviae
	Enterobacter sakazakii		新生児敗血症、髄膜炎
Escherichia	Escherichia coli		下痢、腸炎、腸管外感染症(尿路感染症、骨髄炎)
Hafnia	Hafnia alvei		腸管外感染症
Klebsiella	Klebsiella oxytoca		下痢
Klebsiella	Klebsiella pneumoniae	○	肺炎、尿路感染
Kluyvera	Kluyvera ascorbata	○
Kluyvera	Kluyvera cryocrescens	○
Morganella	Morganella morganii		尿路感染症
Proteus	Proteus mirabilis	○	尿路感染症
Proteus	Proteus vulgaris	○	尿路感染症
Providencia	Providencia alcalifaciens		尿路感染症、下痢
	Providencia rettgeri		尿路感染症、下痢
	Providencia stuartii		尿路感染症
Salmonella	Salmonella enterica		腸チフス、急性胃腸炎(食中毒)
Serratia	Serratia liquefaciens	○
Serratia	Serratia marcescens	○
Shigella	Shigella boydii		細菌性赤痢
	Shigella dysenteriae
	Shigella flexneri
	Shigella sonnei
Yersinia	Yersinia enterocolitica		急性胃腸炎(食中毒)、回腸末端炎、結節性紅斑
	Yersinia pestis		ペスト
	Yersinia pseudotuberculosis		腸間膜リンパ節炎、関節炎

「サルモネラ症」

　　[★]

英: salmonellosis
関: サルモネラ属、食中毒菌

概念

サルモネラ属による感染症の総称

病原体

Salmonella spp., including Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella typhimurium

潜伏時間

8-48時間

感染源

食品：肉、卵
保菌動物：poultry, カメ、cattle、ブタ、ヒツジ

感染のリスクファクター

胃酸分泌低下、鎌状赤血球(サルモネラによる骨髄炎のリスクファクターでもある)、免疫能低下、4歳以下の子供(しかも重症化しやすい)

症状

急性胃腸炎(下痢(水様)、腹痛、悪寒、発熱、嘔吐、頭痛などであるが、時には脱水症状)

小児:重症で菌血症を併発しやすい。つまり重症化しやすい

老齢者や基礎疾患のある成人：病巣感染を起こしやすい。

検査

便中からのサルモネラ属菌の検出。
(適応例は不明だが菌血症を起こしうるので)血液培養によるサルモネラ属菌の証明

治療

IRE.665

対症療法：抗菌剤の使用は排菌期間を長引かせる
薬物療法：抗菌薬の使用が認められるのは幼児、50歳以上、細胞免疫傷害(HIV、臓器移植、悪性腫瘍)、人工デバイス(人工骨頭、人工関節、人工弁)の使用、腎不全

シプロフロキサシン、レボフロキサシン、ST合剤、あるいはセフトリアキソンを使用

参考

uptodate

1. [charged] サルモネラ症の微生物学および疫学 - uptodate [1]
2. [charged] サルモネラ胃腸炎の病因 - uptodate [2]
3. [charged] 便培養で非チフス性サルモネラが検出された患者へのアプローチ - uptodate [3]
4. [charged] 非チフス性サルモネラ菌血症 - uptodate [4]

「細胞内寄生菌」

　　[★]

英: intracellular organism, intracellular epiphyte
同: 細胞内寄生、細胞外寄生菌

宿主細胞内環境で増殖する細菌の総称

マクロファージ内で生存、増殖することができる。

ファゴソームとリソソームの融合阻止などによりマクロファージの細胞内で増殖できることが特徴であり、細胞外で増殖できないと言うことではない。

分類

通性細胞内寄生菌：細胞内でも細胞外でも増殖できる。
偏性細胞内寄生菌：細胞内でしか増殖できない

	細胞内寄生菌	細胞外寄生菌
生体防御反応	肉芽腫形成	膿瘍を形成

偏性細胞内寄生菌と通性細胞内寄生菌

偏性細胞内寄生菌	リケッチア、クラミジア、らい菌？
通性細胞内寄生菌	結核菌, リステリア属菌, サルモネラ属菌(チフス菌、パラチフス菌、サルモネラ症を起こす菌), ブルセラ属菌, 梅毒トレポネーマ, レジオネラ属菌

表：細胞内増殖：SMB. 111

ファゴソーム内で増殖(リソソームの融合を起こさせない)

ファゴソームを破砕し細胞質内に逃げ込む

Nocardia
Shigella
Rickettsia
Trypanosoma

リソソームの融合が起きる、あるいはファゴソームを修飾する

「急性尿細管間質性腎炎」

　　[★]

英: acute tubulointerstitial nephritis
同: 急性間質性腎炎 acute interstitial nephritis, AIN
関: 尿細管間質性腎炎

原因

薬剤性

antibiotics (lactams, sulfonamides, quinolones, vancomycin, erythromycin, minocycline, rifampin, ethambutol, acyclovir)
NSAIDs,COX-2阻害薬
利尿薬(thiazides, furosemide, triamterene)
抗てんかん薬(フェニトイン、フェノバルビタール、カルバマゼピン、バルプロ酸)
その他(カプトプリル、H2受容体阻害薬、プロトンポンプ阻害薬、mesalazine、indinavir、アロプリノール)

感染症

細菌(Streptococcus、Staphylococcus、Legionella、Salmonella、Brucella、Yersinia、Corynebacterium diphtheriae)
ウイルス(Epstein-Barr virus、cytomegalovirus、Hantavirus、polyomavirus、HIV)
その他(レプトスピラ、リケッチア、マイコプラズマ)

特発性

「Salmonella infection」

　　[★]

サルモネラ感染症、サルモネラ感染、Salmonella感染症

関: salmonellosis

「Salmonella enteritidis」

　　[★]

腸炎菌、ゲルトネル菌

関: Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis

「Salmonella food poisoning」

　　[★] サルモネラ食中毒、Salmonella食中毒

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[Rothschild-3] Rothschild, Mary. "Del Monte Sues FDA Over Cantaloupe Recall, Import Restrictions". Marler Clark. Retrieved 5 October 2012.

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[5] Kerr, M. C.; Wang, J. T. H.; Castro, N. A.; Hamilton, N. A.; Town, L.; Brown, D. L.; Meunier, F. A.; Brown, N. F.; Stow, J. L.; Teasdale, R. D. (2010). "Inhibition of the PtdIns(5) kinase PIKfyve disrupts intracellular replication of Salmonella". The EMBO Journal 29 (8): 1331–1347. doi:10.1038/emboj.2010.28 . PMC 2868569. PMID 20300065. edit

[6] Sorrells, K.M.; M. L. Speck and J. A. Warren (January 1970). "Pathogenicity of Salmonella gallinarum After Metabolic Injury by Freezing". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 19 (1): 39–43. PMC 376605. PMID 5461164. Retrieved 2010-08-19. "Mortality differences between wholly uninjured and predominantly injured populations were small and consistent (5% level) with a hypothesis of no difference." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[7] Beuchat, L. R.; E. K. Heaton (June 1975). "Salmonella Survival on Pecans as Influenced by Processing and Storage Conditions". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 29 (6): 795–801. PMC 187082. PMID 1098573. Retrieved 2010-08-19. "Little decrease in viable population of the three species was noted on inoculated pecan halves stored at -18, -7, and 5°C for 32 weeks." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[8] Goodfellow, S.J.; W.L. Brown (August 1978). "Fate of Salmonella Inoculated into Beef for Cooking". Journal of Food Protection Vol. 41 No.8 41 (8): 598–605. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[9] Partnership for Food Safety Education (PFSE) Fight BAC! Basic Brochure.

[10] USDA Internal Cooking Temperatures Chart. The USDA has other resources available at their Safe Food Handling fact-sheet page. See also the National Center for Home Food Preservation.

[11] § 6 and § 7 of the German law on infectious disease prevention, Infektionsschutzgesetz

[12] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

[PMID20430892-13] Mittal R, Peak-Chew SY, Sade RS, Vallis Y, McMahon HT (2010). "The Acetyltransferase Activity of the Bacterial Toxin YopJ of Yersinia Is Activated by Eukaryotic Host Cell Inositol Hexakisphosphate". J Biol Chem 285 (26): 19927–34. doi:10.1074/jbc.M110.126581 . PMC 2888404. PMID 20430892.

[14] María Lara-Tejero, Junya Kato, Samuel Wagner,Xiaoyun Liu, and Jorge E. Galán (February 2011). "A Sorting Platform Determines the Order of Protein Secretion in Bacterial Type III Systems". Science Express 331 (6021): 1188. doi:10.1126/science.1201476 .

[FDA-15] "FDA/CFSAN - Food Safety A to Z Reference Guide - Salmonella". FDA - Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. 2008-07-03. Archived from the original on 2009-03-02. Retrieved 2009-02-14.

[16] ttp://www.cgmh.org.tw/chldhos/intr/c4a00/academy/bugs/salchole.html S. Cholerasuis pathology. Accessed April 3, 2009

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[19] Reeves MW, Evins GM, Heiba AA, Plikaytis BD, Farmer JJ (February 1989). "Clonal nature of Salmonella typhi and its genetic relatedness to other salmonellae as shown by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis, and proposal of Salmonella bongori comb. nov". J. Clin. Microbiol. 27 (2): 313–20. PMC 267299. PMID 2915026.

[20] "The type species of the genus Salmonella Lignieres 1900 is Salmonella enterica (ex Kauffmann and Edwards 1952) Le Minor and Popoff 1987, with the type strain LT2T, and conservation of the epithet enterica in Salmonella enterica over all earlier epithets that may be applied to this species. Opinion 80". Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 55 (Pt 1): 519–20. January 2005. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63579-0 . PMID 15653929.

[21] Tindall BJ, Grimont PA, Garrity GM, Euzéby JP (January 2005). "Nomenclature and taxonomy of the genus Salmonella". Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 55 (Pt 1): 521–4. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63580-0 . PMID 15653930.

[22] Agbaje M, Begum RH, et al. Evolution of Salmonella nomenclature: a critical note. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 2011 Nov;56(6):497-503. doi: 10.1007/s12223-011-0075-4. Epub 2011 Nov 4. PMID 22052214

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[PorwollikS-24] Porwollik, S (editor) (2011). Salmonella: From Genome to Function. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-73-8.

[Achtman2012-25] Achtman, M.; Wain, J.; Weill, F. O. X.; Nair, S.; Zhou, Z.; Sangal, V.; Krauland, M. G.; Hale, J. L.; Harbottle, H.; Uesbeck, A.; Dougan, G.; Harrison, L. H.; Brisse, S.; S. Enterica MLST Study Group (2012). "Multilocus Sequence Typing as a Replacement for Serotyping in Salmonella enterica". In Bessen, Debra E. PLoS Pathogens 8 (6): e1002776. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002776 . PMC 3380943. PMID 22737074. edit

[26] Dominguez, Silvia A. Modeling the Growth of Salmonella in Raw Poultry Stored under Aerobic Conditions.

[27] Carmen Pin. Modelling Salmonella concentration throughout the pork supply chain by considering growth and survival in fluctuating conditions of temperature, pH and a. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.09.025 .

[28] Pan, Wenjing. Modeling the Growth of Salmonella in Cut Red Round Tomatoes as a Function of Temperature.

[29] Li, Di. Development and Validation of a_w Mathematical Model for Growth of Pathogens in Cut Melons. doi:10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-12-398 .

[30] Li, Di. "Development and validation of a mathematical model for growth of salmonella in cantaloupe".

[31] "Reptile-Associated Salmonellosis --- Selected States, 1998--2002". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 12 December 2003. Retrieved 9 October 2011.

[32] Mermin J, Hoar B, Angulo FJ (March 1997). "Iguanas and Salmonella marina infection in children: a reflection of the increasing incidence of reptile-associated salmonellosis in the United States". PubMed 99 (3): 399–402. PMID 9041295. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)

[33] "Ongoing investigation into reptile associated salmonella infections". Health Protection Report 3 (14). 9 April 2009. Retrieved 12 April 2009.

[34] Multi-country outbreak of Salmonella Stanley infections Update EFSA Journal 2012;10(9):2893 [16 pp.]. Retrieved 04/23/2013

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[37] "Playing It Safe With Eggs". FDA Food Facts. 2013-02-28. Retrieved 2013-03-02. "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) estimates that 142,000 illnesses each year are caused by consuming eggs contaminated with Salmonella."

[38] Gantois, Inne; Richard Ducatelle, Frank Pasmans, Freddy Haesebrouck, Richard Gast, Tom J. Humphrey, Filip Van Immerseel (July 2009). "Mechanisms of egg contamination by Salmonella Enteritidis". FEMS Microbiology Reviews 33 (4): 718–738. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2008.00161.x . PMID 19207743. "Eggs can be contaminated on the outer shell surface and internally. Internal contamination can be the result of penetration through the eggshell or by direct contamination of egg contents before oviposition, originating from infection of the reproductive organs. Once inside the egg, the bacteria need to cope with antimicrobial factors in the albumen and vitelline membrane before migration to the yolk can occur" Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[39] Humphrey, T. J. (January 1994). "Contamination of egg shell and contents with Salmonella enteritidis: a review". International Journal of Food Microbiology 21 (1–2): 31–40. doi:10.1016/0168-1605(94)90197-X . PMID 8155476. Retrieved 2010-08-19. "Salmonella enteritidis can contaminate the contents of clean, intact shell eggs as a result of infections of the reproductive tissue of laying hens. The principal site of infection appears to be the upper oviduct. In egg contents, the most important contamination sites are the outside of the vitelline membrane or the albumen surrounding it. In fresh eggs, only a few salmonellae are present. As albumen is an iron-restricted environment, growth only occurs with storage-related changes to vitelline membrane permeability, which allows salmonellas to invade yolk contents."

[40] Stokes, J.L.; W.W. Osborne, H.G. Bayne (September 1956). "Penetration and Growth of Salmonella in Shell Eggs". Journal of Food Science 21 (5): 510–518. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1956.tb16950.x . "Normally, the oviduct of the hen is sterile and therefore the shell and internal contents of the egg are also free of microorganisms (10,16). In some instances, however, the ovaries and oviduct may be infected with Salmonella and these may be deposited inside the egg (12). More frequently, however, the egg becomes contaminated after it is laid." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[41] Okamura, Masashi; Yuka Kamijima, Tadashi Miyamoto, Hiroyuki Tani, Kazumi Sasai, Eiichiroh Baba (2001). "Differences Among Six Salmonella Serovars in Abilities to Colonize Reproductive Organs and to Contaminate Egges in Laying Hens". Avian Diseases 45 (1): 61–69. doi:10.2307/1593012 . JSTOR 1593012. PMID 11332500. "when hens were artificially infected to test for transmission rate to yolks: "Mature laying hens were inoculated intravenously with 106 colony-forming units of Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Infantis, Salmonella Hadar, Salmonella Heidelberg, or Salmonella Montevideo to cause the systemic infection. Salmonella Enteritidis was recovered from three yolks of the laid eggs (7.0%), suggesting egg contamination from the transovarian transmission of S. enteritidis."" Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[42] Gast, RK; D.R. Jones, K.E. Anderson, R. Guraya, J. Guard, P.S. Holt (August 2010). "In vitro penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis through yolk membranes of eggs from 6 genetically distinct commercial lines of laying hens". Poultry Science 89 (8): 1732–1736. doi:10.3382/ps.2009-00440 . PMID 20634530. Retrieved 2010-08-20. "In this study, egg yolks were infected at the surface of the yolk (vitelline membrane) to determine the percentage of yolk contamination (a measure used to determine egg contamination resistance, with numbers lower than 95% indicating increasing resistance): --Overall, the frequency of penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis into the yolk contents of eggs from individual lines of hens ranged from 30 to 58% and the mean concentration of Salmonella Enteritidis in yolk contents after incubation ranged from 0.8 to 2.0 log10 cfu/mL.--" Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[43] Jaeger, Gerald (Jul-Aug 2009). "Contamination of eggs of laying hens with S. Enteritidis". Veterinary Survey (Tierärztliche Umschau) 64 (7–8): 344–348. Retrieved 2010-08-20. "The migration of the bacterium into the nutritionally rich yolk is constrained by the lysozyme loaded vitelline membrane, and would need warm enough storage conditions within days and weeks. The high concentration on of antibodies of the yolk does not inhibit the Salmonella multiplication. Only seldom does transovarian contamination of the developing eggs with S. Enteritidis make this bacterium occur in laid eggs, because of the bactericidal efficacy of the antimicrobial peptides" Check date values in: |date= (help)

[44] Humphrey, T.J.; A. Whitehead, A. H. L. Gawler, A. Henley and B. Rowe (1991). "Numbers of Salmonella enteritidis in the contents of naturally contaminated hens' eggs". Epidemiology and Infection 106 (3): 489–496. doi:10.1017/S0950268800067546 . PMC 2271858. PMID 2050203. Retrieved 2010-08-19. "Over 5700 hens eggs from 15 flocks naturally infected with Salmonella enteritidis were examined individually for the presence of the organism in either egg contents or on shells. Thirty-two eggs (0·6%) were positive in the contents. In the majority, levels of contamination were low." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[45] Gast, Richard; Rupa Guraya, Jean Guard, Peter Holt, Randle Moore (March 2007). "Colonization of specific regions of the reproductive tract and deposition at different locations inside eggs laid by hens infected with Salmonella Enteritidis or Salmonella Heidelberg". Journal of Avian Diseases 51 (1): 40–44. PMID 17461265. Retrieved 2010-08-20. "when hens are artificially infected with unrealistically large doses (according to the author): --In the present study, groups of laying hens were experimentally infected with large oral doses of Salmonella Heidelberg, Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 13a, or Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 14b. For all of these isolates, the overall frequency of ovarian colonization (34.0%) was significantly higher than the frequency of recovery from either the upper (22.9%) or lower (18.1%) regions of the oviduct. No significant differences were observed between the frequencies of Salmonella isolation from egg yolk and albumen (4.0% and 3.3%, respectively)--." Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[46] Cummings, PL; Sorvillo F, Kuo T (November 2010). "Salmonellosis-related mortality in the United States, 1990-2006". Foodborne pathogens and disease 7 (11): 1393–9. doi:10.1089/fpd.2010.0588 . PMID 20617938. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

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Salmonella