occurrence

• n.

• 発生、発現、生起、出来。(鉱物などの)産出、存在。(生態)出現
• できごと、事件

関

advent, appear, appearance, arrival, develop, development, developmental, emerge, emergence, engender, event, frequency, generate, generation, incidence, incidence rate, incident, manifestation, occur, onset, transpire

　 　

WordNet

1. an instance of something occurring; "a disease of frequent occurrence"; "the occurrence (or presence) of life on other planets"
2. superimpose a three-dimensional surface on a plane without stretching, in geometry
3. cause to grow and differentiate in ways conforming to its natural development; "The perfect climate here develops the grain"; "He developed a new kind of apple" (同)make grow
4. be gradually disclosed or unfolded; become manifest; "The plot developed slowly";
5. elaborate by the unfolding of a musical idea and by the working out of the rhythmic and harmonic changes in the theme; "develop the melody and change the key"
6. expand in the form of a series; "Develop the function in the following form"
7. grow, progress, unfold, or evolve through a process of evolution, natural growth, differentiation, or a conducive environment; "A flower developed on the branch"; "The country developed into a mighty superpower"; "The embryo develops into a fetus"; "This situation has developed over a long time"
8. gain through experience; "I acquired a strong aversion to television"; "Children must develop a sense of right and wrong"; "Dave developed leadership qualities in his new position"; "develop a passion for painting" (同)acquire, evolve
9. grow emotionally or mature; "The child developed beautifully in her new kindergarten"; "When he spent a summer at camp, the boy grew noticeably and no longer showed some of his old adolescent behavior" (同)grow
10. generate gradually; "We must develop more potential customers"; "develop a market for the new mobile phone"
11. make something new, such as a product or a mental or artistic creation; "Her company developed a new kind of building material that withstands all kinds of weather"; "They developed a new technique"
12. make visible by means of chemical solutions; "Please develop this roll of film for me"
13. move into a strategically more advantageous position; "develop the rook"
14. move ones pieces into strategically more advantageous positions; "Spassky developed quickly"
15. processing a photosensitive material in order to make an image visible; "the development and printing of his pictures took only two hours" (同)developing
16. a process in which something passes by degrees to a different stage (especially a more advanced or mature stage); "the development of his ideas took many years"; "the evolution of Greek civilization"; "the slow development of her skill as a writer" (同)evolution
17. a state in which things are improving; the result of developing (as in the early part of a game of chess); "after he saw the latest development he changed his mind and became a supporter"; "in chess your should take care of your development before moving your queen"
18. act of improving by expanding or enlarging or refining; "he congratulated them on their development of a plan to meet the emergency"; "they funded research and development"
19. (music) the section of a composition or movement (especially in sonata form) where the major musical themes are developed and elaborated
20. a district that has been developed to serve some purpose; "such land is practical for small park developments"
21. a recent event that has some relevance for the present situation; "recent developments in Iraq"; "what a revolting development!"
22. present oneself formally, as before a (judicial) authority; "He had to appear in court last month"; "She appeared on several charges of theft"
23. come into being or existence, or appear on the scene; "Then the computer came along and changed our lives"; "Homo sapiens appeared millions of years ago" (同)come along
24. be issued or published; "Did your latest book appear yet?"; "The new Woody Allen film hasnt come out yet" (同)come_out
25. seem to be true, probable, or apparent; "It seems that he is very gifted"; "It appears that the weather in California is very bad" (同)seem
26. appear as a character on stage or appear in a play, etc.; "Gielgud appears briefly in this movie"; "She appeared in `Hamlet on the London stage"
27. come into sight or view; "He suddenly appeared at the wedding"; "A new star appeared on the horizon"
28. formal attendance (in court or at a hearing) of a party in an action (同)appearing, coming into court
29. pretending that something is the case in order to make a good impression; "they try to keep up appearances"; "that ceremony is just for show" (同)show
30. outward or visible aspect of a person or thing (同)visual aspect
31. the act of appearing in public view; "the rookie made a brief appearance in the first period"; "it was Bernhardts last appearance in America"
32. a mental representation; "I tried to describe his appearance to the police"
33. the event of coming into sight
34. absence by virtue of not occurring

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 〈U〉(事件などが)『起こること』,発生 / 〈C〉『でき事』,事件
2. (今まではなかったが)…‘を'『生じさせる』,‘を'現す / …‘を'『発展させる』,伸ばす,成長させる / 〈病気・悪習など〉‘に'だんだん感染する,かかりはじめる,‘を'発病させる / 〈資源など〉‘を'『開発する』 / …‘を'十分に考える,〈議論・主題など〉‘を'展開する / 〈フイルム〉‘を'現像する / 〈ないもの・隠れているものが〉『現れる』,明らかになる / (…から…に)『発展する』,発育する《+『from』+『名』+『into』+『名』》 / 〈フイルムが〉現像される
3. 〈U〉〈C〉『発達』,発展,発育,成長;『開発』;進化 / 〈U〉(写真の)現像 / 〈C〉発達(発展)の結果できたもの / 〈C〉開発した土地(地区);(特に)住宅団地(housing development) / 〈C〉(最近の)でき事,新事実
4. 『姿を現す』,出現する / 〈本・記事などが〉公になる,出版される / (劇などに)出演する;(法廷などに)出廷する,出頭する / (…のように)『見える』,『思われる』
5. 〈C〉『現れること』,出現;出演,出廷;出版,発刊 / 〈U〉〈C〉『外観』,見かけ,風さい(outward look) / 《複数形で》形勢

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/11/14 15:30:42」(JST)

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Although this flock is made of the same type of bird, each individual bird is a different token. (50 MB video of a flock of birds in Rome)

The type–token distinction is used in disciplines such as logic, linguistics, metalogic, typography, and computer programming to clarify what words mean.

The sentence "they drive the same car" is ambiguous. Do they drive the same type of car (the same model) or the same instance of a car type (a single vehicle)? Clarity requires us to distinguish words that represent abstract types from words that represent objects that embody or exemplify types. The type–token distinction separates types (representing abstract descriptive concepts) from tokens (representing objects that instantiate concepts).

For example: "bicycle" is a type that represents the concept of a bicycle; whereas "my bicycle" is token that represents an object that instantiates that type. In the sentence "the bicycle is becoming more popular" the word "bicycle" is a type representing a concept; whereas in the sentence "the bicycle is in the garage" the word "bicycle" is a token representing a particular object.

(The distinction in computer programming between classes and objects is related, though in this context, "class" sometimes refers to a set of objects (with class-level attribute or operations) rather than a description of an object in the set.)

The words type, concept, property, quality, feature and attribute (all used in describing things) tend to be used with different verbs. E.g. Suppose a rose bush is defined as a plant that is "thorny", "flowering" and "bushy". You might say a rose bush *instantiates* these three types, or *embodies* these three concepts, or *exhibits* these three properties, or *possesses* these three qualities, features or attributes.

Property types (e.g "height in metres" or "thorny") are often understood ontologically as concepts. Property instances (e.g. height = 1.74) are sometimes understood as measured values, and sometimes understood as sensations or observations of reality.

Some say types exist in descriptions of objects, but not as tangible physical objects. They say one can show someone a particular bicycle, but cannot show someone the type "bicycle", as in "the bicycle is popular.". However types do exist in sense that they appear in mental and documented models.

Some say tokens represent objects that are tangible, exist in space and time as physical matter and/or energy. However, tokens can represent intangible objects of types such as "thought", "tennis match", "government" and "act of kindness".

Occurrences

There is a related distinction very closely connected with the type-token distinction. This distinction is the distinction between an object, or type of object, and an occurrence of it. In this sense, an occurrence is not necessarily a token. Considering the sentence: "A rose is a rose is a rose". We may equally correctly state that there are eight or three words in the sentence. There are, in fact, three word types in the sentence: "rose", "is" and "a". There are eight word tokens in a token copy of the line. The line itself is a type. There are not eight word types in the line. It contains (as stated) only the three word types, 'a', 'is' and 'rose', each of which is unique. So what do we call what there are eight of? They are occurrences of words. There are three occurrences of the word type 'a', two of 'is' and three of 'rose'.

The need to distinguish tokens of types from occurrences of types arises, not just in linguistics, but whenever types of things have other types of things occurring in them. Reflection on the simple case of occurrences of numerals is often helpful.

Typography

In typography, the type–token distinction is used to determine the presence of a text printed by movable type:

The defining criteria which a typographic print has to fulfill is that of the type identity of the various letter forms which make up the printed text. In other words: each letter form which appears in the text has to be shown as a particular instance ("token") of one and the same type which contains a reverse image of the printed letter.

Charles Sanders Peirce

There are only 26 letters in the English alphabet and yet there are more than 26 letters in this sentence. Moreover, every time a child writes the alphabet 26 new letters have been created.

The word 'letters' was used three times in the above paragraph, each time in a different meaning. The word 'letters' is one of many words having "type–token ambiguity". This section disambiguates 'letters' by separating the three senses using terminology standard in logic today. The key distinctions were first made by the American logician-philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce in 1906 using terminology that he established.

The letters that are created by writing are physical objects that can be destroyed by various means: these are letter TOKENS or letter INSCRIPTIONS. The 26 letters of the alphabet are letter TYPES or letter FORMS.

Peirce's type–token distinction, also applies to words, sentences, paragraphs, and so on: to anything in a universe of discourse of character-string theory, or concatenation theory. There is only one word type spelled el-ee-tee-tee-ee-ar, namely, 'letter'; but every time that word type is written, a new word token has been created.

Some logicians consider a word type to be the class of its tokens. Other logicians counter that the word type has a permanence and constancy not found in the class of its tokens. The type remains the same while the class of its tokens is continually gaining new members and losing old members.

The word type 'letter' uses only four letter types: el, ee, tee, and ar. Nevertheless, it uses ee twice and tee twice. In standard terminology, the word type 'letter' has six letter OCCURRENCES and the letter type ee OCCURS twice in the word type 'letter'. Whenever a word type is inscribed, the number of letter tokens created equals the number of letter occurrences in the word type.

Peirce's original words are the following. "A common mode of estimating the amount of matter in a ... printed book is to count the number of words. There will ordinarily be about twenty 'thes' on a page, and, of course, they count as twenty words. In another sense of the word 'word,' however, there is but one word 'the' in the English language; and it is impossible that this word should lie visibly on a page, or be heard in any voice .... Such a ... Form, I propose to term a Type. A Single ... Object ... such as this or that word on a single line of a single page of a single copy of a book, I will venture to call a Token. .... In order that a Type may be used, it has to be embodied in a Token which shall be a sign of the Type, and thereby of the object the Type signifies." – Peirce 1906, Ogden-Richards, 1923, 280-1.

These distinctions are subtle but solid and easy to master. Reflection on the simple case of occurrences of numerals is often helpful. This section ends using the new terminology to disambiguate the first paragraph.

There are 26 letter types in the English alphabet and yet there are more than 26 letter occurrences in this sentence type. Moreover, every time a child writes the alphabet 26 new letter tokens have been created.

See also

• Metalogic
• Formalism (philosophy)
• Is-a
• Class (philosophy)
• Type theory
• Type physicalism
• Mental model
• Map–territory relation
• Problem of universals#Peirce

Notes

References

• Baggin J., and Fosl, P. (2003) The Philosopher's Toolkit. Blackwell: 171-73. ISBN 978-0-631-22874-5.
• Peper F., Lee J., Adachi S.,Isokawa T. (2004) Token-Based Computing on Nanometer Scales, Proceeding of the ToBaCo 2004 Workshop on Token Based Computing, Vol.1 pp. 1–18.

External links

• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Types and Tokens" by Linda Wetzel.

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Related Pictures

---

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「100Cases 33」「appear」「develop」「development」「onset」

「100Cases 33」

　　[★]

☆case33　頭痛と混乱

■glossary

accompany

vt.

(人)と同行する、(人)に随行する。(もの)に付随する。～と同時に起こる。～に加える(添える、同封する)(with)

slurred n. 不明瞭

強直間代痙攣 tonic-clonic convulsion

　意識消失とともに全身の随意筋に強直痙攣が生じ(強直痙攣期tonic convulsion)、次いで全身の筋の強直と弛緩とが律動的に繰り返される時期(間代痙攣期clonic convulsion)を経て、発作後もうろう状態を呈する一連の発作。

■症例

28歳、女性　黒人　南アフリカ　手術室看護師　ロンドン住在

主訴：頭痛と混乱

現病歴：過去3週間で頭痛が続いており、ひどくなってきた。現在も頭痛が持続しており、頭全体が痛い。友人曰く「過去六ヶ月で体重が10kg減っていて、最近、混乱してきたようだ」。発話は不明瞭。救急室にいる間に強直間代痙攣を起こした。

・診察 examination

やせている。55kg。38.5℃。口腔カンジダ症(oral candidiasis)。リンパ節腫脹無し。心血管、呼吸器系、消化器系正常。痙攣前における神経検査では時間、場所、人の見当識無し。神経局所症状無し(no focal neurological sign)。眼底両側に乳頭浮腫有り。

・検査 investigation

血算：白血球増多

血液生化学：ナトリウム低下

CT：供覧

■キーワード＆着目するポイント

・口腔カンジダ症(oral candidiasis)

・頭痛、精神症状、強直間代痙攣

・眼底両側に乳頭浮腫

・CT所見

・低ナトリウム血症は二次的なもの

■アプローチ

・口腔カンジダ症(oral candidiasis)　→　細胞免疫低下状態(DM、免疫抑制、AIDSなど) or 常在細菌叢の攪乱(長期の抗菌薬の使用)

　・The occurrence of thrush in a young, otherwise healthy-appearing person should prompt an investigation for underlying HIV infection.(HIM.1254)

　・More commonly, thrush is seen as a nonspecific manifestation of severe debilitating illness.(HIM.1254)

・精神症状、強直間代痙攣　→　一次的、あるいは二次的な脳の疾患がありそう

・頭痛　→　漠然としていて絞れないが、他の症状からして機能性頭痛ではなく症候性頭痛っぽい。

・眼底両側に乳頭浮腫　→　脳圧亢進の徴候　→　原因は・・・脳腫瘍、ことにテント下腫瘍と側頭葉の腫瘍、クモ膜下出血、脳水腫など、そのほか、眼窩内病変、低眼圧などの局所的要因、悪性高血圧、血液疾患、大量出血、肺気腫などの全身的要因 (vindicate本のp342も参考になる)

　・頭痛と脳圧亢進　→　頭蓋内圧占拠性病変、脳炎(IMD.274)

・CT所見　→　ringformの病変、脳浮腫、脳圧亢進

・低ナトリウム血症　→　脳ヘルニアに続発して起こることがあるらしい。実際には下垂体にトキソプラズマによる病変が形成されることにより起こりうる。

・そのほか出身地、体重減少もHIVを疑わせる点

パターン認識でHIV + 精神症状 + てんかん発作(強直間代痙攣) + 脳圧亢進 + CT所見 = 一番ありそうなのはToxoplasma gondiiによるトキソプラズマ脳症 cerebral toxoplasosis (トキソプラズマ脳炎 toxoplasmic encephalitis)

■Toxoplasma gondii

　原虫　胞子原虫類

(感染予防学 080521のプリント、CASES p,92、HIM p.1305-)

・疫学：西洋では30-80%の成人がトキソプラズマの感染の既往がある・・・うぇ(CASES)。日本では10%前後(Wikipedia)。

・生活環

　・終宿主：ネコ：ネコの小腸上皮細胞で有性・無性生殖　糞便にオーシストの排泄

　・中間宿主：ヒト.ブタを含むほ乳類と鳥類：無性生殖で増殖、シストの形成

　　　急性期の増殖盛んな急増虫体tachyzoiteとシスト内の緩増虫体bradyzoite

・病原、病因 phathogenesis

　・緩増虫体(bradyzoite)、接合子嚢(oocyst)

・感染経路

　1. オーシストの経口摂取

　2. 中間宿主の生肉中のシストの経口摂取

　3. 初感染妊婦からの経胎盤感染。既感染なら胎盤感染しないらしい(HIM.1306)

　(4)移植臓器、輸血。確率は低い(at low rate)(HIM.1306)

・病態

　1. 先天性トキソプラズマ症　congenital toxoplasmosis

　　　①網脈絡膜炎、 ②水頭症、 ③脳内石灰化、 ④精神・運動障害

　2. 後天性トキソプラズマ症　acquired toxoplasmosis

　　(1) 健常者

　　　・多くは不顕性感染。発熱、リンパ節腫脹、皮疹(rash)

　　　・(少数例)筋肉痛、暈疼痛、腹痛、斑状丘疹状皮疹(maculopapular rash)、脳脊髄炎、混乱(HIM.1308)

　　　・(まれ)肺炎、心筋炎、脳症、心膜炎、多発筋炎

　　　・網膜、脈絡叢に瘢痕や、脳に小さい炎症性の病変を残すことあり(CASES)。

　　　・急性感染の症状は数週間で消失　筋肉や中枢神経系に緩増虫体が残存

　　(2)HIV感染者、臓器移植例、がん化学療法例

　　　シスト内緩増虫体→急増虫体→播種性の多臓器感染

　　　AIDSでは、トキソプラズマ性脳炎が指標疾患 AIDS-defineing illness(CASES)

・治療

　(日本)アセチルスピラマイシン、ファンシダール(感染予防学 080521)

■トキソプラズマ脳炎 toxoplasmic encephalitis、トキソプラズマ脳症 cerebral toxoplasosis

・症状

　発熱、頭痛、混乱ｍ、痙攣、認知の障害、局所神経徴候(不全片麻痺、歯垢、脳神経損傷、視野欠損、感覚喪失)(CASES)

・画像検査

　(CT,MRI)多発性、両側性、ring-enhancing lesion、特に灰白質-白質境界、大脳基底核、脳幹、小脳が冒されやすい(CASES)

・鑑別診断(臨床症状・画像診断の所見で)

　リンパ腫、結核、転移性脳腫瘍(CASES)

・病歴と画像所見からの鑑別診断

　リンパ腫、結核、転移性腫瘍

？

このCTがcerebral toxoplasmosisに特徴的かは不明

□最後に残る疑問

　AIDSでWBC(leukocyte)の数はどうなるんだろう？？？AIDSの初診患者ではWBCが低い人が多いらしいし()、HIVはCD4+ T cellとmacrophageに感染して殺すから、これによってB cellは減るだろうし、CD8+ T cellも若干減少するだろうからWBCは減るんじゃないか？！好中球はAIDSとは関係ない？好中球は他の感染症に反応性に増加している？ちなみに、好酸球は寄生虫(原虫)の感染のために増える傾向にあるらしい(HIMのどこか)。

スルファジアジン

sulfadiazine

ピリメタミン

pyrimethamine

葉酸拮抗剤である。

サルファ剤と併用され、抗トキソプラズマ薬、抗ニューモシチス・カリニ薬として相乗的に働く。

ST合剤

SMX-TMP

スルファメトキサゾール・トリメトプリム合剤 sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim mixture

□AIDSの定義(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC_Classification_System_for_HIV_Infection_in_Adults_and_Adolescents)

• According to the US CDC definition, one has AIDS if he/she is infected with HIV and present with one of the following:

A CD4+ T-cell count below 200 cells/μl (or a CD4+ T-cell percentage of total lymphocytes of less than 14%).

or he/she has one of the following defining illnesses:

• 01. Candidiasis of bronchi, trachea, or lungs
• 02. Candidiasis esophageal
• 03. Cervical cancer (invasive)
• 04. Coccidioidomycosis, disseminated or extrapulmonary
• 05. Cryptococcosis, extrapulmonary
• 06. Cryptosporidiosis, chronic intestinal for longer than 1 month
• 07. Cytomegalovirus disease (other than liver, spleen or lymph nodes)
• 08. Encephalopathy (HIV-related)
• 09. Herpes simplex: chronic ulcer(s) (for more than 1 month); or bronchitis, pneumonitis, or esophagitis
• 10. Histoplasmosis, disseminated or extrapulmonary
• 11. Isosporiasis, chronic intestinal (for more than 1 month)
• 12. Kaposi's sarcoma
• 13. Lymphoma Burkitt's, immunoblastic or primary brain
• 14. Mycobacterium avium complex
• 15. Mycobacterium, other species, disseminated or extrapulmonary
• 16. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
• 17. Pneumonia (recurrent)
• 18. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
• 19. Salmonella septicemia (recurrent)
• 20. Toxoplasmosis of the brain
• 21. Tuberculosis
• 22. Wasting syndrome due to HIV

People who are not infected with HIV may also develop these conditions; this does not mean they have AIDS. However, when an individual presents laboratory evidence against HIV infection, a diagnosis of AIDS is ruled out unless the patient has not:

• undergone high-dose corticoid therapy or other immunosuppressive/cytotoxic therapy in the three months before the onset of the indicator disease
• OR been diagnosed with Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, lymphocytic leukemia, multiple myeloma, or any cancer of lymphoreticular or histiocytic tissue, or angioimmunoblastic lymphoadenopathy
• OR a genetic immunodeficiency syndrome atypical of HIV infection, such as one involving hypogamma globulinemia

AND

• the individual has had Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
• OR one of the above defining illnesses AND a CD4+ T-cell count below 200 cells/μl (or a CD4+ T-cell percentage of total lymphocytes of less than 14%).

□AIDSのステージング

• Revised World Health Organization (WHO) Clinical Staging of HIV/AIDS For Adults and Adolescents (2005)

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO_Disease_Staging_System_for_HIV_Infection_and_Disease_in_Adults_and_Adolescents

■参考文献

HIM = Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 17th Edition

CASES = 100 Cases in Clinical Medicine Second edition

IMD = 内科診断学第2版

「appear」

　　[★]

• vi.

• 見えてくる、現れる。発生/出現する、出る。出頭/出場/出演する(as)。
• 明白である、はっきりしてくる。見たところ～らしい、～と思われる。

The ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome appears to be due to increased capillary permeability triggered by excessive release of one or more vasoactive substances secreted during maturation and luteinization of multiple follicles.(uptodate)(OHSSは、多数の卵胞が成熟し黄体となる過程で放出されるいくつかの血管作動性物質の過剰な放出が引き金となり、毛細血管の透過性が増加することによると思われる。)

関

advent、appearance、arrival、assume、believe、emerge、emergence、feel、look、manifestation、occurrence、seem、suppose、suspect、think

　 　 　 　 　 　 　

「develop」

　　[★]

• vt.

• 発達/発育させる、発展させる(from, into)。(生)発生させる、進化させる
• (議論・思索などを)展開する(evolve)、詳しく説く
• (新しい物を)創り出す。(資源・土地を)開発する、(宅地を)造成する、(鉱山などを)開く
• (潜在力・けいこうなどを)発現/顕出させる、発揮する。(新事実などを)明らかにする。
• (事故・火災などを)起こす

• vi.

関

buildup, deployment, development, developmental, emergence, engender, evolution, expand, exploit, exploitation, generate, generation, growth, occur, occurrence, onset, transpire, unfold

　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　

「development」

　　[★]

• n.

• 発生、発達、発育、(産業)開発、発展、(クロマトグラム)展開、(写真)現像

関

buildup、deployment、develop、developmental、emergence、engender、evolution、expand、exploit、exploitation、generate、generation、growth、occur、occurrence、onset、transpire、unfold

関

growth and development

　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　

「onset」

　　[★]

• n.

• 襲撃、攻撃。(病気などの)始まり、開始、襲来。着手、手始め

関

affect、commence、commencement、develop、development、developmental、emergence、engender、episode、event、generate、generation、initiate、initiation、institute、mount、occur、occurrence、pathogenesis、start、symptom onset、transpire