選択的セロトニン再取り込み阻害薬(せんたくてきセロトニンさいとりこみそがいやく、Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors、SSRI)は、抗うつ薬の一種。シナプスにおけるセロトニンの再吸収に作用することでうつ症状、病気としての不安の改善を目指す薬。2009年5月現在、日本国内で100万人以上が使用していると推定されている[1]。
旧来の三環系などと呼ばれる抗うつ薬は副作用があり、医者または患者によっては敬遠されていたことから、副作用を少なく・より選択的に作用することを目的として開発された。肝毒性、心・血管副作用や、鎮静作用、口の渇き・便秘など抗コリン作用が原因と思われる副作用は減少したが、セロトニン症候群、賦活症候群、SSRI離脱症候群(中断症候群)など旧来の抗うつ剤ではあまり報告のなかった副作用が発生している。
「選択的」とは他の神経伝達物質に比べ、セロトニンの再取り込み阻害作用のみでアセチルコリン等は阻害しないこと、ノルアドレナリン対セロトニン及びドーパミン対セロトニン比が大きいことを意味する[2]。
目次
- 1 作用機序
- 2 医療用途
- 3 問題点
- 3.1 副作用やリスク
- 3.2 社会とSSRI
- 3.3 学会の動き
- 4 薬剤名
- 5 脚注
- 6 参考文献
- 7 関連項目
作用機序[編集]
シナプス前ニューロンから放出された神経伝達物質セロトニンはシナプス後ニューロンにあるセロトニン受容体に作用する。シナプス間隙に貯まったセロトニンは、セロトニントランスポーターにより再取り込み(吸収)され、再利用される。うつ状態にある人はシナプスにおけるセロトニンの濃度が低下し、セロトニン受容体にセロトニンが作用しにくい状態となっているという仮説(モノアミン仮説)がある(図1参照)。SSRIはセロトニンを放出するシナプスのセロトニントランスポーターに選択的に作用し、セロトニン再取り込みを阻害する(図2)。このことによって結果的にセロトニン濃度がある程度高く維持される。
現在(2012年)、日本で発売されているSSRIはフルボキサミン、パロキセチン、セルトラリン、エスシタロプラムの4種類である。なおベンゾジアゼピン系抗不安薬などと違いそれぞれ化学構造は大きく異なる。化学構造以外にも、セロトニン再取り込み阻害作用の選択性、各種受容体親和性のプロフィール、薬物代謝、血液中の蛋白結合、副作用プロフィールなども異なっており、臨床上の使用法も異なるとされる[3]。
医療用途[編集]
「抗うつ薬#治療効果」も参照
うつ病[編集]
軽度から中等度の症例のうつ病の治療に対するSSRIの有効性は議論されてきた。
2つの臨床試験のメタ分析が見出したことは、うつ病の症例の大部分を占める軽症から中等度のうつ病でのSSRIの効果は、偽薬と比較して僅かかあるいはまったくなく、一方で重度のうつ病でのSSRIの効果は臨床的に有意だということである[4][5]第二世代の抗うつ薬は、有効/無効が等しいように見える[6]。
2008年に、認可されている4つの新しい抗うつ薬の、アメリカ食品医薬品局(FDA)に提出された35の臨床試験を結合したメタ分析が広く報道された(SSRIのパロキセチンとフルオキセチン(日本では未認可)、非SSRI抗うつ薬のネファゾドン(英語版)、またSNRIのベンラファキシン(英語版)(日本では開発中止)を含む)。FDAに提出されたが論文としては公開されていないデータを含む出版バイアスの解析を行った。著者のアービング・カーシュは、偽薬に対する抗うつ薬の効果は、統計的に有意だったというものの、「臨床的に有意な」効果のための英国国立医療技術評価機構(NICE)の基準を上回らなかったことを見出した。具体的には、軽症のうつ病に対して効果量(英語: effect size)が非常に小さく、しかし重症度に伴って増加し、非常に重度のうつ病に対しては「臨床的な有意」に達した。重症度と効果の間の関係は、医薬品の効果の増加よりも、重度のうつの患者での偽薬効果による緩和に起因したと考えられる。[5][7][8][9][10][11]何人かの研究者は、抗うつ薬の効果量の低い見積りを示唆しているこの研究における、統計上の基盤を疑問視したが、全結果を結合しデータを再分析しても、それでもなおNICEの「臨床的に有意」な閾値を下回ることが見出された(とはいえ、パロキセチンとベンラファキシン(日本では開発中止)はこの閾値を上回った)[12][13]。
2010年のレビューは同様の結論に達した:[4][14]。 軽症から中等度のうつ病でははっきりと、SSRIの効果は、偽薬と比較して非常に小さいかまったくなく、一方、非常に重度のうつ病においては臨床的に有意である[4][14]。
こうした研究結果を受けて、日本うつ病学会による2012年の診療ガイドラインでは、軽症のうつ病に対しては、必ずしも抗うつ薬は第一選択ではないとされている。
問題点[編集]
「抗うつ薬#議論」も参照
副作用やリスク[編集]
「SSRI離脱症候群」も参照
2004年、カーディフ大学のデイヴィッド・ヒーリー(David Healy)博士によれば、「選択的」は薬理学者と臨床医にとって意味が異なる。薬理学者にとってはノルアドレナリン系以外の全ての脳システムに作用し得るもので、臨床医が脳の一箇所にだけ作用すると考えているとしたら、勘違いである[16]。
有効性についてはほぼ評価が確立していたが、近年「プラセボよりは有効だが、従来考えられていたほどの効果ではない」という主張が出てきており、再検討が行われている[17]。SSRIの多用でうつ症状が改善する率が3割ほどある一方、悪化する例が3割というように、SSRIの反応性には個人差があることが指摘されている[18]。不安や恐怖感を高める受容体の働きを抑え、抑うつ症状を改善させるSSRIだが、人によっては衝動性を抑える受容体の働きも鈍くなるといわれている。恐怖感がなくなり、さらに衝動性が高まることにより、攻撃的な行動に駆られるのではと考えられている[19]。
SSRIは、新薬である、神経症からうつ病まで幅広く作用する、三環系や四環系など従来の抗うつ薬に比べ副作用が少ない等の背景から、 第一選択薬として選ぶ医療機関も多く多用される傾向にあるが、個人によっては強い副作用が出ることもある。特に、飲み始めにより服用が逆効果になることもあり得る。服用においては、飲み始め・減薬・絶薬・依存を含め、リスクと効果を見極めつつ、個々の体質も含め慎重になされなければならない[20]。
SSRIには食欲不振や増加、体重増加または減少、性欲異常などの副作用が比較的多くみられる。特にセロトニンの再吸収阻害作用が強くなるにしたがって性機能副作用は増加する。(薬力価、服用量に比例する)抗うつ薬の中ではSSRIは取扱が楽であるが、双極性障害(躁うつ病)では、躁転のリスクがあり、単独での使用は推奨されていない[21]。
急に服薬を止めると、めまい、頭痛、幻聴など気分や体調が悪くなることがあるので、重篤な副作用が起きた場合や躁転した場合を除いて、勝手に服用をやめてはいけない。(これらの症状は一過性であり、依存や中毒ではない。)このことは、同剤の添付文書にも明記されており、投薬量の増減には慎重な判断が必要である。
賦活症候群(アクチベーションシンドローム)という中枢神経刺激症状を呈することがあり注意が必要である。症状としては、不安焦燥感、衝動性、不眠、自殺企図などがある。これらの症状にも個人差があり、必ずしもSSRIのみの抗うつ薬に現れるものではない[18]。
18歳以下の若年者に投与する場合には、自殺念慮、自殺企図、凶暴化の増加が報告されている。この害作用はSSRIの適応であるうつ病や不安障害等 の病態の進展との区別が難しいことから、その認識が遅れたが、プラセボ(偽薬)を対照として用いる、ランダム化比較臨床試験成績からその存在が明確になった[22]。
2009年、偽薬効果を研究するハル大学のアービング・カーシュ博士は、アメリカ食品医薬品局(FDA)は、2006年の最新のデータ解析で「プラシーボと比べて、SSRIは24歳までのうつ病患者の自殺志向や自殺行動のリスクを2倍に高める」と結論を下したと述べている。24歳以上も同じだと思われるが、このデータ解析からはまだ結論が出ていない[23]。
しかし、米国ではFDAの警告以降に若年者の自殺死者数が増加している。FDA警告の結果、若年者の抗うつ薬治療が少なくなり、結果として自殺者が増えたとすれば問題である。[24]
また、近年ではSSRIの長期服用で前頭葉類似症候群(frontal lobe-like syndrome)が起こるという研究がなされている。米国の精神科医、Dr.J.ZajeckaはSSRIを長期に使用した場合、無気力・無関心、疲労感、精神的に鈍い感じが残る状態に陥ることがあるとした。 これらの症状は、SSRIの長期間使用により、前頭葉や脳幹のノルアドレナリンやドーパミン活性が低下し起こると考えられている[25]。これらの症状が出たら処方の変更が推奨される。セルトラリンは、弱いドーパミン再取り込み阻害作用も伴う為、前頭葉類似症候群は起こりにくいとされているが、これも個人差がある[18]。
男女ともSSRIの処方量が増えると、自殺率は低下する。若年者への投与の減少により、若年者の自殺率が増加している。睡眠障害により自殺率は上昇する。不安障害の併存により自殺率は上昇する。アルコールや物質依存により自殺率は上昇する。[26]
社会とSSRI[編集]
1999年に起きたコロンバイン高校銃乱射事件では、犯人である少年二人のうち、一人は血液検査から大量のフルボキサミンを服用していたことが確定しており、もう一人も服用していた可能性が極めて濃厚と言われる。事件の被害者の一人は、二人を凶行に走らせた原因はSSRIにあるとして、製作元である会社を告訴したが、裁判によって退けられた。[27]
2001年8月、米国ではカリフォルニアの患者35人が、パロキセチンの重篤な離脱反応で、製造元の英国グラクソ・スミスクライン社を相手に集団訴訟を提訴した。この離脱反応は英国でも問題となり、同社は2003年6月に添付文書での離脱反応が生じるリスク予測を、0.2%から一挙に25%に修正した。 FDAは、2003年6月パロキセチンを18歳以下に使用しないよう勧告、2004年10月には、全抗うつ剤の添付文書に18歳以下での自殺傾向のリスクについて、最も厳しい「黒枠警告」を行うよう指示した。 日本の厚労省は、欧米の動きを受けて、2003年8月パロキセチンを18歳以下の大うつ病性障害には禁忌とするよう添付文書を改訂した。[22]
2012年7月2日、英国グラクソ・スミスクラインがパロキセチンなどの違法販売促進を認め、30億ドルという製薬業界史上最高額の支払いに合意した事を、米司法省が発表した[28][29]
日本においては、服用後に突然他人に暴力を振るうなど攻撃性を増したり激高するなど副作用と疑われる症例が、2008年秋までの4年半に医薬品医療機器総合機構に42件寄せられており、使用の際、注意を促しているが、SSRIの副作用は海外でも報告されており、氷山の一角であるとされる [30]。
2009年6月1日に放送された『クローズアップ現代 抗うつ薬の死角~転換迫られるうつ病治療~』[31]で、SSRIの不適切な投与により傷害行為(強盗)に及んだ患者が、医療鑑定で「SSRIの影響がある」と認められた事例が報告された。これは薬害であるが、SSRIの知識に乏しい医師が、SSRI服薬量の急激な増減が危険であることを知らずに、患者の体調報告にあわせて頻繁に投薬量の増減を繰り返していたことも一要因であるとされた。 また、この薬はパニック障害で服用した場合、飲み始めてからきちんとした効果が出るまでに二週間前後の時間を必要とするので注意が必要である。また、服用によって、逆に精神のバランスを崩す可能性もあるので、経過観察には注意を要する。
2013年、日本の厚生労働省は、大うつ病性障害に対し、18歳未満に投与しても効果を確認できなかったとして、添付文書を改訂し医師に慎重な投与を求めるよう日本製薬団体連合会に要請した。対象は「レクサプロ」「ジェイゾロフト」「ルボックス」「デプロメール」、他はSNRIが2製品、NaSSAが2製品の計8製品である[32][33]。
学会の動き[編集]
「日本うつ病学会」は、樋口輝彦を委員長とする「抗うつ薬の適正使用に関する委員会」を発足させ、2009年4月17日に第1回委員会を開催した。その後、同学会は、「抗うつ薬の適切な使い方について―うつ病患者様およびご家族へのメッセージ―」を発表した。これは、同委員会での結論が出る前に、現時点で患者や患者の両親などに知っておいてもらいたいことをまとめたものである。
薬剤名[編集]
「一般名(商品名)」という形式で、具体的薬剤を列挙する。
日本で承認済み[編集]
- フルボキサミン(デプロメール、ルボックス)
- パロキセチン(パキシル)
- セルトラリン(ジェイゾロフト)
- エスシタロプラム(レクサプロ)2011年4月に承認
日本では未承認[編集]
- フルオキセチン(プロザック) - プロザックはアメリカで最も広く用いられている抗うつ薬である。治験がほとんど行なわれていないため、承認申請中ではあるが日本国内における発売は未定である。
- シタロプラム(セレクサ)
脚注[編集]
- ^ “抗うつ薬服用で攻撃性増す症状、厚労省が注意改訂へ”. YOMIURI ONLINE (読売新聞). (2009年5月8日). オリジナルの2009年5月11日時点によるアーカイブ。. http://web.archive.org/web/20090511130939/http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/national/news/20090508-OYT1T00927.htm 2012年12月13日閲覧。
- ^ 樋口輝彦、小山司 『臨床精神薬理ハンドブック 第2版』〈医学書院〉2009年11月
- ^ グラクソ・スミスクライン株式会社『トピックス:SSRIの化学構造は薬剤ごとで大きく異なる』
- ^ a b c Jay C. Fournier, MA; Robert J. DeRubeis, PhD; Steven D. Hollon, PhD; Sona Dimidjian, PhD; Jay D. Amsterdam, MD; Richard C. Shelton, MD; Jan Fawcett, MD (January 2010). “Antidepressant Drug Effects and Depression Severity”. The Journal of the American Medical Association 303 (1): 47–53. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1943. PMID 20051569. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/303/1/47?home.
- ^ a b Kirsch I, Deacon BJ, Huedo-Medina TB, Scoboria A, Moore TJ, Johnson BT (February 2008). “Initial Severity and Antidepressant Benefits: A Meta-Analysis of Data Submitted to the Food and Drug Administration”. PLoS Medicine 5 (2): e45. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050045. PMC 2253608. PMID 18303940. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2253608.
- ^ “Annals of Internal Medicine | Comparative Benefits and Harms of Second-Generation Antidepressants for Treating Major Depressive Disorder: An Updated Meta-analysis”. Annals.org. doi:10.1059/0003-4819-155-11-201112060-00009. 2012年9月23日閲覧。
- ^ “The creation of the Prozac myth”. The Guardian. (2008年2月27日). http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2008/feb/27/mentalhealth.health1 2008年3月1日閲覧。
- ^ Day, Michael (2008年2月26日). “Prozac does not work in majority of depressed patients”. New Scientist. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13375-prozac-does-not-work-in-most-depressed-patients.html 2008年3月1日閲覧。
- ^ “Anti-depressants 'no better than placebo'”. Nursing Times. (2008年2月26日). http://www.nursingtimes.net/clinicalnews/2008/02/antidepressants_such_as_prozac_not_clinically_effective.html 2008年3月1日閲覧。
- ^ Blue, Laura (2008年2月26日). “Antidepressants Hardly Help”. Time. http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1717306,00.html 2008年3月1日閲覧。
- ^ “Anti-depressants' 'little effect'”. BBC. (2008年2月26日). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7263494.stm
- ^ Horder J, Matthews P, Waldmann R (June 2010). “Placebo, Prozac and PLoS: significant lessons for psychopharmacology”. Journal of Psychopharmacology 25 (10): 1277–88. doi:10.1177/0269881110372544. PMID 20571143.
- ^ Fountoulakis KN, Moller H-J (August 2010). “Efficacy of antidepressants: a re-analysis and re-interpretation of the Kirsch data”. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 14 (3): 1–8. doi:10.1017/S1461145710000957. PMID 20800012.
- ^ a b John Kelley (2010年3月2日). “Antidepressants: Do They "Work" or Don't They?”. Scientific American. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=antidepressants-do-they-work-or-dont-they
- ^ David Healy 2004, p. 27 (翻訳書は デイヴィッド・ヒーリー 2005, p. 44)
- ^ Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R (2008). Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy. The New England Journal of Medicine 358, 252–60.
- ^ a b c かくれ躁うつ病が増えている ~なかなか治らない心の病気 法研(2010)
- ^ 田島 治 『NHKスペシャル~うつ病治療・常識が変わる』2009年2月放送
- ^ 北村正樹 (2006年4月3日). “SSRI・SNRIによる自殺企図のリスク”. 日経メディカルオンライン. 2011年2月15日閲覧。
- ^ 日本うつ病学会治療ガイドライン 『Ⅰ.双極性障害 2011』
- ^ a b 薬害オンブズパースン会議
- ^ Irving Kirsch 2009 (翻訳書は アービング・カーシュ 2010, pp. 206-207)
- ^ 抗うつ薬で自殺が増加するか? 日本うつ病学会 理事長 野村総一郎
- ^ http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/420245
- ^ 自殺予防のために薬物療法によってできることは何か 渡邊衡一郎
- ^ カニングハム久子「対応に苦悩するアメリカの教育現場」『教育ジャーナル2007年8月号』61頁。
- ^ 自殺を助長する危険な投薬を違法促進した製薬会社が、史上最高額30億ドルの損害賠償支払いへ NPO法人再チャレンジ東京
- ^ 英グラクソ、医薬品の不正販売巡り30億ドルの支払いへ CNN.co.jp[リンク切れ]
- ^ “「抗うつ薬で攻撃性」副作用の疑い42件 厚労省調査”. asahi.com (朝日新聞). (2009年3月7日). オリジナルの2009年5月11日時点によるアーカイブ。. http://web.archive.org/web/20090511180502/http://www.asahi.com/health/news/TKY200903070002.html 2012年12月13日閲覧。
- ^ “抗うつ薬の死角 - NHK クローズアップ現代”. 日本放送協会. 2012年12月13日閲覧。
- ^ 「18歳未満「効果確認できず」=抗うつ剤の注意改訂要請—厚労省」The Wall Street Journal 日本語版(時事通信社配信)2013年3月29日。
- ^ 「SSRIなど抗うつ薬6種類の「使用上の注意」改訂を要請」厚生労働省2013年3月29日。
参考文献[編集]
- 日本うつ病学会; 気分障害のガイドライン作成委員会 (2012-07-26) (pdf). 日本うつ病学会治療ガイドライン II.大うつ病性障害2012 Ver.1 (Report) (2012 Ver.1 ed.). 日本うつ病学会、気分障害のガイドライン作成委員会. http://www.secretariat.ne.jp/jsmd/mood_disorder/img/120726.pdf 2013年1月1日閲覧。.
- NHKスペシャル うつ病治療 常識が変わる(NHK取材班) ISBN 4796671730
- David Healy (June, 2004), Let Them Eat Prozac: The Unhealthy Relationship Between the Pharmaceutical Industry and Depression, New York University Press, ISBN 978-0814736692 .(翻訳書は デイヴィッド・ヒーリー 『抗うつ薬の功罪 SSRI論争と訴訟』、田島治監修、谷垣暁美訳 みすず書房、2005年8月3日。ISBN 978-4622071495。 )
- Irving Kirsch (October 19, 2009), The Emperor's New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth, The Bodley Head, ISBN 978-1847920836 .(翻訳書は アービング・カーシュ 『抗うつ薬は本当に効くのか』、石黒千秋訳 エクスナレッジ、2010年1月25日。ISBN 978-4767809540。 )
関連項目[編集]
- セロトニン・ノルアドレナリン再取り込み阻害薬 (SNRI)
- 三環系抗うつ薬
- 四環系抗うつ薬
- 抗コリン作用
- ドラッグ・ラグ
- セロトニントランスポーター遺伝子
- モノアミン神経伝達物質
- 賦活症候群
- アルビド・カールソン - 世界初のSSRI「ツェルミド」を開発。
抗うつ薬 (N06A) |
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再取り込み阻害薬 |
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選択的セロトニン再取り込み阻害薬(SSRIs)
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フルオキセチン フルボキサミン パロキセチン セルトラリン
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セロトニン・ノルアドレナリン再取り込み阻害薬 (SNRIs)
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デュロキセチン ミルナシプラン ヴェンラファキシン
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ノルアドレナリン再取り込み阻害薬 (NRIs)
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アトモキセチン
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ノルアドレナリン・ドパミン再取り込み阻害薬 (NDRIs)
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ブプロピオン
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受容体拮抗薬 / 再取り込み阻害薬 |
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セロトニン2受容体拮抗・再取り込み阻害薬 (SARIs)
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トラゾドン
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ノルアドレナリン作動性・特異的セロトニン作動性抗うつ薬 (NaSSAs)
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ミアンセリン ミルタザピン セチプチリン
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ノルアドレナリン・ドパミン脱抑制薬 (NDDIs)
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アゴメラチン フリバンセリン
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三環系抗うつ薬 と 四環系抗うつ薬 (TCAs/TeCAs) |
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三環系: アミトリプチリン クロミプラミン イミプラミン ノルトリプチリン アモキサピン 四環系: マプロチリン ミアンセリン ミルタザピン セチプチリン
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アザピロン と 5-HT1A阻害薬 |
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アリピプラゾール タンドスピロン
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サプリメント (ビタミン, ミネラル, アミノ酸など) |
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アスコルビン酸 (Vitamin C) 魚油 葉酸 (Vitamin B9) L-5-HTP (Oxitriptan) レボドパ (Levodopa) L-Methionine フェニルアラニン トリプトファン チロシン マグネシウム メラトニン ナイアシン/Niacinamide (Vitamin B3) ω-3脂肪酸 ピリドキシン (Vitamin B6) S-アデノシルメチオニン 亜鉛
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"SSRI" redirects here. For other uses, see SSRI (disambiguation).
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor |
Drug class |
Serotonin
|
Use |
Depression anxiety disorders, and some personality disorders. |
Biological target |
Serotonin transporter |
ATC code |
N06AB |
External links |
MeSH |
D017367 |
AHFS/Drugs.com |
Drug Classes |
Consumer Reports |
Best Buy Drugs |
Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors or serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitor[1] (SSRIs) are a class of compounds typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of depression, anxiety disorders, and some personality disorders.
SSRIs are believed to increase the extracellular level of the neurotransmitter serotonin by inhibiting its reuptake into the presynaptic cell, increasing the level of serotonin in the synaptic cleft available to bind to the postsynaptic receptor. They have varying degrees of selectivity for the other monoamine transporters, with pure SSRIs having only weak affinity for the noradrenaline and dopamine transporter.
SSRIs are the first class of psychotropic drugs discovered using the process called rational drug design, a process that starts with a specific biological target and then creates a molecule designed to affect it.[2] They are the most widely prescribed antidepressants in many countries.[2] The efficacy of SSRIs in mild or moderate cases of depression has been disputed.[3][4][5]
Contents
- 1 Medical uses
- 1.1 Depression
- 1.2 Generalized anxiety disorder
- 1.3 Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
- 1.4 Eating disorders
- 1.5 Stroke recovery
- 1.6 Premature ejaculation
- 2 Adverse effects
- 2.1 Sexual dysfunction
- 2.2 Cardiovascular
- 2.3 Discontinuation syndrome
- 2.4 Suicide risk
- 2.4.1 Children and adolescents
- 2.4.2 Adults
- 2.4.3 Suicide warnings
- 2.5 Pregnancy and breastfeeding
- 2.5.1 Neonatal abstinence syndrome
- 2.5.2 Neuropsychological changes due to SSRI use in infancy
- 2.5.3 Persistent pulmonary hypertension
- 2.6 Bleeding tendencies
- 2.7 Overdose
- 3 Contraindications and drug interaction
- 4 List of agents
- 5 Mechanism of action
- 5.1 Pharmacogenetics
- 5.2 SSRIs versus TCAs
- 6 Society and culture
- 6.1 Criticism
- 6.2 Regulation
- 6.3 Lawsuits
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 External links
Medical uses[edit]
The main indication for SSRIs is major depressive disorder (also called "major depression", "clinical depression" and often simply "depression"). SSRIs are frequently prescribed for anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), eating disorders, chronic pain and occasionally, for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They are also frequently used to treat depersonalization disorder, although generally with poor results.[6]
Depression[edit]
Antidepressants are recommended by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) as a first-line treatment of severe depression and for the treatment of mild-to-moderate depression that persists after conservative measures such as cognitive therapy.[7] They recommend against their routine use in those who have chronic health problems and mild depression.[7] There has been controversy regarding the efficacy of antidepressants in treating depression depending on its severity and duration. A comprehensive review conducted by NICE concluded that antidepressants have no advantage over placebo in the treatment of short term mild depression, but that the available evidence supported the use of antidepressants in the treatment of dysthymia and other forms of chronic mild depression.[8] Two meta-analyses of clinical trials published in 2008 and 2011 found that in mild and moderate depression, the effect of SSRIs is small or none compared to placebo, while in very severe depression the effect of SSRIs is between "relatively small " and "substantial".[3][9] Unlike the NICE study, these studies did not discriminate between the acutely and chronically depressed. The 2008 meta-analysis combined 35 clinical trials submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) before licensing of four newer antidepressants (including the SSRIs paroxetine and fluoxetine, the non-SSRI antidepressant nefazodone, and the SNRI (serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor) venlafaxine). The authors attributed the relationship between severity and efficacy to a reduction of the placebo effect in severely depressed patients, rather than an increase in the effect of the medication.[9] Some researchers have questioned the statistical basis of this study suggesting that it underestimates the effect size of antidepressants.[10][11] A 2010 review reached similar conclusions: in mild and moderate depression, specifically that the effect of SSRI is very small or none compared to placebo, while it is clinically significant in very severe depression.[3][12] However, this analysis included only 6 studies out of the over 2,000 that have been done, involved just 2 medications, and did not involve studies with placebo washout periods typically used as controls.[4][5]
SSRIs are recommended by NICE over tricyclics due to their superior tolerability.[13] One study showed that SSRIs have greater adverse effects than TCAs in the elderly, though the authors caution that more research is needed.[14] There does not appear to be a substantial difference in efficacy among the various second generation antidepressants (SSRIs and SNRIs).[15]
Generalized anxiety disorder[edit]
SSRIs are recommended by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) that has failed to respond to conservative measures such as education and self-help activities. GAD is a common disorder of which the central feature is excessive worry about a number of different events. Key symptoms include excessive anxiety about multiple events and issues, and difficulty controlling worrisome thoughts that persists for at least 6 months.
Antidepressants provide a modest-to-moderate reduction in anxiety in GAD,[16] and are superior to placebo in treating GAD.[17] The efficacy of different antidepressants is similar.[16][17]
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)[edit]
SSRIs are recommended for the second line treatment of adult obsessive compulsive disorder patients with mild functional impairment and as first line treatment for those with moderate or severe impairment. In children, SSRIs can be considered as a second line therapy in those with moderate-to-severe impairment, with close monitoring for psychiatric adverse effects.[18] SSRIs are efficacious in the treatment of OCD; patients treated with SSRIs are about twice as likely to respond to treatment as those treated with placebo.[19][20]
Eating disorders[edit]
Anti-depressants are recommended as an alternative or additional first step to self-help programs in the treatment of bulimia nervosa.[16] SSRIs (fluoxetine in particular) are preferred over other anti-depressants due to their acceptability, tolerability, and superior reduction of symptoms in short term trials. Long term efficacy remains poorly characterized.
Similar recommendations apply to binge eating disorder.[16] SSRIs provide short term reductions in binge eating behavior, but have not been associated with significant weight loss.[21]
Clinical trials have generated mostly negative results for the use of SSRI's in the treatment of anorexia nervosa.[22] Treatment guidelines from the National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence[16] recommend against the use of SSRIs in this disorder. Those from the American Psychiatric Association note that SSRIs confer no advantage regarding weight gain, but that they may be used for the treatment of co-existing depressive, anxiety, or obsessive-compulsive disorders.[21]
Stroke recovery[edit]
SSRIs have been used in the treatment of stroke patients, including those with and without symptoms of depression. A recent meta analysis of randomized, controlled clinical trials found a statistically significant effect of SSRIs on dependence, neurological deficit, depression, and anxiety. There was no statistically significant effect on death, motor deficits, or cognition.[23]
Premature ejaculation[edit]
A general disadvantage of SSRIs in treating premature ejaculation is that they require continuous daily treatment to delay ejaculation significantly.[24] For the occasional "on-demand" treatment, a few hours before coitus, clomipramine gave better results than paroxetine in one study,[25] while in another study both sertraline and clomipramine were indistinguishable from the pause–squeeze technique and inferior to paroxetine.[26] The most recent research, conducted in 2007, suggests that on-demand treatment with sildenafil (Viagra) offers a dramatic improvement in ejaculation delay and sexual satisfaction as compared with daily paroxetine,[27] with on-demand sertraline, paroxetine or clomipramine,[26] and with the pause–squeeze technique.[26][27]
Adverse effects[edit]
General side effects are mostly present during the first one to four weeks while the body adapts to the drug (with the exception of sexual side effects, which tend to occur later in treatment). In fact, it often takes six to eight weeks for the drug to begin reaching its full potential (the slow onset is considered a downside to treatment with SSRIs). Almost all SSRIs are known to cause one or more of these symptoms:
- nausea/vomiting
- drowsiness or somnolence
- headache (very common as a short-term side effect)
- bruxism
- extremely vivid or strange dreams
- dizziness
- mydriasis (pupil dilation)
- changes in appetite
- insomnia and/or changes in sleep
- excessive diarrhea
- weight loss/gain (measured by a change in bodyweight of 7 pounds)
- increased risk of bone fractures by 1.7 fold[28]
- changes in sexual behaviour (see the next section)
- increased feelings of depression and anxiety (which may sometimes provoke panic attacks)
- mania
- tremors
- autonomic dysfunction including orthostatic hypotension, increased or reduced sweating
- akathisia[29][30][31][32]
- suicidal ideation (thoughts of suicide)
- photosensitivity[33]
- paresthesia
- cognitive disorders
- Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone hypersecretion
Many side effects disappear after the adaptation phase, when the antidepressant effects begin to come to prominence. However, despite being called general, the side effects and their durations are highly individual and drug-specific. Usually the treatment is begun with a small dose to see how the patient's body reacts to the drug, after that either the dose can be adjusted (e.g. Prozac in the UK is begun at a 20 mg dose, and then adjusted as necessary to 40 mg or 60 mg). Should the drug prove ineffective, or the side effects intolerable to the patient, another common route is to switch treatment to either another SSRI, or an SNRI.[34]
Mania or hypomania is a possible side effect. Users with some type of bipolar disorder are at a much higher risk, however SSRI-induced mania in patients previously diagnosed with unipolar depression can trigger a bipolar episode; however, according to DSM IV-TR, the diagnosis of bipolar disorder requires that the individuals symptoms must not stem from medication side effects, toxins, drug abuse, or another general medical condition.
Sexual dysfunction[edit]
SSRIs can cause various types of sexual dysfunction such as anorgasmia, erectile dysfunction, diminished libido, genital numbness, and pleasureless orgasm.[35] Initial studies found the indicence of sexual side effects from SSRIs not significantly different from placebo, but since these studies relied on unprompted reporting, the frequency was underestimated. In more recent studies, doctors have specifically asked about sexual difficulties, and found that they are present in most patients.[36][37]
Symptoms of sexual dysfunction occasionally persist after discontinuing SSRIs. The incidence of this adverse effect is unknown. A limited series of published case reports describe a loss of genital sensation and other side effects continuing years after cessation of therapy.[38][39][40][41]
The mechanism by which SSRIs cause sexual side effects is not well understood. In part, it is thought that stimulation of postsynaptic 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors decreases dopamine and norepinephrine release from the substantia nigra. A number of drugs are not associated with sexual side effects (such as bupropion, mirtazapine, tianeptine, agomelatine and moclobemide,[42][43] some of which are also not associated with weight gain).
There is no FDA-approved treatment for SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction and there has been a lack of randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind studies of potential treatments. There is evidence for the following management strategies: for erectile dysfunction, the addition of a PDE5 inhibitor such as sildenafil; for decreased libido, possibly adding or switching to bupropion; and for overall sexual dysfunction, switching to nefazodone.[44]
Cardiovascular[edit]
Cardiovascular side effects are very rare with SSRI use, with a reported incidence of less than 0.0003 percent.[45] SSRIs inhibit cardiac and vascular sodium, calcium and potassium channels and prolong QT intervals.[46] A number of large studies of patients without known pre-existing heart disease have reported no EKG changes related to SSRI use.[47] More recently, however, concerns about cardiac problems have led to a reduction in the recommended maximum dose of two types of SSRI's. The recommended maximum daily dose of citalopram was reduced to 40 mg for most people and 20 mg for those older than age 60 and some others.[48] The recommended maximum daily dose of escitalopram was reduced to 10 mg for those older than age 65; the maximum daily dose for most other people remained unchanged at 20 mg.[49][50] In overdose, fluoxetine has been reported to cause sinus tachycardia, myocardial infarction, junctional rhythms and trigeminy. Some authors have suggested electrocardiographic monitoring in patients with severe pre-existing cardiovascular disease who are taking SSRI's.[51]
Discontinuation syndrome[edit]
Main article: SSRI discontinuation syndrome
Antidepressants such as SSRIs have some dependence producing effects, most notably a withdrawal syndrome. Their dependence producing properties (depending on the antidepressant) may not be as significant as other psychotropic drugs such as benzodiazepines; however, withdrawal symptoms nonetheless may be quite severe and even debilitating. SSRIs have little abuse potential, but discontinuation can produce disturbing withdrawal symptoms that may be indistinguishable from a reoccurrence of the original illness.[52] Since physical dependence is a reality, discontinuation should be discussed with a medical practitioner before beginning treatment with this class of drugs.
When discontinuing an SSRI or SNRI some doctors may switch the patient to fluoxetine due to its much longer half-life. This may avoid many of the severe withdrawal symptoms associated with SSRI/SNRI discontinuation. This can be done either by administering a single 20 mg dose of fluoxetine or by beginning on a low dosage of fluoxetine and slowly tapering down. Any SSRI or SNRI may be requested in liquid form, which allows very gradual tapering. Alternatively, a patient wishing to stop taking an SSRI/SNRI may visit a compounding pharmacy where his or her prescription may be re-arranged into progressively smaller dosages. For example the lowest dose of cymbalta that can normally be prescribed is 20 mg in gel capsules; a compounding pharmacist may divide this into doses of 20, 15, 10, 5 and 2.5 mg so that a proper tapered reduction may take place.
Suicide risk[edit]
Children and adolescents[edit]
Several studies have found that SSRI use is related to a higher risk of suicidal behavior in children and adolescents.[53][54][55] For instance, a 2004 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) analysis of clinical trials on children with major depressive disorder found statistically significant increases of the risks of "possible suicidal ideation and suicidal behavior" by about 80%, and of agitation and hostility by about 130%;[56] More infrequently, studies have been inconclusive.[57] However, a recent comparison of aggression and hostility occurring during treatment with fluoxetine to placebo in children and adolescents found that no significant difference between the fluoxetine group and a placebo group.[58] There is also evidence that higher rates of SSRI prescriptions are associated with lower rates of suicide in children, though since the evidence is correlational, the true nature of the relationship is unclear.[59]
In 2004, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in the United Kingdom judged fluoxetine (Prozac) to be the only antidepressant that offered a favorable risk-benefit ratio in children with depression, though it was also associated with a slight increase in the risk of self-harm and suicidal ideation.[60] Only two SSRIs are licensed for use with children in the UK, sertraline (Zoloft) and fluvoxamine (Luvox), and only for the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder. Fluoxetine is not licensed for this use.[61]
Adults[edit]
It is unclear whether or not SSRIs affect the risk of suicidal behavior for adults.
- A 2005 meta-analysis of drug company data found no evidence that SSRIs increased the risk of suicide; however, important protective or hazardous effects could not be excluded.[62] Also among high-risk adult patients, antidepressant drug treatment does not seem related to suicide attempts and death.[55]
- A 2005 review observed that suicide attempts are increased in those who use SSRIs as compared to placebo and compared to therapeutic interventions other than tricyclic antidepressants. No difference risk of suicide attempts was detected between SSRIs versus tricyclic antidepressants.[63]
- On the other hand, a 2006 review suggests that the widespread use of antidepressants in the new "SSRI-era" appear to have led to highly significant decline in suicide rates in most countries with traditionally high baseline suicide rates. The decline is particularly striking for women who, compared with men, seek more help for depression. Recent clinical data on large samples in the US too have revealed a protective effect of antidepressant against suicide.[64]
- A 2006 meta analysis of random controlled trials suggests that SSRIs increase suicide ideation compared with placebo. However, the observational studies suggests that SSRIs did not increase suicide risk more than older antidepressants. The researchers stated that if SSRIs increase suicide risk in some patients, the number of additional deaths is very small because ecological studies have generally found that suicide mortality has declined (or at least not increased) as SSRI use has increased.[65]
- An additional meta-analysis by the FDA in 2006 found an age-related effect of SSRI's. Among adults younger than 25 years, results indicated that there was a higher risk for suicidal behavior. For adults between 25 and 64, the effect appears neutral on suicidal behavior but possibly protective for suicidal behavior for adults between the ages of 25 and 64. For adults older than 64, SSRI's seem to reduce the risk of both suicidal behavior.[53]
Suicide warnings[edit]
The FDA findings resulted in a black box warning on SSRI and other antidepressant medications regarding the increased risk of suicidal behavior in patients younger than 24.[66] Similar precautionary notice revisions were implemented by the Japanese Ministry of Health.[67] In 2004 the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency in the United Kingdom issued a warning about increases in 'insomnia, agitation, weight loss, headache, tremor, loss of appetite, self-harm and suicidal thoughts' when the medications are used with children and adolescents.[68]
The introduction of a warning regarding the association between SSRIs and suicide by the FDA in 2004 led to a dramatic decrease in prescriptions of these medications to young people. Originally, there were concerns that the decrease in prescriptions caused by the warnings could increase the number of teenage suicides in the US.[69] However, the most recent data from the US National Center for Health Statistics put these concerns to rest. The suicide rates for persons younger than 25 has actually decreased between 2004 and 2007.[original research?] [70][71]
Pregnancy and breastfeeding[edit]
Administration during pregnancy of SSRI is associated with an increased rate of miscarriages, birth defects, persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn, newborn behavioral syndrome, and possibly long term behavioral problems.[72] The risk of spontaneous abortion is increased about 1.7 fold.[73]
The FDA issued a statement on July 19, 2006 stating nursing mothers on SSRIs must discuss treatment with their physicians. However, the medical literature on the safety of SSRIs has determined that some SSRIs like Sertraline and Paroxetine are considered safe for breastfeeding.[74][75][76]
Maternal SSRI use may be associated with autism.[77] A large cohort study published 2013 found no significant association between SSRI use and autism in offspring.[78]
Neonatal abstinence syndrome[edit]
Neonatal abstinence syndrome is a withdrawal syndrome in newborn babies. It has been documented in SSRI treatment. By November 2003, a total of 93 cases of SSRI use associated with either neonatal convulsions or withdrawal syndrome had been reported. Subsequently, the authors of a Lancet study concluded that doctors should avoid or cautiously manage the prescribing of these drugs to pregnant women with psychiatric disorders.[79]
Neuropsychological changes due to SSRI use in infancy[edit]
Since the early 80's scientists have used a technique called neonatal clomipramine to produce animals used in depression research. If rats are given the tricyclic antidepressant clomipramine when 8–21 days old, they develop behavioural changes in adulthood that resemble depression in humans.[80][81] In 1997 Lundbeck found that treatment with the SSRI LU-10-134-C, which only differs from their product citalopram by two atoms could give similar results as clomipramine.[82] Later it was found that neonatal citalopram and escitalopram makes persistent changes in the serotonergic transmission of the brain resulting in behavioral changes,[83][84] which are reversed by treatment with antidepressants.[85] By treating normal and knockout mice lacking the serotonin transporter with fluoxetine scientists showed that normal emotional reactions in adulthood, like a short latency to escape foot shocks and inclination to explore new environments were dependent on active serotonin transporters during the neonatal period.[86][87]
But when young mice were treated with the SNRI desimipramine they developed to normal adults, which suggests that serotonin and norepinephrine have different effects in the developing brain. For humans, the developmental stage sensitive to SSRI:s corresponds with the last trimester to the first years of life. A study showed that 4-year old children perinatally exposed to SSRIs behave normally. However, the young mice and rats also seem normal until they reach puberty and develop behavioural disturbances.[88][89]
The mechanism is currently unknown, but it seems that early life overstimulation of the 5-HT1 receptor that regulates serotonin production results in low serotonin production after puberty.[90]
Persistent pulmonary hypertension[edit]
Persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN) is a serious and life-threatening, but rare, lung condition that occurs soon after birth of the newborn. Newborn babies with PPHN have high pressure in their lung blood vessels and are not able to get enough oxygen into their bloodstream. About 1 to 2 babies per 1000 babies born in the U.S. develop PPHN shortly after birth, and often they need intensive medical care. One study has found that PPHN is six times more common in babies whose mothers take an SSRI antidepressant after the 20th week of the pregnancy compared to babies whose mothers do not take an antidepressant.[91]
A population-based cohort study, which included 1.6 million live births in five Nordic countries, of women with filled SSRI prescriptions later than the 20th week gestation by last menstrual period demonstrated an increased risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN) compared to control infants (adjusted RR 2.1, 95% CI 1.5-3). The increased risk of PPHN was of similar magnitude for the SSRI class of drugs (Fluoxetine, Citalopram, Paroxetine, Sertraline, Escitalopram). This study showed that the absolute risk of PPHN would only increase the incidence from 0.1 to 0.3 percent of live-births with late prenatal SSRI exposure.[92]
Bleeding tendencies[edit]
SSRIs appear to increase the risk of bleeding.[93][94][95][96] This includes an increased risk of GI bleeding, post operative bleeding,[93] and intracranial bleeding.[97] SSRIs are known to cause platelet dysfunction.[98][99]
Overdose[edit]
See also: Serotonin syndrome
SSRIs appear safer in overdose when compared with traditional antidepressants, such as the tricyclic antidepressants. This relative safety is supported both by case series and studies of deaths per numbers of prescriptions.[100] However, case reports of SSRI poisoning have indicated that severe toxicity can occur[101] and deaths have been reported following massive single ingestions,[102] although this is exceedingly uncommon when compared to the tricyclic antidepressants.[100]
Because of the wide therapeutic index of the SSRIs, most patients will have mild or no symptoms following moderate overdoses. The most commonly reported severe effect following SSRI overdose is serotonin syndrome; serotonin toxicity is usually associated with very high overdoses or multiple drug ingestion.[103] Other reported significant effects include coma, seizures, and cardiac toxicity.[100]
The SSRIs, in decreasing toxicity in overdose, can be listed as follows:[104]
- Citalopram (due to the potential for QT interval prolongation)
- Fluvoxamine
- Escitalopram
- Paroxetine
- Sertraline
- Fluoxetine
Contraindications and drug interaction[edit]
The following drugs may precipitate serotonin syndrome in people on SSRIs:[105][106]
- linezolid
- methylene blue dye
- Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) including moclobemide, phenelzine, tranylcypromine, selegiline and methylene blue
- Lithium
- Sibutramine
- MDMA (ecstasy)
- Dextromethorphan
- Tramadol
- Pethidine/meperidine
- St. John's wort
- Yohimbe
- Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)
- Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)
- Buspirone
- Triptan
- Mirtazapine
Painkillers of the NSAIDs drug family may interfere and reduce efficiency of SSRIs and may compound the increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeds caused by SSRI use.[94][96][107] NSAIDs include:
- Aspirin
- Ibuprofen (Advil, Nurofen)
- Naproxen (Aleve)
There are a number of potential pharmacokinetic interactions between the various individual SSRIs and other medications. Most of these arise from the fact that every SSRI has the ability to inhibit certain P450 cytochromes.[108][109]
Drug Name |
CYP1A2 |
CYP2C9 |
CYP2C19 |
CYP2D6 |
CYP3A4 |
CYP2B6 |
Citalopram |
+ |
0 |
0 |
+ |
0 |
0 |
Escitalopram |
0 |
0 |
0 |
+ |
0 |
0 |
Fluoxetine |
+ |
++ |
+/++ |
+++ |
+ |
+ |
Fluvoxamine |
+++ |
++ |
+++ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
Paroxetine |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+++ |
+ |
+++ |
Sertraline |
+ |
+ |
+/++ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
Legend:
0 — no inhibition.
- — no data available.
+ — mild inhibition.
++ — moderate inhibition.
+++ — strong inhibition.
List of agents[edit]
Drugs in this class include (trade names in parentheses):
- citalopram (Celexa, Cipramil, Cipram, Dalsan, Recital, Emocal, Sepram, Seropram, Citox, Cital)
- dapoxetine (Priligy)
- escitalopram (Lexapro, Cipralex, Seroplex, Esertia)
- fluoxetine (Depex, Prozac, Fontex, Seromex, Seronil, Sarafem, Ladose, Motivest, Flutop, Fluctin (EUR), Fluox (NZ), Depress (UZB), Lovan (AUS), Prodep (IND))
- fluvoxamine (Luvox, Fevarin, Faverin, Dumyrox, Favoxil, Movox, Floxyfral)
- indalpine (Upstene) (discontinued)
- paroxetine (Paxil, Seroxat, Sereupin, Aropax, Deroxat, Divarius, Rexetin, Xetanor, Paroxat, Loxamine, Deparoc)
- sertraline (Zoloft, Lustral, Serlain, Asentra, Tresleen)
- zimelidine (Zelmid, Normud) (discontinued)
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) |
Citalopram
|
Dapoxetine
|
Escitalopram
|
Fluoxetine
|
Fluvoxamine
|
|
Indalpine
|
Paroxetine
|
Sertraline
|
Zimelidine
|
|
Related agents[edit]
SSRIs form a subclass of serotonin uptake inhibitors, which includes other non-selective inhibitors as well. Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors and selective serotonin reuptake enhancers are also serotonergic antidepressants.
Mechanism of action[edit]
In the brain, messages are passed between two nerve cells via a chemical synapse, a small gap between the cells. The (presynaptic) cell that sends the information releases neurotransmitters (including serotonin) into that gap. The neurotransmitters are then recognized by receptors on the surface of the recipient (postsynaptic) cell, which upon this stimulation, in turn, relays the signal. About 10% of the neurotransmitters are lost in this process; the other 90% are released from the receptors and taken up again by monoamine transporters into the sending (presynaptic) cell (a process called reuptake).
SSRIs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin. As a result, the serotonin stays in the synaptic gap longer than it normally would, and may repeatedly stimulate the receptors of the recipient cell. In the short run this leads to an increase in signalling across synapses in which serotonin serves as the primary neurotransmitter. On chronic dosing, the increased occupancy of pre-synaptic serotonin receptors signals the pre-synaptic neuron to synthesize and release less serotonin. Serotonin levels within the synapse drop, then rise again, ultimately leading to down-regulation of post-synaptic serotonin receptors.[110] Other, indirect effects may include increased norepinephrine output, increased neuronal cyclic AMP levels, and increased levels of regulatory factors such as BDNF and CREB.[111] Owing to the lack of a widely accepted comprehensive theory of the biology of mood disorders, there is no widely accepted theory of how these changes lead to the mood-elevating and anti-anxiety effects of SSRIs.
Pharmacogenetics[edit]
Further information: Pharmacogenetics
Large bodies of research are devoted to using genetic markers to predict whether patients will respond to SSRIs or have side effects that will cause their discontinuation, although these tests are not yet ready for widespread clinical use.[112] Single-nucleotide polymorphisms of the 5-HT(2A) gene correlated with paroxetine discontinuation due to side effects in a group of elderly patients with major depression, but not mirtazapine (a non-SSRI antidepressant) discontinuation.[113]
SSRIs versus TCAs[edit]
SSRIs are described as 'selective' because they affect only the reuptake pumps responsible for serotonin, as opposed to earlier antidepressants, which affect other monoamine neurotransmitters as well, and as a result, SSRIs have fewer side effects.
There appears no significant difference in effectiveness between SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants, which were the most commonly used class of antidepressants before the development of SSRIs.[114] However, SSRIs have the important advantage that their toxic dose is high, and, therefore, they are much more difficult to use as a means to commit suicide. Further, they have fewer and milder side effects. Tricyclic antidepressant also have a higher risk of serious cardiovascular side effects, which SSRIs lack.
Society and culture[edit]
Criticism[edit]
See also: Biopsychiatry controversy and Biological psychiatry
David Healy has argued that warning signs were available for many years prior to regulatory authorities moving to put warnings on antidepressant labels that they might cause suicidal thoughts.[115] In late 2004 media attention was given to a proposed link between SSRI use and juvenile suicide. For this reason, the use of SSRIs in pediatric cases of depression is now recognized by the United States FDA as warranting a cautionary statement to the parents of children who may be prescribed SSRIs by a family doctor. The FDA's currently required packaging insert for SSRIs includes a warning (known as a "black box warning") that a pooled analysis of placebo controlled trials of 9 antidepressant drugs (including multiple SSRIs) resulted in a risk of suicidal behavior that was twice that of placebo. At the same time, in adults SSRIs do not increase the risk of suicide.[116]
Critics of SSRIs claim that the widely disseminated television and print advertising of SSRIs promotes an inaccurate message, oversimplifying what these medications actually do and deceiving the public.[117] Specifically, critics allege that manufacturers inaccurately portray antidepressants as 'correcting' chemical imbalances. They contend that without accurately measuring patients' neurotransmitter levels to allow for continuous monitoring during treatment, it is impossible to know if one is correctly targeting a deficient neurotransmitter (i.e. correcting an imbalance), reaching a desirable level, or even introducing too much of a particular neurotransmitter.[118]
Biopsychiatrists believe that, among other factors, the balance of neurotransmitters in the brain is a biological regulator of mental health. In this theory, emotions within a "normal" spectrum reflect a proper balance of neurochemicals, but abnormally extreme emotions, such as clinical depression, reflect an imbalance. Psychiatrists[who?] claim that medications regulate neurotransmitters, and many if not most psychiatrists also claim they treat abnormal personalities by removing a neurochemical excess or replenishing a deficit.[citation needed] On the other hand, Elliot Valenstein, a psychologist and neuroscientist, claims that the broad biochemical assertions and assumptions of mainstream psychiatry are not supported by evidence.[119]
A widely reported meta-analysis combined 35 clinical trials submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) before licensing of four newer antidepressants (including the SSRIs paroxetine and fluoxetine, and two non-SSRI antidepressants nefazodone and venlafaxine). The authors found that although the antidepressants were statistically superior to placebo they did not exceed the NICE criteria for a 'clinically significant' effect. For more detail, see the section "Efficacy".
A study in The New England Journal of Medicine on a possible publication bias regarding the efficacy of SSRI medications in the treatment of depression suggests that their effectiveness and risk-benefit ratios may be greatly exaggerated. Of 74 studies registered with the United States FDA, 37 with positive results were published in academic journals, while 22 studies with negative results were not published and 11 with negative results were published in a way that conveyed a positive outcome (one positive study was not published and three negative studies were published with results that were portrayed as negative). Overall, 94% of studies actually published were positive outcomes; when published and unpublished studies were included for analysis, the percentage of positive outcomes was 51%.[120]
Other critics have argued that the existence of an SSRI-related withdrawal syndrome mimicking depression may inflate the therapeutic effect size reported in long-term (more than 6 months) placebo controlled trials of SSRI’s, due to a reliance on randomized discontinuation designs. Discontinuation trials are a variant of the classic 2-arm placebo controlled randomized controlled trials used in shorter placebo controlled studies of SSRI’s.[121][122]
Regulation[edit]
All SSRIs are approved in the U.S. for use with psychiatric disorders as outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV).
Approved uses for SSRIs vary by country and are determined by the overseeing branch of government in charge of regulating drugs. In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves drugs after trial results have been submitted by the pharmaceutical companies. In Europe, drugs can be approved either by the European Medicines Agency for human consumption throughout the European Union or by the regulatory agencies of individual countries for use within those countries.[citation needed]. In Canada, the drug approval process is carried out by Health Canada.
Lawsuits[edit]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) |
Hundreds of lawsuits have been filed against drug manufacturers seeking compensation for harm attributed to the use of SSRIs. Suits based on product liability, for example, often allege failure to adequately warn users of potential side effects. Manufacturers have defended many suits on the merits and settled many others. In 2005, the U.S. FDA asked manufacturers to include black box warnings on antidepressant drug packaging.[123] Though a 2007 study[124] purportedly showed that the black box "warnings discouraged use of antidepressants in children and adolescents and... led to increases in suicide rates as a result of untreated depression" an article in the New York Times[125] that ran two weeks later questioned the results of the study, claiming that the data did not support a causal link between the black box warning and increased rates of suicide.
See also[edit]
- Antidepressant
- Dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI)
- Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI)
- Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI)
- Reuptake inhibitor
- Serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI)
- Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI)
- Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (SNDRI)
- Noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant (NaSSA)
- Selective serotonin reuptake enhancer (SSRE)
- Selective serotonin releasing agent (SSRA)
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- ^ Maciag D, Coppinger D, Paul IA (December 2006). "Evidence that the deficit in sexual behavior in adult rats neonatally exposed to citalopram is a consequence of 5-HT1 receptor stimulation during development". Brain Research 1125 (1): 171–5. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.10.009. PMC 1762094. PMID 17101120.
- ^ FDA.gov, FDA Public Health Advisory - Treatment Challenges of Depression in Pregnancy
- ^ [1], Kieler H, Artama M, Engeland A, Ericsson O, Furu K, Gissler M, Nielsen RB, Norgaard M, Stephansson O, Valdimarsdottir U, Zoega H, Haglund B." Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension in the newborn: population based cohort study from the five Nordic countries" BMJ 2012;344:d8012
- ^ a b Weinrieb, RM; Auriacombe, M; Lynch, KG; Lewis, JD (March 2005). "Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors and the risk of bleeding". Expert opinion on drug safety 4 (2): 337–44. doi:10.1517/14740338.4.2.337. PMID 15794724.
- ^ a b Taylor, D; Carol, P; Shitij, K (2012). The Maudsley prescribing guidelines in psychiatry. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9780470979693.
- ^ Andrade, C; Sandarsh, S; Chethan, KB; Nagesh, KS (December 2010). "Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Antidepressants and Abnormal Bleeding: A Review for Clinicians and a Reconsideration of Mechanisms". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 71 (12): 1565–1575. doi:10.4088/JCP.09r05786blu. PMID 21190637.
- ^ a b de Abajo, FJ; García-Rodríguez, LA (July 2008). "Risk of upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding associated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and venlafaxine therapy: interaction with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and effect of acid-suppressing agents". Archives of General Psychiatry 65 (7): 795–803. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.7.79. PMID 18606952.
- ^ http://www.neurology.org/content/early/2012/10/17/WNL.0b013e318271f848.abstract Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and brain hemorrhage
- ^ Serebruany VL (February 2006). "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and increased bleeding risk: are we missing something?". The American Journal of Medicine 119 (2): 113–6. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.03.044. PMID 16443409.
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- ^ White, N; Litovitz, T; Clancy, C (December 2008). "Suicidal antidepressant overdoses: a comparative analysis by antidepressant type". Journal of Medical Toxicology 4 (4): 238–250. doi:10.1007/BF03161207. PMC 3550116. PMID 19031375. edit
- ^ Ener, RA; Meglathery, SB; Decker, WAV; Gallagher, RM (March 2003). "Serotonin Syndrome and Other Serotonergic Disorders". Pain Medicine 4 (1): 63–74. doi:10.1046/j.1526-4637.2003.03005.x. PMID 12873279.
- ^ Boyer, EW; Shannon, M (2005). "The serotonin syndrome". The New England Journal of Medicine 352 (11): 1112–1120. doi:10.1056/NEJMra041867. PMID 15784664.
- ^ Solomon H. Snyder. "J.L. Warner-Schmidt et.al "Antidepressant effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are attenuated by antiinflammatory drugs in mice and humans" PNAS 2011". Pnas.org. Retrieved 2012-09-23.
- ^ Brunton, L; Chabner, B; Knollman, B (2010). Goodman and Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (12th ed.). McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0071624428.
- ^ Ciraulo, DA; Shader, RI (2011). Pharmacotherapy of Depression (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 49. doi:10.1007/978-1-60327-435-7. ISBN 978-1-60327-435-7.
- ^ Goodman, Louis S. (Louis Sanford); Brunton, Laurence L.; Chabner, Bruce.; Knollmann, Björn C. (2001). Goodman Gilman's pharmacological basis of therapeuti. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 459–461. ISBN 0-07-162442-2.
- ^ Kolb, Bryan and Wishaw Ian. An Introduction to Brain and Behavior. New York: Worth Publishers 2006, Print.
- ^ Rasmussen-Torvik LJ, McAlpine DD (2007). "Genetic screening for SSRI drug response among those with major depression: great promise and unseen perils". Depression and Anxiety 24 (5): 350–7. doi:10.1002/da.20251. PMID 17096399.
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- ^ Anderson IM (April 2000). "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors versus tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis of efficacy and tolerability". Journal of Affective Disorders 58 (1): 19–36. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00092-0. PMID 10760555.
- ^ Healy D, Aldred G (2005). Antidepressant drug use and the risk of suicide. International Review of Psychiatry 17, 163–172.
- ^ Gunnell D, Saperia J, Ashby D (2005). "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and suicide in adults: meta-analysis of drug company data from placebo controlled, randomised controlled trials submitted to the MHRA's safety review". BMJ 330 (7488): 385. doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7488.385. PMC 549105. PMID 15718537.
- ^ Lacasse JR, Leo J (December 2005). "Serotonin and Depression: A Disconnect between the Advertisements and the Scientific Literature". PLoS Medicine 2 (12): e392. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392. PMC 1277931. PMID 16268734.
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External links[edit]
- PROZAC Product/Prescribing Information at Eli Lilly and Company
- Barry Yeoman Putting Science in the Dock, The Nation at barryyeoman.com
- Serotonin uptake inhibitors at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Antidepressants (N06A)
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Specific reuptake inhibitors (RIs), enhancers (REs), and releasing agents (RAs)
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Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
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- Alaproclate
- Citalopram
- Escitalopram
- Femoxetine
- Fluoxetine#
- Fluvoxamine
- Indalpine
- Ifoxetine
- Litoxetine
- Omiloxetine
- Panuramine
- Paroxetine
- Pirandamine
- Seproxetine
- Sertraline
- Zimelidine‡
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Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)
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- Clovoxamine
- Desvenlafaxine
- Duloxetine
- Levomilnacipran
- Eclanamine
- Milnacipran
- Sibutramine
- Venlafaxine
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Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors (SNDRIs)
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- Adhyperforin
- Amitifadine
- Bicifadine
- Brasofensine
- BTS-74,398
- Cocaine
- Diclofensine
- DOV-102,677
- DOV-216,303
- EXP-561
- Fezolamine
- Hyperforin
- JNJ-7925476
- NS-2359
- PRC200-SS
- Pridefine
- SEP-225,289
- SEP-227,162
- Tesofensine
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Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs)
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- Amedalin
- Atomoxetine/Tomoxetine
- Binedaline
- Ciclazindol
- Daledalin
- Edivoxetine
- Esreboxetine
- Lortalamine
- Maprotiline
- Mazindol
- Nisoxetine
- Reboxetine
- Talopram
- Talsupram
- Tandamine
- Viloxazine
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Dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs)
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|
|
Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs)
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- Amineptine
- Bupropion/Amfebutamone
- Cilobamine
- Manifaxine
- Methylphenidate
- Nomifensine
- Radafaxine
- Tametraline
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Norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agents (NDRAs)
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- Amphetamine
- Befuraline
- Lisdexamfetamine
- Methamphetamine
- Phenethylamine
- Piberaline
- Tranylcypromine
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|
Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agents (SNDRAs)
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- 4-Methyl-αMT
- αET/Etryptamine
- αMT/Metryptamine
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Selective serotonin reuptake enhancers (SSREs)
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Others
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- Indeloxazine
- Teniloxazine
- Tramadol
- Viqualine
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Receptor antagonists and/or reuptake inhibitors
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Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs)
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- Etoperidone
- Lubazodone
- Nefazodone
- Mepiprazole
- Trazodone
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Noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants (NaSSAs)
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- Aptazapine
- Esmirtazapine
- Mianserin
- Mirtazapine
- Setiptiline/Teciptiline
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Norepinephrine-dopamine disinhibitors (NDDIs)
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Serotonin modulators and stimulators (SMSs)
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Others
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Heterocyclic antidepressants (bi-, tri-, and tetracyclics)
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Bicyclics
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Tricyclics
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- Amezepine
- Amineptine
- Amitriptyline#
- Amitriptylinoxide
- Azepindole
- Butriptyline
- Cianopramine
- Clomipramine#
- Cotriptyline
- Cyanodothiepin
- Demexiptiline
- Depramine/Balipramine
- Desipramine
- Dibenzepin
- Dimetacrine
- Dosulepin/Dothiepin
- Doxepin
- Enprazepine
- Fluotracen
- Hepzidine
- Homopipramol
- Imipramine
- Imipraminoxide
- Intriptyline
- Iprindole
- Ketipramine
- Litracen
- Lofepramine
- Losindole
- Mariptiline
- Melitracen
- Metapramine
- Mezepine
- Naranol
- Nitroxazepine
- Nortriptyline
- Noxiptiline
- Octriptyline
- Opipramol
- Pipofezine
- Propizepine
- Protriptyline
- Quinupramine
- Tampramine
- Tianeptine
- Tienopramine
- Trimipramine
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|
Tetracyclics
|
- Amoxapine
- Aptazapine
- Azipramine
- Ciclazindol
- Ciclopramine
- Esmirtazapine
- Maprotiline
- Mazindol
- Mianserin
- Mirtazapine
- Oxaprotiline
- Setiptiline/Teciptiline
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|
|
|
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
|
|
Nonselective
|
- Irreversible: Benmoxin
- Carbenzide
- Cimemoxin
- Domoxin
- Echinopsidine
- Iproclozide
- Iproniazid
- Isocarboxazid
- Mebanazine
- Metfendrazine
- Nialamide
- Octamoxin
- Phenelzine
- Pheniprazine
- Phenoxypropazine
- Pivalylbenzhydrazine
- Safrazine
- Tranylcypromine
- Reversible: Caroxazone
- Paraxazone
- Quercetin
|
|
MAOA-Selective
|
- Reversible: Amiflamine
- Bazinaprine
- Befloxatone
- Berberine
- Brofaromine
- Cimoxatone
- Esuprone
- Eprobemide
- Harmala Alkaloids (Harmine
- Harmaline
- Tetrahydroharmine
- Harman
- Norharman, etc)
- Methylene Blue
- Metralindole
- Minaprine
- Moclobemide
- Pirlindole
- Sercloremine
- Tetrindole
- Toloxatone
- Tyrima
|
|
MAOB-Selective
|
- Irreversible: Ladostigil
- Mofegiline
- Pargyline
- Rasagiline
- Selegiline
- Reversible: Lazabemide
- Milacemide
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|
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Azapirones and other 5-HT1A receptor agonists
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|
- Alnespirone
- Aripiprazole
- Befiradol
- Buspirone
- Eptapirone
- Flesinoxan
- Flibanserin
- Gepirone
- Ipsapirone
- Oxaflozane
- Tandospirone
- Vilazodone
- Zalospirone
|
|
|
- #WHO-EM
- ‡Withdrawn from market
- Clinical trials:
- †Phase III
- §Never to phase III
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dsrd (o, p, m, p, a, d, s), sysi/epon, spvo
|
proc (eval/thrp), drug (N5A/5B/5C/6A/6B/6D)
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Serotonergics
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5-HT1 receptor ligands
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5-HT1A
|
- Agonists: Azapirones: Alnespirone
- Binospirone
- Buspirone
- Enilospirone
- Eptapirone
- Gepirone
- Ipsapirone
- Perospirone
- Revospirone
- Tandospirone
- Tiospirone
- Umespirone
- Zalospirone; Antidepressants: Etoperidone
- Nefazodone
- Trazodone
- Vortioxetine; Antipsychotics: Aripiprazole
- Asenapine
- Clozapine
- Quetiapine
- Ziprasidone; Ergolines: Dihydroergotamine
- Bromocriptine
- Ergotamine
- Lisuride
- Methysergide
- LSD; Tryptamines: 5-CT
- 5-MeO-DMT
- 5-MT
- Bufotenin
- DMT
- Indorenate
- Psilocin
- Psilocybin; Others: 8-OH-DPAT
- Adatanserin
- Bay R 1531
- Befiradol
- BMY-14802
- Cannabidiol
- Dimemebfe
- Ebalzotan
- Eltoprazine
- F-11,461
- F-12,826
- F-13,714
- F-14,679
- F-15,063
- F-15,599
- Flesinoxan
- Flibanserin
- Lesopitron
- LY-293,284
- LY-301,317
- MKC-242
- Naluzotan
- NBUMP
- Osemozotan
- Oxaflozane
- Pardoprunox
- Piclozotan
- Rauwolscine
- Repinotan
- Roxindole
- RU-24,969
- S 14,506
- S-14,671
- S-15,535
- Sarizotan
- SSR-181,507
- Sunepitron
- U-92,016-A
- Urapidil
- Vilazodone
- Xaliproden
- Yohimbine
Antagonists: Antipsychotics: Iloperidone
- Risperidone
- Sertindole; Beta blockers: Alprenolol
- Cyanopindolol
- Iodocyanopindolol
- Oxprenolol
- Pindobind
- Pindolol
- Propranolol
- Tertatolol; Others: AV965
- BMY-7,378
- CSP-2503
- Dotarizine
- Flopropione
- GR-46611
- Isamoltane
- Lecozotan
- Mefway
- Metitepine/Methiothepin
- MPPF
- NAN-190
- Robalzotan
- S-15535
- SB-649,915
- SDZ 216-525
- Spiperone
- Spiramide
- Spiroxatrine
- UH-301
- WAY-100,135
- WAY-100,635
- Xylamidine
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5-HT1B
|
- Agonists: Lysergamides: Dihydroergotamine
- Ergotamine
- Methysergide; Piperazines: Eltoprazine
- TFMPP; Triptans: Avitriptan
- Eletriptan
- Sumatriptan
- Zolmitriptan; Tryptamines: 5-CT
- 5-MT; Others: CGS-12066A
- Bromocriptine
- CP-93,129
- CP-94,253
- CP-135,807
- RU-24,969
- Vortioxetine
Antagonists: Lysergamides: Metergoline; Others: AR-A000002
- Elzasonan
- GR-127,935
- Isamoltane
- Metitepine/Methiothepin
- SB-216,641
- SB-224,289
- SB-236,057
- Yohimbine
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5-HT1D
|
- Agonists: Lysergamides: Dihydroergotamine
- Methysergide; Triptans: Almotriptan
- Avitriptan
- Eletriptan
- Frovatriptan
- Naratriptan
- Rizatriptan
- Sumatriptan
- Zolmitriptan; Tryptamines: 5-CT
- 5-Ethyl-DMT
- 5-MT
- 5-(Nonyloxy)tryptamine; Others: CP-135,807
- Bromocriptine
- CP-286,601
- GR-46611
- L-694,247
- L-772,405
- PNU-109,291
- PNU-142633
Antagonists: Lysergamides: Metergoline; Others: Alniditan
- BRL-15,572
- Elzasonan
- GR-127,935
- Ketanserin
- LY-310,762
- LY-367,642
- LY-456,219
- LY-456,220
- Metitepine/Methiothepin
- Ritanserin
- Yohimbine
- Ziprasidone
|
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5-HT1E
|
- Agonists: Lysergamides: Methysergide; Triptans: Eletriptan; Tryptamines: BRL-54443
- Tryptamine
Antagonists: Metitepine/Methiothepin
|
|
5-HT1F
|
- Agonists: Triptans: Eletriptan
- Naratriptan
- Sumatriptan; Tryptamines: 5-MT; Others: BRL-54443
- Bromocriptine
- Lasmiditan
- LY-334,370
Antagonists: Metitepine/Methiothepin
|
|
|
|
5-HT2 receptor ligands
|
|
5-HT2A
|
|
|
5-HT2B
|
- Agonists: Oxazolines: 4-Methylaminorex
- Aminorex; Phenethylamines: Chlorphentermine
- Cloforex
- DOB
- DOC
- DOI
- DOM
- Fenfluramine (Dexfenfluramine, Levofenfluramine)
- MDA
- MDMA
- Norfenfluramine; Tryptamines: 5-CT
- 5-MT
- α-Methyl-5-HT; Others: BW-723C86
- Bromocriptine
- Cabergoline
- mCPP
- Pergolide
- PNU-22394
- Ro60-0175
Antagonists: Agomelatine
- Asenapine
- EGIS-7625
- Ketanserin
- Lisuride
- LY-272,015
- Metitepine/Methiothepin
- PRX-08066
- Rauwolscine
- Ritanserin
- RS-127,445
- Sarpogrelate
- SB-200,646
- SB-204,741
- SB-206,553
- SB-215,505
- SB-221,284
- SB-228,357
- SDZ SER-082
- Tegaserod
- Yohimbine
|
|
5-HT2C
|
- Agonists: Phenethylamines: 2C-B
- 2C-E
- 2C-I
- 2C-T-2
- 2C-T-7
- 2C-T-21
- DOB
- DOC
- DOI
- DOM
- MDA
- MDMA
- Mescaline; Piperazines: Aripiprazole
- mCPP
- TFMPP; Tryptamines: 5-CT
- 5-MeO-α-ET
- 5-MeO-α-MT
- 5-MeO-DET
- 5-MeO-DiPT
- 5-MeO-DMT
- 5-MeO-DPT
- 5-MT
- α-ET
- α-Methyl-5-HT
- α-MT
- Bufotenin
- DET
- DiPT
- DMT
- DPT
- Psilocin
- Psilocybin; Others: A-372,159
- AL-38022A
- Alstonine
- Bromocriptine
- CP-809,101
- Dimemebfe
- Lorcaserin
- Medifoxamine
- MK-212
- Org 12,962
- ORG-37,684
- Oxaflozane
- PHA-57378
- PNU-22394
- PNU-181731
- Ro60-0175
- Ro60-0213
- Vabicaserin
- WAY-629
- WAY-161,503
- YM-348
Antagonists: Atypical antipsychotics: Clorotepine
- Clozapine
- Iloperidone
- Melperone
- Olanzapine
- Paliperidone
- Quetiapine
- Risperidone
- Sertindole
- Ziprasidone
- Zotepine; Typical antipsychotics: Chlorpromazine
- Loxapine
- Pimozide
- Pipamperone; Antidepressants: Agomelatine
- Amitriptyline
- Amoxapine
- Aptazapine
- Etoperidone
- Fluoxetine
- Mianserin
- Mirtazapine
- Nefazodone
- Nortriptyline
- Tedatioxetine
- Trazodone; Others: Adatanserin
- CEPC
- Cinanserin
- Cyproheptadine
- Deramciclane
- Dotarizine
- Eltoprazine
- Esmirtazapine
- FR-260,010
- Ketanserin
- Ketotifen
- Latrepirdine
- Metitepine/Methiothepin
- Methysergide
- Pizotifen
- Ritanserin
- RS-102,221
- S-14,671
- SB-200,646
- SB-206,553
- SB-221,284
- SB-228,357
- SB-242,084
- SB-243,213
- SDZ SER-082
- Xylamidine
|
|
|
|
- 5-HT3
- 5-HT4
- 5-HT5
- 5-HT6
- 5-HT7 ligands
|
|
5-HT3
|
- Agonists: Piperazines: BZP
- Quipazine; Tryptamines: 2-Methyl-5-HT
- 5-CT; Others: Chlorophenylbiguanide
- Butanol
- Ethanol
- Halothane
- Isoflurane
- RS-56812
- SR-57,227
- SR-57,227-A
- Toluene
- Trichloroethane
- Trichloroethanol
- Trichloroethylene
- YM-31636
Antagonists: Antiemetics: AS-8112
- Alosetron
- Azasetron
- Batanopride
- Bemesetron
- Cilansetron
- Dazopride
- Dolasetron
- Galanolactone
- Granisetron
- Lerisetron
- Ondansetron
- Palonosetron
- Ramosetron
- Renzapride
- Tropisetron
- Zacopride
- Zatosetron; Atypical antipsychotics: Clozapine
- Olanzapine
- Quetiapine; Tetracyclic antidepressants: Amoxapine
- Mianserin
- Mirtazapine; Others: CSP-2503
- ICS-205,930
- MDL-72,222
- Memantine
- Nitrous Oxide
- Ricasetron
- Sevoflurane
- Tedatioxetine
- Thujone
- Tropanserin
- Vortioxetine
- Xenon
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5-HT4
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- Agonists: Gastroprokinetic Agents: Cinitapride
- Cisapride
- Dazopride
- Metoclopramide
- Mosapride
- Prucalopride
- Renzapride
- Tegaserod
- Velusetrag
- Zacopride; Others: 5-MT
- BIMU8
- CJ-033,466
- PRX-03140
- RS-67333
- RS-67506
- SL65.0155
- Antagonists: GR-113,808
- GR-125,487
- L-Lysine
- Piboserod
- RS-39604
- RS-67532
- SB-203,186
- SB-204,070
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5-HT5A
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- Agonists: Lysergamides: Ergotamine
- LSD; Tryptamines: 5-CT; Others: Valerenic Acid
Antagonists: Asenapine
- Latrepirdine
- Metitepine/Methiothepin
- Ritanserin
- SB-699,551
* Note that the 5-HT5B receptor is not functional in humans.
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5-HT6
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- Agonists: Lysergamides: Dihydroergotamine
- Ergotamine
- Lisuride
- LSD
- Mesulergine
- Metergoline
- Methysergide; Tryptamines: 2-Methyl-5-HT
- 5-BT
- 5-CT
- 5-MT
- Bufotenin
- E-6801
- E-6837
- EMD-386,088
- EMDT
- LY-586,713
- N-Methyl-5-HT
- Tryptamine; Others: WAY-181,187
- WAY-208,466
Antagonists: Antidepressants: Amitriptyline
- Amoxapine
- Clomipramine
- Doxepin
- Mianserin
- Nortriptyline; Atypical antipsychotics: Aripiprazole
- Asenapine
- Clorotepine
- Clozapine
- Fluperlapine
- Iloperidone
- Olanzapine
- Tiospirone; Typical antipsychotics: Chlorpromazine
- Loxapine; Others: BGC20-760
- BVT-5182
- BVT-74316
- Cerlapirdine
- EGIS-12,233
- GW-742,457
- Ketanserin
- Latrepirdine
- Lu AE58054
- Metitepine/Methiothepin
- MS-245
- PRX-07034
- Ritanserin
- Ro04-6790
- Ro 63-0563
- SB-258,585
- SB-271,046
- SB-357,134
- SB-399,885
- SB-742,457
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5-HT7
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- Agonists: Lysergamides: LSD; Tryptamines: 5-CT
- 5-MT
- Bufotenin; Others: 8-OH-DPAT
- AS-19
- Bifeprunox
- E-55888
- LP-12
- LP-44
- RU-24,969
- Sarizotan
Antagonists: Lysergamides: 2-Bromo-LSD
- Bromocriptine
- Dihydroergotamine
- Ergotamine
- Mesulergine
- Metergoline
- Methysergide; Antidepressants: Amitriptyline
- Amoxapine
- Clomipramine
- Imipramine
- Maprotiline
- Mianserin; Atypical antipsychotics: Amisulpride
- Aripiprazole
- Asenapine
- Clorotepine
- Clozapine
- Olanzapine
- Risperidone
- Sertindole
- Tiospirone
- Ziprasidone
- Zotepine; Typical antipsychotics: Chlorpromazine
- Loxapine;
- Pimozide; Others: Butaclamol
- EGIS-12,233
- Ketanserin
- LY-215,840
- Metitepine/Methiothepin
- Ritanserin
- SB-258,719
- SB-258,741
- SB-269,970
- SB-656,104
- SB-656,104-A
- SB-691,673
- SLV-313
- SLV-314
- Spiperone
- SSR-181,507
- Vortioxetine
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Reuptake inhibitors
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SERT
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- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): Alaproclate
- Citalopram
- Dapoxetine
- Desmethylcitalopram
- Desmethylsertraline
- Escitalopram
- Femoxetine
- Fluoxetine
- Fluvoxamine
- Indalpine
- Ifoxetine
- Litoxetine
- Lubazodone
- Omiloxetine
- Panuramine
- Paroxetine
- Pirandamine
- RTI-353
- Seproxetine
- Sertraline
- Vilazodone
- Vortioxetine
- Zimelidine; Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs): Bicifadine
- Desvenlafaxine
- Duloxetine
- Eclanamine
- Levomilnacipran
- Milnacipran
- Sibutramine
- Venlafaxine; Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors (SNDRIs): Brasofensine
- Diclofensine
- DOV-102,677
- DOV-21,947
- DOV-216,303
- NS-2359
- SEP-225289
- SEP-227,162
- Tedatioxetine
- Tesofensine; Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs): Amitriptyline
- Butriptyline
- Cianopramine
- Clomipramine
- Desipramine
- Dosulepin
- Doxepin
- Imipramine
- Lofepramine
- Nortriptyline
- Pipofezine
- Protriptyline
- Trimipramine; Tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs): Amoxapine; Piperazines: Nefazodone
- Trazodone; Antihistamines: Brompheniramine
- Chlorphenamine
- Diphenhydramine
- Mepyramine/Pyrilamine
- Pheniramine
- Tripelennamine; Opioids: Pethidine
- Methadone
- Propoxyphene; Others: Cocaine
- CP-39,332
- Cyclobenzaprine
- Dextromethorphan
- Dextrorphan
- EXP-561
- Fezolamine
- Mesembrine
- Nefopam
- PIM-35
- Pridefine
- Roxindole
- SB-649,915
- Tofenacin
- Ziprasidone
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VMAT
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- Ibogaine
- Reserpine
- Tetrabenazine
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Releasing agents
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- Aminoindanes: 5-IAI
- AMMI
- ETAI
- MDAI
- MDMAI
- MMAI
- TAI; Aminotetralins: 6-CAT
- 8-OH-DPAT
- MDAT
- MDMAT; Oxazolines: 4-Methylaminorex
- Aminorex
- Clominorex
- Fluminorex; Phenethylamines (also Amphetamines, Cathinones, Phentermines, etc): 2-Methyl-MDA
- 4-CAB
- 4-FA
- 4-FMA
- 4-HA
- 4-MTA
- 5-APDB
- 5-Methyl-MDA
- 6-APDB
- 6-Methyl-MDA
- AEMMA
- Amiflamine
- BDB
- BOH
- Brephedrone
- Butylone
- Chlorphentermine
- Cloforex
- Amfepramone
- Metamfepramone
- DCA
- DFMDA
- DMA
- DMMA
- EBDB
- EDMA
- Ethylone
- Etolorex
- Fenfluramine (Dexfenfluramine, Levofenfluramine)
- Flephedrone
- IAP
- IMP
- Iofetamine
- Lophophine
- MBDB
- MDA
- MDEA
- MDHMA
- MDMA
- MDMPEA
- MDOH
- MDPEA
- Mephedrone
- Methedrone
- Methylone
- MMA
- MMDA
- MMDMA
- MMMA
- NAP
- Norfenfluramine
- 4-TFMA
- pBA
- pCA
- pIA
- PMA
- PMEA
- PMMA
- TAP; Piperazines: 2C-B-BZP
- 3-MeOPP
- BZP
- DCPP
- MBZP
- mCPP
- MDBZP
- MeOPP
- Mepiprazole
- pCPP
- pFPP
- pTFMPP
- TFMPP; Tryptamines: 4-Methyl-αET
- 4-Methyl-αMT
- 5-CT
- 5-MeO-αET
- 5-MeO-αMT
- 5-MT
- αET
- αMT
- DMT
- Tryptamine (itself); Others: Indeloxazine
- Tramadol
- Viqualine
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Enzyme inhibitors
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Anabolism
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TPH
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AAAD
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- Benserazide
- Carbidopa
- Genistein
- Methyldopa
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Catabolism
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MAO
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- Nonselective: Benmoxin
- Caroxazone
- Echinopsidine
- Furazolidone
- Hydralazine
- Indantadol
- Iproclozide
- Iproniazid
- Isocarboxazid
- Isoniazid
- Linezolid
- Mebanazine
- Metfendrazine
- Nialamide
- Octamoxin
- Paraxazone
- Phenelzine
- Pheniprazine
- Phenoxypropazine
- Pivalylbenzhydrazine
- Procarbazine
- Safrazine
- Tranylcypromine; MAO-A Selective: Amiflamine
- Bazinaprine
- Befloxatone
- Brofaromine
- Cimoxatone
- Clorgiline
- Eprobemide
- Esuprone
- Harmala alkaloids (Harmine
- Harmaline
- Tetrahydroharmine
- Harman
- Norharman, etc)
- Methylene Blue
- Metralindole
- Minaprine
- Moclobemide
- Pirlindole
- Sercloremine
- Tetrindole
- Toloxatone
- Tyrima
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Others
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Precursors
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Cofactors
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- Ferrous iron (Fe2+)
- Magnesium (Mg2+)
- Tetrahydrobiopterin
- Vitamin B3 (Niacin
- Nicotinamide → NADPH)
- Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine
- Pyridoxamine
- Pyridoxal → Pyridoxal phosphate)
- Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid → Tetrahydrofolic acid)
- Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
- Zinc (Zn2+)
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Others
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- Activity enhancers: BPAP * PPAP; Reuptake enhancers: Tianeptine; Steroids: Anabolic-androgenic steroids
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