emotionally

• adv.

• 感情的に、情緒的に

関

emotional

　 　 　

WordNet

1. with regard to emotions; "emotionally secure"
2. in an emotional manner; "at the funeral he spoke emotionally"
3. in an unemotional manner; "the defendant stared unemotionally at the victims family"
4. of or pertaining to emotion; "emotional health"; "an emotional crisis"
5. determined or actuated by emotion rather than reason; "it was an emotional judgment"
6. of more than usual emotion; "his behavior was highly emotional"

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 感情的に,情緒的に;感情に訴えて
2. 『感情の』,の情緒の / 『感情的な』,感動しやすい / (またemotive)感情に訴える

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/08/13 21:58:35」(JST)

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For other uses, see Emotion (disambiguation).

"Emotional" redirects here. For other uses, see Emotional (disambiguation).

Emotions
Affection Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anxiety Apathy Arousal Awe Boldness Boredom Contempt Contentment Curiosity Depression Desire Despair Disappointment Disgust Distrust Dread Ecstasy Embarrassment Envy Euphoria Excitement Fear Fearlessness Frustration Gratitude Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hope Horror Hostility Hurt Hysteria Indifference Interest Jealousy Joy Loathing Loneliness Love Lust Misery Panic Passion Pity Pleasure Pride Rage Regret Remorse Sadness Satisfaction Shame Shock Shyness Sorrow Suffering Surprise Terror Trust Wonder Worry Zeal Zest

Examples of basic emotions.

Emotions are the various bodily feelings associated with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation and also with hormones and neurotransmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, oxytocin and cortisol. Emotion is often the driving force behind motivation, positive or negative. The physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Although those acting primarily on emotion may seem as if they are not thinking, cognition is an important aspect of emotion, particularly the interpretation of events. For example, the experience of fear usually occurs in response to a threat. The cognition of danger and subsequent arousal of the nervous system (e.g. rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is an integral component to the subsequent interpretation and labeling of that arousal as an emotional state. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency. Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades with many fields contributing including psychology, neuroscience, medicine, sociology, and even computer science. The numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic.

Definitions and Differentiation

Emotions have been described as discrete and consistent responses to an internal or external events which have a particular significance for the organism. Emotions are brief in duration and consist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioural, and neural mechanisms. Emotions have also been described as biologically given and a result of evolution because of they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors.

It is important to differentiate the term emotion from a number of constructs within the field of affective neuroscience:

• Feelings are best understood as a subjective representation of emotions, private to the individual experiencing them.
• Moods are diffuse affective states that generally last for much longer durations than emotions and are also usually less intense than emotions.
• Affect is a encompassing term, used to describe the topics of emotion, feelings, and moods together, even though it is commonly used interchangeably with emotion.

Components of Emotion

In Scherer's components processing model of emotion, five crucial elements of emotion are said to exist. From the component processing perspective, emotion experience is said to require that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes. Although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial, since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the component processing model provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode.

• Cognitive appraisal: provides an evaluation of events and objects
• Bodily symptoms: the physiological component of emotional experience
• Action tendencies: a motivational component for the preparation and direction of motor responses.
• Expression: facial and vocal expression almost always accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and intention of actions
• Feelings: the subjective experience of emotional state once it has occurred

Classification

Main article: Emotion classification

The classification of emotions has mainly been researched from two fundamental viewpoints. The first viewpoint is that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs while the second viewpoint asserts that emotions can be characterized on a dimensional basis in groupings.

For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most famous work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another infamous study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (e.g. disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.

Robert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven but developed the "wheel of emotions", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus distrust; and surprise versus anticipation. Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions. The complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. Alternatively, similar to the way primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. Relationships exist between basic emotions, resulting in positive or negative influences.

A distinction is then made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions. For example an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. Finally, some theorists place emotions within a more general category of "affective states" where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.

Theories on the Experience of Emotions

Theories about emotions stretch back to at least as far as the stoics of ancient Greece, as well as Plato and Aristotle. There are sophisticated theories in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza and David Hume. Later theories tend to be shaped by advances in empirical research. Often theories are not mutually exclusive and many researchers incorporate multiple perspectives (theories) in their work. Issues include the relative importance of cognitive judgements versus perception of body states and the role of neurobiology and evolution.

Somatic theories

Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than judgements, are essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories came from William James in the 1880s. The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John Cacioppo,, António Damásio, Joseph E. LeDoux and Robert Zajonc who are able to appeal to neurological evidence.^{[citation needed]}

James–Lange theory

Main article: James–Lange theory

William James, in his 1884 article "What is an Emotion?", argued that emotional experience is largely due to the experience of bodily changes. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, so this position is known as the James–Lange theory. This theory and its derivatives state that a changed situation leads to a changed bodily state. As James says "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."

This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state, a desired emotion is induced. These experiments also have therapeutic implications (for example, in laughter therapy, dance therapy). Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions: e.g. "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I was scared." The James–Lange theory, conversely, asserts that first we react to a situation (running away and crying happen before the emotion), and then we interpret our actions into an emotional response. In this way, emotions serve to explain and organize our own actions to us.

The James–Lange theory had until 1953 been all but abandoned by most scholars.

Tim Dalgleish (2004) states the following:

The James–Lange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity. Most contemporary neuroscientists would endorse a modified James–Lange view in which bodily feedback modulates the experience of emotion." (p. 583)

The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).

Cognitive theories

Several theories argue that cognitive activity—in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts—is necessary for an emotion to occur. This, argued Richard Lazarus, is necessary to capture the fact that emotions are about something or have intentionality. This cognitive activity may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing.

Lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order: 1.) Cognitive appraisal—The individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion. 2.) Physiological changes—The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response. 3.) Action—The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react. For example: Jenny sees a snake. 1.) Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence. Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger. 2.) Her brain activates Adrenaline gland which pumps Adrenaline through her blood stream resulting in increased heartbeat. 3.) Jenny screams and runs away. Lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes underline coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship between the person and the environment.

George Mandler provided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (Mind and Emotion, 1975, and Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress, 1984)

There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgements, evaluations, or thoughts is necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example.

It has also been suggested that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions) are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior. The affect infusion model (AIM) is a theoretical model developed by Joseph Forgas in the early 1990s that attempts to explain how emotion and mood interact with one's ability to process information.

Perceptual theory

A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually-based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactions and psychologist James Laird's book Feelings.

Affective events theory

This is a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts). This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. This theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes— a "series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme." This theory has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, "Reflections on Affective Events Theory" published in Research on Emotion in Organizations in 2005.

Cannon–Bard theory

In the Cannon–Bard theory, Walter Bradford Cannon argued against the dominance of the James–Lange theory regarding the physiological aspects of emotions in the second edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Where James argued that emotional behavior often precedes or defines the emotion, Cannon and Bard argued that the emotion arises first and then stimulates typical behavior.

Two-factor theory

Another cognitive theory is the Singer–Schachter theory. This is based on experiments purportedly showing that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of adrenaline. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions.

Component process model

A recent version of the cognitive theory regards emotions more broadly as the synchronization of many different bodily and cognitive components. Emotions are identified with the overall process whereby low-level cognitive appraisals, in particular the processing of relevance, trigger bodily reactions, behaviors, feelings, and actions.

Situated perspective on emotion

A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino , emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion, drawing upon the situationism approach in psychology. This theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. In contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. Emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms. In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. The situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants and animals.

Evolutionary psychology

Illustration from Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

Main article: Evolution of emotion

Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated in the late 19th century with Charles Darwin's book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin's original thesis was that emotions evolved via natural selection and therefore have cross-culturally universal counterparts. Furthermore, animals undergo emotions comparable to our own (see emotion in animals). In the early 1970s, Paul Ekman and colleagues began a line of research that suggests that many emotions are universal. He found evidence that humans share at least five basic emotions: fear, sadness, happiness, anger, and disgust. Other research in this area focuses on physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by, for example, Joseph E. LeDoux and António Damásio.

Social emotions evidently evolved to motivate social behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment. For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared. Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.

Neurobiological theories

Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures.

For example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord.

The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory. The mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept—one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.

Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Broca (1878), Papez (1937), and MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are, while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance.

In 2011, Lövheim proposed a direct relation between specific combinations of the levels of the signal substances dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin and eight basic emotions. A model was presented where the signal substances forms the axes of a coordinate system, and the eight basic emotions according to Silvan Tomkins are placed in the eight corners. Anger is, according to the model, for example produced by the combination of low serotonin, high dopamine and high noradrenaline.

Lövheim cube of emotion

Prefrontal cortex

There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive approach. If attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain, then logically the converse should hold, that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a stimulus to be judged more positively. This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual stimuli and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.

Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions. The Valence Model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate the right prefrontal cortex. The Direction Model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left prefrontal cortex. The second model was supported.

This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away (Direction Model), as unmoving but with strength and resistance (Movement Model), or as unmoving with passive yielding (Action Tendency Model). Support for the Action Tendency Model (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shyness and research on behavioral inhibition. Research that tested the competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the Action Tendency Model.

Homeostatic/primordial emotion

Another neurological approach distinguishes two classes of emotion. "Classical" emotions including love, anger and fear, are evoked by appraisal of scenarios fed by environmental stimuli via distance receptors in the eyes, nose and ears. "Homeostatic" or "primordial" emotions are feelings such as pain, hunger, thirst and fatigue, evoked by internal body states, communicated to the central nervous system by interoceptors, which motivate behavior aimed at maintaining the body's internal milieu at its ideal state. These demanding sensations that capture conscious attention are coordinated from the lower or basal regions of the brain and impact diverse regions of the brain, including the frontal lobes.

Disciplinary approaches

Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.

Social sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture. In anthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities. Some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities. In the field of communication sciences, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers. A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild's concept of emotional labor. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet, an e-mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. The list was established in January 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe.

In economics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. In criminology, a social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie theory and studies of "toughness," aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. In law, which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings). In political science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of voter decision-making.

In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, the philosophy of art (for example, sensory–emotional values, and matters of taste and sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also Music and emotion). In history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. In literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. In communication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

Sociology

Main article: Sociology of emotions

We try to regulate our emotions to fit in with the norms of the situation, based on many (sometimes conflicting) demands upon us which originate from various entities. These entities are studied by sociology on a micro level, such as social roles and "feeling rules" the everyday social interactions and situations are shaped by, and on a macro level by social institutions, discourses, ideologies, etc. For example, (post-)modern marriage is based on the emotion of love yet the very emotion is to be worked on and regulated by love. The sociology of emotions also focuses on general attitude changes in a population. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism.

Psychotherapy

Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion, different schools of psychotherapy approach human emotions differently. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy).

Computer science

Main article: Affective computing

In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions. In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science. While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion, the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper on affective computing. Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors.

Etymology

The English word emotion is derived from the French word émouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e- (variant of ex-) means "without" and movere means "move."

Notable theorists

William James about the time he wrote on emotions

In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were William James (1842–1910) and Carl Lange (1834–1900). James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the James–Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.

Silvan Tomkins (1911 – 1991) developed the Affect theory and Script theory. The Affect theory introduced the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion , which he called the affect system, was the motivating force in human life.

Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the 20th century have died in the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold (1903–2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions; Richard Lazarus (1922–2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928–2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion; Robert Zajonc (1923–2008) a Polish–American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation. An American philosopher, Robert C. Solomon (1942–2007), contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Oxford, 2003). Peter Goldie (1946-2011) British philosopher who specializes in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character

Influential theorists who are still active include the following psychologists, neurologists, and philosophers:

• Lisa Feldman Barrett – Social philosopher and psychologist specializing in affective science and human emotion.
• John Cacioppo – from the University of Chicago, founding father with Gary Berntson of social neuroscience.
• António Damásio (born 1944) – Portuguese behavioral neurologist and neuroscientist who works in the US
• Richard Davidson (born 1951) – American psychologist and neuroscientist; pioneer in affective neuroscience.
• Paul Ekman (born 1934) – Psychologist specializing in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions
• Barbara Fredrickson – Social psychologist who specializes in emotions and positive psychology.
• Nico Frijda (born 1927) – Dutch psychologist who specializes in human emotions, especially facial expressions
• Arlie Russell Hochschild (born 1940) – American sociologist whose central contribution was in forging a link between the subcutaneous flow of emotion in social life and the larger trends set loose by modern capitalism within organizations.
• Joseph E. LeDoux (born 1949) – American neuroscientist who studies the biological underpinnings of memory and emotion, especially the mechanisms of fear
• George Mandler (born 1924) - American psychologist who wrote influential books on cognition and emotion
• Jaak Panksepp (born 1943) – Estonian-born American psychologist, psychobiologist and neuroscientist; pioneer in affective neuroscience.
• Jesse Prinz – American philosopher who specializes in emotion, moral psychology, aesthetics and consciousness
• Klaus Scherer (born 1943) – Swiss psychologist and director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences in Geneva; he specializes in the psychology of emotion
• Ronald de Sousa (born 1940) – English–Canadian philosopher who specializes in the philosophy of emotions, philosophy of mind and philosophy of biology.

See also

• Affect measures
• Affective Computing
• Affective forecasting
• Affective neuroscience
• Affective science
• CyberEmotions
• Emotion classification
• Emotion in animals
• Emotions and culture
• Emotion and memory
• Emotional expression
• Feeling
• Fuzzy-trace theory
• Sex and emotion
• Sociology of emotions
• Social emotion
• Social neuroscience
• Somatic markers hypothesis
• Affective science#Measuring Emotions

References

Notes

Further reading

• Dana Sugu & Amita Chaterjee "Flashback: Reshuffling Emotions", International Journal on Humanistic Ideology, Vol. 3 No. 1, Spring–Summer 2010.
• Cornelius, R. (1996). The science of emotion. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
• Freitas-Magalhães, A. (Ed.). (2009). Emotional Expression: The Brain and The Face. Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 978-989-643-034-4.
• Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2007). The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face. Oporto: University Fernando Pessoa Press.
• Ekman, P. (1999). "Basic Emotions". In: T. Dalgleish and M. Power (Eds.). Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK:.
• Frijda, N.H. (1986). The Emotions. Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and Cambridge University Press. [1]
• Hochschild, A.R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feelings. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Hogan, Patrick Colm. (2011). What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• LeDoux, J.E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. Chap. 15 in J.E. LeDoux & W. Hirst (Eds.) Mind and Brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. New York: Cambridge.
• Mandler, G. (1984). Mind and Body: Psychology of emotion and stress. New York: Norton.
• Nussbaum, Martha C. (2001) Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp. 3–33). New York: Academic.
• Ridley-Duff, R.J. (2010). Emotion, Seduction and Intimacy: Alternative Perspectives on Human Behaviour (Third Edition), Seattle: Libertary Editions. http://www.libertary.com/book/emotion-seduction-intimacy
• Roberts, Robert. (2003). Emotions: An Essay in Aid of Moral Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Scherer, K. (2005). What are emotions and how can they be measured? Social Science Information Vol. 44, No. 4: 695–729.
• Solomon, R. (1993). The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
• Zeki, S. & Romaya, J.P. (2008), "Neural correlates of hate", PloS one, vol. 3, no. 10, pp. 3556.
• Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience
• Dror Green (2011). "Emotional Training, the art of creating a sense of a safe place in a changing world". Bulgaria: Books, Publishers and the Institute of Emotional Training.

External links

• Online Demo: Emotion recognition from speech, University of Patras, Wire Communication Lab
• Facial Emotion Expression Lab
• CNX.ORG: The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts (free online book)
• Queen Mary Centre for the History of the Emotions
• Humaine Emotion-Research.net: The Humaine Portal: Research on Emotions and Human-Machine Interaction
• PhilosophyofMind.net: Philosophy of Emotions portal
• Swiss Center for Affective Sciences
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Theories of Emotion
• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Emotion
• University of Arizona: Salk Institute:

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• 3. 動脈瘤性くも膜下出血：疫学、危険因子、および病因 aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage epidemiology risk factors and pathogenesis
• 4. 結核治療の遵守 adherence to tuberculosis treatment
• 5. 原発性早期卵巣障害（早期卵巣機能不全）のマネージメント management of spontaneous primary ovarian insufficiency premature ovarian failure

English Journal

• What makes an art expert? Emotion and evaluation in art appreciation.

• Leder H1, Gerger G, Brieber D, Schwarz N.
• Cognition & emotion.Cogn Emot.2014 Sep;28(6):1137-47. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2013.870132. Epub 2014 Jan 2.
• Why do some people like negative, or even disgusting and provocative artworks Art expertise, believed to influence the interplay among cognitive and emotional processing underlying aesthetic experience, could be the answer. We studied how art expertise modulates the effect of positive-and negative-
• PMID 24383619

• Memory for novel positive information in major depressive disorder.

• Sorenson JE1, Furman DJ, Gotlib IH.
• Cognition & emotion.Cogn Emot.2014 Sep;28(6):1090-9. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2013.866936. Epub 2014 Jan 2.
• Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with biases in memory, including poor memory for positive stimuli. It is unclear, however, if this impaired memory for positive stimuli in MDD is related to difficulties in the initial processing of stimuli, or alternatively, reflects a decreased ability
• PMID 24382137

• On the dynamics of implicit emotion regulation: Counter-regulation after remembering events of high but not of low emotional intensity.

• Schwager S1, Rothermund K.
• Cognition & emotion.Cogn Emot.2014 Sep;28(6):971-92. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2013.866074. Epub 2013 Dec 17.
• Valence biases in attention allocation were assessed after remembering positive or negative personal events that were either still emotionally hot or to which the person had already adapted psychologically. Differences regarding the current state of psychological adjustment were manipulated experime
• PMID 24344748

• Exploring the relationship between positive and negative emotional avoidance and anxiety symptom severity: The moderating role of attentional control.

• Bardeen JR1, Tull MT2, Stevens EN3, Gratz KL1.
• Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry.J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry.2014 Sep;45(3):415-20. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.04.006. Epub 2014 May 8.
• BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Emotional avoidance has been found to be associated with higher levels of anxiety. However, no research to date has differentiated between the avoidance of positive and negative emotions in relation to anxiety. Additionally, no studies have examined the extent to which att
• PMID 24837737

Japanese Journal

• Reduced representational momentum for subtle dynamic facial expressions in individuals with autism spectrum disorders

• Uono Shota,Sato Wataru,Toichi Motomi
• Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 8(9), 1090-1099, 2014-09
• … A recent study (Yoshikawa & Sato, 2008) found that typically developing individuals perceived the last image from a dynamic facial expression to be more emotionally exaggerated than a static facial expression; …
• NAID 120005458280

• 救急部門で働く看護師の自殺企図患者に対する認知形成のプロセス

• 阿部 美香,上野 恭子
• 日本精神保健看護学会誌 23(1), 101-111, 2014-06-20
• 本研究は,救急部門で働く看護師の,自殺企図患者に対する認知形成のプロセスを明らかにすることを目的とした.対象者は,救急部門で勤務し,自殺企図患者の看護経験がある看護師12名とした.データは半構造化面接を用いて収集し,修正版グラウンデッド・セオリー・アプローチを用いて分析した.救急部門の看護師は,自殺企図患者という刺激によって《生きたい人を助けたい》という信念が活性化され,《自殺企図患者は別世界の人 …
• NAID 110009818788

• 情緒障害児短期治療施設における二次障害への対応 (第22回大会特集 多様なニーズへの挑戦 : たて糸とよこ糸で織りなす新たな教育の創造 : 一般社団法人日本LD学会第22回大会教育講演)

• 髙田 治
• LD研究 = Japanese journal of learning disabilities 23(2), 126-133, 2014-05
• NAID 40020116833

• 日本人が持つ国への愛着とは : ISSP国際比較調査(国への帰属意識)・日本の結果から

• 村田 ひろ子
• 放送研究と調査 64(5), 16-31, 2014-05
• NAID 40020085414

Related Links

• emotionally. - goo ブログ 無料でブログを作成

Alfa Romeo 4C. 納車後 1ヵ月 経過。 最初こそ初期トラブルに見舞われましたが；； 今は毎日、通勤で元気よく走っています。 毎日走っていて、 まず一番感じているのは、ハンドリングの良さ。 パワステが付いていない事が、 こんなに ...

• emotionallyの意味・用例｜英辞郎 on the WEB：アルク

emotionally 【副】感情的に、情緒的に、感情を込めて【文例】 - アルクがお届けする進化するオンライン英和・和英辞書データベース。一般的な単語や連語から、イディオム、専門用語、スラングまで幅広く収録。

• Emotionally - definition of emotionally by The Free Dictionary

They were both young, and they were talking of the time when they lived and loved together at Talbothays Dairy, that happy green tract of land where summer had been liberal in her gifts; in substance to all, emotionally to these.

Related Pictures

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「100Cases 75」「情緒的」「感情的」
拡張検索	「emotionally unstable personality disorder」
関連記事	「emotional」

「100Cases 75」

　　[★]

☆case75　自宅での意識消失

■症例

21歳　男性

主訴：意識消失

現病歴：男性のアパートで意識を失っている所を彼女に発見され、午後5時に搬送された。彼女が最後に彼に会ったのは午後8時で、クリスマスの買い物をして帰宅した時であった。翌日午後、彼女が彼に会いに行った所、彼がお風呂の床で意識を失っているのを見つけた。彼女によれば、前日変わった様子(unusal mood)はなかった。彼は心理学の期末試験が1週間に迫っておりこのことを心配していたが、勉強はうまくいっているようだった。また以前の試験に問題はなかった。

喫煙歴：なし。

飲酒歴：機会飲酒 10 units/week(1週間に350mlビール6本弱)

既往歴：なし

家族歴：父と2人の兄弟のうち1人が糖尿病

服薬歴：以前、エクスタシー錠剤を服用していたが、静脈注射の薬はやったことがない。

身体所見 examination

　顔貌　青白。注射痕は認められない。脈拍　92/分、血圧　114/74 mmHg、呼吸数　22/分。心血管系、呼吸器系に異常を認めず。神経系　命令に従わないが、痛みに反応して適切に手を引っ込める(GCS M4)。腱反射(+)・対称性、足底反射(-)。瞳孔散大、対光反射(+)。眼底　視神経円板腫脹

■鑑別診断をあげるためのkeyword(司会者用)

・24時間以内に来した意識消失、糖尿病の家族歴、冬、風呂、精神疾患リスク(試験で悩んでいる。薬物の服用歴)、顔色、脈拍、血圧、呼吸数、腱反射、病的反射、瞳孔、眼底(司会者用)

■keywordからどういう疾患を考えるか？

　真っ先にあげたいもの

　・二次的な脳圧亢進

　・糖尿病

　・薬物中毒、中毒物質の摂取・吸引

　・神経疾患(てんかんなど)の発作

・24時間以内に来した意識消失

　・クモ膜下出血：局所神経症状、硝子体下出血(subhyaloid hemorrhage)。

・糖尿病の家族歴

　・低血糖発作

　　低血糖による昏睡は早いが糖尿病の新規症状として起こらない。まれにインスリノーマによる低血糖による昏睡があり得る。

　・糖尿病性ケトアシドーシス diabetic ketoacidosis DKA

　　極度のインスリン欠乏とコルチゾールやアドレナリンなどインスリン拮抗ホルモンの増加により、(1)高血糖(≧250mg/dl)、(2)高ケトン血症(β-ヒドロキシ酪酸の増加)、アシドーシス(pH7.3未満)をきたした状態。(糖尿病治療ガイド 2008-2009 p.66)

　・高浸透圧性非ケトン性昏睡 nonketotic hyperosmolar coma

　　DM type 2

　　50歳以上に好発し、インスリン非依存性糖尿病＊患者が腎不全や中枢神経障害、悪性腫瘍、消化器疾患、呼吸器感染などを合併するときに多くみられ、ステロイドや利尿薬の投与、輸液や高カロリー補給、人工透析などの際に医原性に起きやすい。

　高血糖性の昏睡は発症が早くない。その前に口渇や多尿があるはず。

　→　否定するための検査　→　血糖測定

・風呂

　・脳出血

　・冬だし、風呂(脱衣所のことか)にガスヒーターがあったら疑わしい。

・精神疾患リスク(試験で悩んでいる。薬物の服用歴)

　(最も多いのが)薬物中毒(鎮静薬、アスピリン、アセトアミノフェン)

　(意識障害で運ばれてきたときに考えるべきなのが)一酸化中毒

　一酸化中毒の場合の顔色は蒼白(cherry-red colorと言われてきたが)。眼底所見：(severe CO中毒で)乳頭浮腫

・顔色

・脈拍、血圧、呼吸数

・腱反射、病的反射

　腱反射が亢進していたら、上位運動ニューロンの障害を考慮する。腱反射亢進と意識障害が共存していれば、障害部位は脊髄の伝導路ではなくむしろ脳幹・大脳皮質に障害があると考えることができる。

・瞳孔

　瞳孔が散大していれば交感神経興奮、副交感神経の麻痺：フェニレフリン・エピネフリン・コカインなど交感神経刺激、動眼神経麻痺、脳死の徴候

　瞳孔が縮瞳していれば副交感神経興奮、オピオイド受容体への刺激：麻薬中毒、有機リン中毒、橋出血、脳幹部梗塞(脳底動脈閉塞症など)

・眼底 (IMD.71)

　視神経円板(=視神経乳頭)の腫脹は乳頭浮腫(papilledema, DIF.342)を反映。乳頭浮腫の発生機序は軸索輸送障害や静脈還流うっ滞である。原因として頭蓋内疾患が最も多い。頭蓋外の疾患(高血圧、視神経炎、偽性脳腫瘍)。

乳頭浮腫 papilledema DIF.243

V 動静脈奇形、高血圧による脳血圧脳症・頭蓋内出血、クモ膜下出血、硬膜下血腫

I 脳膿瘍、慢性経過の髄膜炎(細菌性×)、敗血症による血栓や静脈洞血栓

N 脳腫瘍

D -

C 動静脈奇形、水頭症、頭蓋奇形(尖頭症などによる)、血友病、時にSchilder disease

A ループス脳炎、動脈周囲炎

T 急性期の硬膜外血腫や硬膜下血腫ではない。慢性硬膜下血腫ならありうる。

E 褐色細胞腫による悪性高血圧、偽性脳腫瘍(=特発性頭蓋内圧亢進症)(肥満・無月経・感情障害(emotionally disturbed)をきたした女性に多い)

■問題

　症例だけでは絞れないので、最も疑われる疾患をあげ、鑑別診断を列挙し、検査、治療を考えていくことにします。

■一酸化炭素中毒

■オチ

　血中carboxyhemoglobinを測定したところ32%。高レベルの酸素投与でゆっくりだが、48時間で完全に回復。脳浮腫にたいするマンニトールや高圧酸素療法も考慮する。問題は4年間点検されていないガス温水器の不完全燃焼だったとさ。

■KEY POINTS

・薬物中毒は若い人の意識消失の最も一般的な原因だけど、他の診断もいつも考慮しておく。

・一酸化炭素ヘモグロビンレベルは屋内や車内、あるいはよく分からない煙に暴露した意識消失患者で測るべき

・一酸化中毒による重度の低酸素血症ではチアノーゼを欠く。

■initial plan(救急だからのんびりやってられないだろうけど)

A.

1. 呼吸器系、循環器系の安定を確認

2. 血液ガス検査

　3. 血液生化学(電解質(Na,Ca)、血糖)

□ビール1本 = 350ml アルコール5%： 350 (ml/本) x 0.05 / 10 (ml/unit) =1.75 (unit/本)

■参考文献

　DIF　Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care Fourth Edition版 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

「情緒的」

　　[★]

英

emotional、emotionally

関

情動、情動性、感情的

「感情的」

　　[★]

英

emotional、emotionally

関

情動、情動性、情緒的

「emotionally unstable personality disorder」

　　[★] 情緒不安定性人格障害

「emotional」

　　[★]

• adj.

• 情動性の、情動の、感情的な、情緒的な

関

affect、affection、affective、emotion、emotionally