diabetic

• adj.

• 糖尿病性の、糖尿病の

• n.

• 糖尿病患者

関

diabetes、diabetes mellitus、diabetic patient、diabetic subject、DM

　 　 　 　

WordNet

1. suffering from diabetes
2. someone who has diabetes
3. of or relating to or causing diabetes

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 糖尿病の / 糖尿病患者

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/11/19 21:35:27」(JST)

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"Diabetes" redirects here. For other uses, see Diabetes (disambiguation).

Diabetes mellitus
Universal blue circle symbol for diabetes.
Classification and external resources
Specialty	Endocrinology
ICD-10	E10–E14
ICD-9-CM	250
MedlinePlus	001214
eMedicine	med/546 emerg/134
Patient UK	Diabetes mellitus
MeSH	C18.452.394.750

Diabetes mellitus (DM), commonly referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic diseases in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period. Symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger. If left untreated, diabetes can cause many complications. Acute complications include diabetic ketoacidosis and nonketotic hyperosmolar coma. Serious long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic kidney failure, foot ulcers, and damage to the eyes.

Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin or the cells of the body not responding properly to the insulin produced. There are three main types of diabetes mellitus:

• Type 1 DM results from the pancreas's failure to produce enough insulin. This form was previously referred to as "insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus" (IDDM) or "juvenile diabetes". The cause is unknown.
• Type 2 DM begins with insulin resistance, a condition in which cells fail to respond to insulin properly. As the disease progresses a lack of insulin may also develop. This form was previously referred to as "non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus" (NIDDM) or "adult-onset diabetes". The primary cause is excessive body weight and not enough exercise.
• Gestational diabetes, is the third main form and occurs when pregnant women without a previous history of diabetes develop a high blood-sugar level.

Prevention and treatment involve a healthy diet, physical exercise, maintaining a normal body weight, and avoiding use of tobacco. Control of blood pressure and maintaining proper foot care are important for people with the disease. Type 1 DM must be managed with insulin injections. Type 2 DM may be treated with medications with or without insulin. Insulin and some oral medications can cause low blood sugar. Weight loss surgery in those with obesity is sometimes an effective measure in those with type 2 DM. Gestational diabetes usually resolves after the birth of the baby.

As of 2014, an estimated 387 million people have diabetes worldwide, with type 2 DM making up about 90% of the cases. This represents 8.3% of the adult population, with equal rates in both women and men. From 2012 to 2014, diabetes is estimated to have resulted in 1.5 to 4.9 million deaths each year. Diabetes at least doubles a person's risk of death. The number of people with diabetes is expected to rise to 592 million by 2035. The global economic cost of diabetes in 2014 was estimated to be $612 billion USD. In the United States, diabetes cost $245 billion in 2012.

Signs and symptoms

Overview of the most significant symptoms of diabetes

The classic symptoms of untreated diabetes are weight loss, polyuria (increased urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), and polyphagia (increased hunger). Symptoms may develop rapidly (weeks or months) in type 1 DM, while they usually develop much more slowly and may be subtle or absent in type 2 DM.

Several other signs and symptoms can mark the onset of diabetes, although they are not specific to the disease. In addition to the known ones above, they include blurry vision, headache, fatigue, slow healing of cuts, and itchy skin. Prolonged high blood glucose can cause glucose absorption in the lens of the eye, which leads to changes in its shape, resulting in vision changes. A number of skin rashes that can occur in diabetes are collectively known as diabetic dermadromes.

Diabetic emergencies

Low blood sugar is common in persons with type 1 and type 2 DM. Most cases are mild and are not considered medical emergencies. Effects can range from feelings of unease, sweating, trembling, and increased appetite in mild cases to more serious issues such as confusion, changes in behavior, seizures, unconsciousness, and (rarely) permanent brain damage or death in severe cases. Mild cases are self-treated by eating or drinking something high in sugar. Severe cases can lead to unconsciousness and must be treated with intravenous glucose or injections with glucagon.

People (usually with type 1 DM) may also experience episodes of diabetic ketoacidosis, a metabolic disturbance characterized by nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain, the smell of acetone on the breath, deep breathing known as Kussmaul breathing, and in severe cases a decreased level of consciousness.

A rare but equally severe possibility is hyperosmolar nonketotic state, which is more common in type 2 DM and is mainly the result of dehydration.

Complications

Main article: Complications of diabetes mellitus

All forms of diabetes increase the risk of long-term complications. These typically develop after many years (10–20), but may be the first symptom in those who have otherwise not received a diagnosis before that time.

The major long-term complications relate to damage to blood vessels. Diabetes doubles the risk of cardiovascular disease and about 75% of deaths in diabetics are due to coronary artery disease. Other "macrovascular" diseases are stroke, and peripheral vascular disease.

The primary complications of diabetes due to damage in small blood vessels include damage to the eyes, kidneys, and nerves. Damage to the eyes, known as diabetic retinopathy, is caused by damage to the blood vessels in the retina of the eye, and can result in gradual vision loss and blindness. Damage to the kidneys, known as diabetic nephropathy, can lead to tissue scarring, urine protein loss, and eventually chronic kidney disease, sometimes requiring dialysis or kidney transplant. Damage to the nerves of the body, known as diabetic neuropathy, is the most common complication of diabetes. The symptoms can include numbness, tingling, pain, and altered pain sensation, which can lead to damage to the skin. Diabetes-related foot problems (such as diabetic foot ulcers) may occur, and can be difficult to treat, occasionally requiring amputation. Additionally, proximal diabetic neuropathy causes painful muscle wasting and weakness.

There is a link between cognitive deficit and diabetes. Compared to those without diabetes, those with the disease have a 1.2 to 1.5-fold greater rate of decline in cognitive function.

Causes

Comparison of type 1 and 2 diabetes

Feature	Type 1 diabetes	Type 2 diabetes
Onset	Sudden	Gradual
Age at onset	Mostly in children	Mostly in adults
Body size	Thin or normal	Often obese
Ketoacidosis	Common	Rare
Autoantibodies	Usually present	Absent
Endogenous insulin	Low or absent	Normal, decreased or increased
Concordance in identical twins	50%	90%
Prevalence	~10%	~90%

Diabetes mellitus is classified into four broad categories: type 1, type 2, gestational diabetes, and "other specific types". The "other specific types" are a collection of a few dozen individual causes. The term "diabetes", without qualification, usually refers to diabetes mellitus.

Type 1

Main article: Diabetes mellitus type 1

Type 1 diabetes mellitus is characterized by loss of the insulin-producing beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, leading to insulin deficiency. This type can be further classified as immune-mediated or idiopathic. The majority of type 1 diabetes is of the immune-mediated nature, in which a T-cell-mediated autoimmune attack leads to the loss of beta cells and thus insulin. It causes approximately 10% of diabetes mellitus cases in North America and Europe. Most affected people are otherwise healthy and of a healthy weight when onset occurs. Sensitivity and responsiveness to insulin are usually normal, especially in the early stages. Type 1 diabetes can affect children or adults, but was traditionally termed "juvenile diabetes" because a majority of these diabetes cases were in children.

"Brittle" diabetes, also known as unstable diabetes or labile diabetes, is a term that was traditionally used to describe the dramatic and recurrent swings in glucose levels, often occurring for no apparent reason in insulin-dependent diabetes. This term, however, has no biologic basis and should not be used. Still, type 1 diabetes can be accompanied by irregular and unpredictable high blood sugar levels, frequently with ketosis, and sometimes with serious low blood sugar levels. Other complications include an impaired counterregulatory response to low blood sugar, infection, gastroparesis (which leads to erratic absorption of dietary carbohydrates), and endocrinopathies (e.g., Addison's disease). These phenomena are believed to occur no more frequently than in 1% to 2% of persons with type 1 diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes is partly inherited, with multiple genes, including certain HLA genotypes, known to influence the risk of diabetes. In genetically susceptible people, the onset of diabetes can be triggered by one or more environmental factors, such as a viral infection or diet. There is some evidence that suggests an association between type 1 DM and Coxsackie B4 virus. Unlike type 2 DM, the onset of type 1 diabetes is unrelated to lifestyle.

Type 2

Main article: Diabetes mellitus type 2

Type 2 DM is characterized by insulin resistance, which may be combined with relatively reduced insulin secretion. The defective responsiveness of body tissues to insulin is believed to involve the insulin receptor. However, the specific defects are not known. Diabetes mellitus cases due to a known defect are classified separately. Type 2 DM is the most common type of diabetes mellitus.

In the early stage of type 2, the predominant abnormality is reduced insulin sensitivity. At this stage, high blood sugar can be reversed by a variety of measures and medications that improve insulin sensitivity or reduce the liver's glucose production.

Type 2 DM is due primarily to lifestyle factors and genetics. A number of lifestyle factors are known to be important to the development of type 2 DM, including obesity (defined by a body mass index of greater than 30), lack of physical activity, poor diet, stress, and urbanization. Excess body fat is associated with 30% of cases in those of Chinese and Japanese descent, 60–80% of cases in those of European and African descent, and 100% of Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders. Even those who are not obese often have a high waist–hip ratio.

Dietary factors also influence the risk of developing type 2 DM. Consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks in excess is associated with an increased risk. The type of fats in the diet is also important, with saturated fats and trans fatty acids increasing the risk and polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat decreasing the risk. Eating lots of white rice also may increase the risk of diabetes. A lack of exercise is believed to cause 7% of cases.

Gestational diabetes

Main article: Gestational diabetes

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) resembles type 2 DM in several respects, involving a combination of relatively inadequate insulin secretion and responsiveness. It occurs in about 2–10% of all pregnancies and may improve or disappear after delivery. However, after pregnancy approximately 5–10% of women with gestational diabetes are found to have diabetes mellitus, most commonly type 2. Gestational diabetes is fully treatable, but requires careful medical supervision throughout the pregnancy. Management may include dietary changes, blood glucose monitoring, and in some cases insulin may be required.

Though it may be transient, untreated gestational diabetes can damage the health of the fetus or mother. Risks to the baby include macrosomia (high birth weight), congenital heart and central nervous system abnormalities, and skeletal muscle malformations. Increased levels of insulin in a fetus's blood may inhibit fetal surfactant production and cause respiratory distress syndrome. A high blood bilirubin level may result from red blood cell destruction. In severe cases, perinatal death may occur, most commonly as a result of poor placental perfusion due to vascular impairment. Labor induction may be indicated with decreased placental function. A Caesarean section may be performed if there is marked fetal distress or an increased risk of injury associated with macrosomia, such as shoulder dystocia.

Other types

Prediabetes indicates a condition that occurs when a person's blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough for a diagnosis of type 2 DM. Many people destined to develop type 2 DM spend many years in a state of prediabetes.

Latent autoimmune diabetes of adults (LADA) is a condition in which type 1 DM develops in adults. Adults with LADA are frequently initially misdiagnosed as having type 2 DM, based on age rather than etiology.

Some cases of diabetes are caused by the body's tissue receptors not responding to insulin (even when insulin levels are normal, which is what separates it from type 2 diabetes); this form is very uncommon. Genetic mutations (autosomal or mitochondrial) can lead to defects in beta cell function. Abnormal insulin action may also have been genetically determined in some cases. Any disease that causes extensive damage to the pancreas may lead to diabetes (for example, chronic pancreatitis and cystic fibrosis). Diseases associated with excessive secretion of insulin-antagonistic hormones can cause diabetes (which is typically resolved once the hormone excess is removed). Many drugs impair insulin secretion and some toxins damage pancreatic beta cells. The ICD-10 (1992) diagnostic entity, malnutrition-related diabetes mellitus (MRDM or MMDM, ICD-10 code E12), was deprecated by the World Health Organization when the current taxonomy was introduced in 1999.

Other forms of diabetes mellitus include congenital diabetes, which is due to genetic defects of insulin secretion, cystic fibrosis-related diabetes, steroid diabetes induced by high doses of glucocorticoids, and several forms of monogenic diabetes.

The following is a comprehensive list of other causes of diabetes:

• Genetic defects of β-cell function
  • Maturity onset diabetes of the young
  • Mitochondrial DNA mutations
• Genetic defects in insulin processing or insulin action
  • Defects in proinsulin conversion
  • Insulin gene mutations
  • Insulin receptor mutations
• Exocrine pancreatic defects
  • Chronic pancreatitis
  • Pancreatectomy
  • Pancreatic neoplasia
  • Cystic fibrosis
  • Hemochromatosis
  • Fibrocalculous pancreatopathy

• Endocrinopathies
  • Growth hormone excess (acromegaly)
  • Cushing syndrome
  • Hyperthyroidism
  • Pheochromocytoma
  • Glucagonoma
• Infections
  • Cytomegalovirus infection
  • Coxsackievirus B
• Drugs
  • Glucocorticoids
  • Thyroid hormone
  • β-adrenergic agonists
  • Statins

Pathophysiology

The fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone insulin (blue) in humans during the course of a day with three meals — one of the effects of a sugar-rich vs a starch-rich meal is highlighted.

Mechanism of insulin release in normal pancreatic beta cells — insulin production is more or less constant within the beta cells. Its release is triggered by food, chiefly food containing absorbable glucose.

Insulin is the principal hormone that regulates the uptake of glucose from the blood into most cells of the body, especially liver, muscle, and adipose tissue. Therefore, deficiency of insulin or the insensitivity of its receptors plays a central role in all forms of diabetes mellitus.

The body obtains glucose from three main places: the intestinal absorption of food, the breakdown of glycogen, the storage form of glucose found in the liver, and gluconeogenesis, the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates in the body. Insulin plays a critical role in balancing glucose levels in the body. Insulin can inhibit the breakdown of glycogen or the process of gluconeogenesis, it can stimulate the transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells, and it can stimulate the storage of glucose in the form of glycogen.

Insulin is released into the blood by beta cells (β-cells), found in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, in response to rising levels of blood glucose, typically after eating. Insulin is used by about two-thirds of the body's cells to absorb glucose from the blood for use as fuel, for conversion to other needed molecules, or for storage. Lower glucose levels result in decreased insulin release from the beta cells and in the breakdown of glycogen to glucose. This process is mainly controlled by the hormone glucagon, which acts in the opposite manner to insulin.

If the amount of insulin available is insufficient, if cells respond poorly to the effects of insulin (insulin insensitivity or insulin resistance), or if the insulin itself is defective, then glucose will not be absorbed properly by the body cells that require it, and it will not be stored appropriately in the liver and muscles. The net effect is persistently high levels of blood glucose, poor protein synthesis, and other metabolic derangements, such as acidosis.

When the glucose concentration in the blood remains high over time, the kidneys will reach a threshold of reabsorption, and glucose will be excreted in the urine (glycosuria). This increases the osmotic pressure of the urine and inhibits reabsorption of water by the kidney, resulting in increased urine production (polyuria) and increased fluid loss. Lost blood volume will be replaced osmotically from water held in body cells and other body compartments, causing dehydration and increased thirst (polydipsia).

Diagnosis

See also: Glycated hemoglobin and Glucose tolerance test

WHO diabetes diagnostic criteria  

Condition	2 hour glucose	Fasting glucose	HbA1c
Unit	mmol/l(mg/dl)	mmol/l(mg/dl)	mmol/mol	DCCT %
Normal	<7.8 (<140)	<6.1 (<110)	<42	<6.0
Impaired fasting glycaemia	<7.8 (<140)	≥6.1(≥110) & <7.0(<126)	42-46	6.0–6.4
Impaired glucose tolerance	≥7.8 (≥140)	<7.0 (<126)	42-46	6.0–6.4
Diabetes mellitus	≥11.1 (≥200)	≥7.0 (≥126)	≥48	≥6.5

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by recurrent or persistent high blood sugar, and is diagnosed by demonstrating any one of the following:

• Fasting plasma glucose level ≥ 7.0 mmol/l (126 mg/dl)
• Plasma glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl) two hours after a 75 g oral glucose load as in a glucose tolerance test
• Symptoms of high blood sugar and casual plasma glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl)
• Glycated hemoglobin (HbA_1C) ≥ 48 mmol/mol (≥ 6.5 DCCT %).

A positive result, in the absence of unequivocal high blood sugar, should be confirmed by a repeat of any of the above methods on a different day. It is preferable to measure a fasting glucose level because of the ease of measurement and the considerable time commitment of formal glucose tolerance testing, which takes two hours to complete and offers no prognostic advantage over the fasting test. According to the current definition, two fasting glucose measurements above 126 mg/dl (7.0 mmol/l) is considered diagnostic for diabetes mellitus.

Per the World Health Organization people with fasting glucose levels from 6.1 to 6.9 mmol/l (110 to 125 mg/dl) are considered to have impaired fasting glucose. people with plasma glucose at or above 7.8 mmol/l (140 mg/dl), but not over 11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl), two hours after a 75 g oral glucose load are considered to have impaired glucose tolerance. Of these two prediabetic states, the latter in particular is a major risk factor for progression to full-blown diabetes mellitus, as well as cardiovascular disease. The American Diabetes Association since 2003 uses a slightly different range for impaired fasting glucose of 5.6 to 6.9 mmol/l (100 to 125 mg/dl).

Glycated hemoglobin is better than fasting glucose for determining risks of cardiovascular disease and death from any cause.

The rare disease diabetes insipidus has similar symptoms to diabetes mellitus, but without disturbances in the sugar metabolism (insipidus means "without taste" in Latin) and does not involve the same disease mechanisms. Diabetes is a part of the wider condition known as metabolic syndrome.

Prevention

See also: Prevention of diabetes mellitus type 2

There is no known preventive measure for type 1 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes can often be prevented by a person being a normal body weight, physical exercise, and following a healthful diet. Dietary changes known to be effective in helping to prevent diabetes include a diet rich in whole grains and fiber, and choosing good fats, such as polyunsaturated fats found in nuts, vegetable oils, and fish. Limiting sugary beverages and eating less red meat and other sources of saturated fat can also help in the prevention of diabetes. Active smoking is also associated with an increased risk of diabetes, so smoking cessation can be an important preventive measure as well.

Management

Main article: Diabetes management

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease, for which there is no known cure except in very specific situations. Management concentrates on keeping blood sugar levels as close to normal, without causing low blood sugar. This can usually be accomplished with a healthy diet, exercise, weight loss, and use of appropriate medications (insulin in the case of type 1 diabetes; oral medications, as well as possibly insulin, in type 2 diabetes).

Learning about the disease and actively participating in the treatment is important, since complications are far less common and less severe in people who have well-managed blood sugar levels. The goal of treatment is an HbA_1C level of 6.5%, but should not be lower than that, and may be set higher. Attention is also paid to other health problems that may accelerate the negative effects of diabetes. These include smoking, elevated cholesterol levels, obesity, high blood pressure, and lack of regular exercise. Specialized footwear is widely used to reduce the risk of ulceration, or re-ulceration, in at-risk diabetic feet. Evidence for the efficacy of this remains equivocal, however.

Lifestyle

See also: Diabetic diet

People with diabetes can benefit from education about the disease and treatment, good nutrition to achieve a normal body weight, and exercise, with the goal of keeping both short-term and long-term blood glucose levels within acceptable bounds. In addition, given the associated higher risks of cardiovascular disease, lifestyle modifications are recommended to control blood pressure.

Medications

See also: Anti-diabetic medication

Medications used to treat diabetes do so by lowering blood sugar levels. There are a number of different classes of anti-diabetic medications. Some are available by mouth, such as metformin, while others are only available by injection such as GLP-1 agonists. Type 1 diabetes can only be treated with insulin, typically with a combination of regular and NPH insulin, or synthetic insulin analogs.

Metformin is generally recommended as a first line treatment for type 2 diabetes, as there is good evidence that it decreases mortality. It works by decreasing the liver's production of glucose. Several other groups of drugs, mostly given by mouth, may also decrease blood sugar in type II DM. These include agents that increase insulin release, agents that decrease absorption of sugar from the intestines, and agents that make the body more sensitive to insulin. When insulin is used in type 2 diabetes, a long-acting formulation is usually added initially, while continuing oral medications. Doses of insulin are then increased to effect.

Since cardiovascular disease is a serious complication associated with diabetes, some recommend blood pressure levels below 120/80 mmHg. However, evidence supports less than or equal to somewhere between 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg; the only additional benefit found for blood pressure targets beneath this range was an isolated decrease in stroke risk, and this was accompanied by an increased risk of other serious adverse events. Amongst medications that lower blood pressure, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) improve outcomes in those with DM while the similar medications angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) do not. Aspirin is also recommended for patient with cardiovascular problems, however routine use of aspirin has not been found to improve outcomes in uncomplicated diabetes.

Surgery

A pancreas transplant is occasionally considered for people with type 1 diabetes who have severe complications of their disease, including end stage kidney disease requiring kidney transplantation.

Weight loss surgery in those with obesity and type two diabetes is often an effective measure. Many are able to maintain normal blood sugar levels with little or no medications following surgery and long-term mortality is decreased. There however is some short-term mortality risk of less than 1% from the surgery. The body mass index cutoffs for when surgery is appropriate are not yet clear. It is recommended that this option be considered in those who are unable to get both their weight and blood sugar under control.

Support

In countries using a general practitioner system, such as the United Kingdom, care may take place mainly outside hospitals, with hospital-based specialist care used only in case of complications, difficult blood sugar control, or research projects. In other circumstances, general practitioners and specialists share care in a team approach. Home telehealth support can be an effective management technique.

Epidemiology

Main article: Epidemiology of diabetes mellitus

Rates of diabetes worldwide in 2000 (per 1,000 inhabitants) — world average was 2.8%.

  no data

  ≤ 7.5

  7.5–15

  15–22.5

  22.5–30

  30–37.5

  37.5–45

  45–52.5

  52.5–60

  60–67.5

  67.5–75

  75–82.5

  ≥ 82.5

Disability-adjusted life year for diabetes mellitus per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004

  No data

  <100

  100–200

  200–300

  300–400

  400–500

  500–600

  600–700

  700–800

  800–900

  900–1,000

  1,000–1,500

  >1,500

As of 2013, 382 million people have diabetes worldwide. Type 2 makes up about 90% of the cases. This is equal to 8.3% of the adult population with equal rates in both women and men.

In 2014, the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) estimated that diabetes resulted in 4.9 million deaths. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that diabetes resulted in 1.5 million deaths in 2012, making it the 8th leading cause of death. The discrepancy between the two estimates is due to the fact that cardiovascular diseases are often the cause of death for individuals with diabetes; the IDF uses modelling to estimate the amount of deaths that could be attributed to diabetes. More than 80% of diabetic deaths occur in low and middle-income countries.

Diabetes mellitus occurs throughout the world, but is more common (especially type 2) in more developed countries. The greatest increase in rates was expected to occur in Asia and Africa, where most people with diabetes will probably live in 2030. The increase in rates in developing countries follows the trend of urbanization and lifestyle changes, including a "Western-style" diet. This has suggested an environmental (i.e., dietary) effect, but there is little understanding of the mechanism(s) at present.

History

Main article: History of diabetes

Diabetes was one of the first diseases described, with an Egyptian manuscript from c. 1500 BCE mentioning "too great emptying of the urine". The first described cases are believed to be of type 1 diabetes. Indian physicians around the same time identified the disease and classified it as madhumeha or "honey urine", noting the urine would attract ants. The term "diabetes" or "to pass through" was first used in 230 BCE by the Greek Appollonius of Memphis. The disease was considered rare during the time of the Roman empire, with Galen commenting he had only seen two cases during his career. This is possibly due the diet and life-style of the ancient people, or because the clinical symptoms were observed during the advanced stage of the disease. Galen named the disease "diarrhea of the urine" (diarrhea urinosa). The earliest surviving work with a detailed reference to diabetes is that of Aretaeus of Cappadocia (2nd or early 3rd century CE). He described the symptoms and the course of the disease, which he attributed to the moisture and coldness, reflecting the beliefs of the "Pneumatic School". He hypothesized a correlation of diabetes with other diseases and he discussed differential diagnosis from the snakebite which also provokes excessive thirst. His work remained unknown in the West until the middle of the 16th century when, in 1552, the first Latin edition was published in Venice.

Type 1 and type 2 diabetes were identified as separate conditions for the first time by the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka in 400-500 CE with type 1 associated with youth and type 2 with being overweight. The term "mellitus" or "from honey" was added by the Briton John Rolle in the late 1700s to separate the condition from diabetes insipidus, which is also associated with frequent urination. Effective treatment was not developed until the early part of the 20th century, when Canadians Frederick Banting and Charles Herbert Best isolated and purified insulin in 1921 and 1922. This was followed by the development of the long-acting insulin NPH in the 1940s.

Etymology

The word diabetes (/ˌdaɪ.əˈbiːtiːz/ or /ˌdaɪ.əˈbiːtɨs/) comes from Latin diabētēs, which in turn comes from Ancient Greek διαβήτης (diabētēs) which literally means "a passer through; a siphon." Ancient Greek physician Aretaeus of Cappadocia (fl. 1st century CE) used that word, with the intended meaning "excessive discharge of urine", as the name for the disease. Ultimately, the word comes from Greek διαβαίνειν (diabainein), meaning "to pass through," which is composed of δια- (dia-), meaning "through" and βαίνειν (bainein), meaning "to go". The word "diabetes" is first recorded in English, in the form diabete, in a medical text written around 1425.

The word mellitus (/mɨˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlɨtəs/) comes from the classical Latin word mellītus, meaning "mellite" (i.e. sweetened with honey; honey-sweet). The Latin word comes from mell-, which comes from mel, meaning "honey"; sweetness; pleasant thing, and the suffix -ītus, whose meaning is the same as that of the English suffix "-ite". It was Thomas Willis who in 1675 added "mellitus" to the word "diabetes" as a designation for the disease, when he noticed the urine of a diabetic had a sweet taste (glycosuria). This sweet taste had been noticed in urine by the ancient Greeks, Chinese, Egyptians, Indians, and Persians.

Society and culture

Further information: List of films featuring diabetes

The 1989 "St. Vincent Declaration" was the result of international efforts to improve the care accorded to those with diabetes. Doing so is important not only in terms of quality of life and life expectancy, but also economically—expenses due to diabetes have been shown to be a major drain on health—and productivity-related resources for healthcare systems and governments.

Several countries established more and less successful national diabetes programmes to improve treatment of the disease.

People with diabetes who have neuropathic symptoms such as numbness or tingling in feet or hands are twice as likely to be unemployed as those without the symptoms.

In 2010, diabetes-related emergency department (ED) visit rates in the United States were higher among people from the lowest income communities (526 per 10,000 population) than from the highest income communities (236 per 10,000 population). Approximately 9.4% of diabetes-related ED visits were for the uninsured.

Naming

The term "type 1 diabetes" has replaced several former terms, including childhood-onset diabetes, juvenile diabetes, and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). Likewise, the term "type 2 diabetes" has replaced several former terms, including adult-onset diabetes, obesity-related diabetes, and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Beyond these two types, there is no agreed-upon standard nomenclature.

Diabetes mellitus is also occasionally known as "sugar diabetes" to differentiate it from diabetes insipidus.

Other animals

Main articles: Diabetes in dogs and Diabetes in cats

In animals, diabetes is most commonly encountered in dogs and cats. Middle-aged animals are most commonly affected. Female dogs are twice as likely to be affected as males, while according to some sources, male cats are also more prone than females. In both species, all breeds may be affected, but some small dog breeds are particularly likely to develop diabetes, such as Miniature Poodles. The symptoms may relate to fluid loss and polyuria, but the course may also be insidious. Diabetic animals are more prone to infections. The long-term complications recognised in humans are much rarer in animals. The principles of treatment (weight loss, oral antidiabetics, subcutaneous insulin) and management of emergencies (e.g. ketoacidosis) are similar to those in humans.

Research

Inhalable insulin has been developed. The original products were withdrawn due to side effects. Afrezza, under development by pharmaceuticals company MannKind Corporation, was approved by the FDA for general sale in June 2014.

An advantage to inhaled insulin is that it may be more convenient and easy to use.

References

Further reading

• Polonsky KS (2012). "The Past 200 Years in Diabetes". New England Journal of Medicine 367 (14): 1332–40. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1110560. PMID 23034021. 

External links

• Diabetes at the Open Directory Project
• IDF Diabetes Atlas
• National Diabetes Education Program

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• Gillespie AL1, Calderwood D2, Hobson L2, Green BD2.
• Food chemistry.Food Chem.2015 Dec 15;189:120-8. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.022. Epub 2015 Feb 18.
• Whey protein has been indicated to curb diet-induced obesity, glucose intolerance and delay the onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Here the effects of intact crude whey, intact individual whey proteins and beta-lactoglobulin hydrolysates on an enteroendocrine (EE) cell model were examined. STC-1 pGI
• PMID 26190610

• CdSe/ZnS Quantum Dots-Labeled Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Targeted Fluorescence Imaging of Pancreas Tissues and Therapy of Type 1 Diabetic Rats.

• Liu H1, Tang W, Li C, Lv P, Wang Z, Liu Y, Zhang C, Bao Y, Chen H, Meng X, Song Y, Xia X, Pan F, Cui D, Shi Y.
• Nanoscale research letters.Nanoscale Res Lett.2015 Dec;10(1):959. doi: 10.1186/s11671-015-0959-3. Epub 2015 Jun 13.
• Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been used for therapy of type 1 diabetes mellitus. However, the in vivo distribution and therapeutic effects of transplanted MSCs are not clarified well. Herein, we reported that CdSe/ZnS quantum dots-labeled MSCs were prepared for targeted fluorescence imaging and
• PMID 26078050

• Vascular endothelial growth factor-A165b prevents diabetic neuropathic pain and sensory neuronal degeneration.

• Hulse RP1, Beazley-Long N2, Ved N3, Bestall SM4, Riaz H5, Singhal P5, Ballmer Hofer K6, Harper SJ5, Bates DO1, Donaldson LF7.
• Clinical science (London, England : 1979).Clin Sci (Lond).2015 Oct 1;129(8):741-56. doi: 10.1042/CS20150124.
• Diabetic peripheral neuropathy affects up to half of diabetic patients. This neuronal damage leads to sensory disturbances, including allodynia and hyperalgesia. Many growth factors have been suggested as useful treatments for prevention of neurodegeneration, including the vascular endothelial growt
• PMID 26201024

• Impaired mitochondrial energy supply coupled to increased H2O2 emission under energy/redox stress leads to myocardial dysfunction during Type I diabetes.

• Tocchetti CG1, Stanley BA2, Sivakumaran V2, Bedja D3, O'Rourke B2, Paolocci N2, Cortassa S2, Aon MA4.
• Clinical science (London, England : 1979).Clin Sci (Lond).2015 Oct 1;129(7):561-74. doi: 10.1042/CS20150204. Epub 2015 Jun 11.
• In Type I diabetic (T1DM) patients, both peaks of hyperglycaemia and increased sympathetic tone probably contribute to impair systolic and diastolic function. However, how these stressors eventually alter cardiac function during T1DM is not fully understood. In the present study, we hypothesized th
• PMID 26186741

Japanese Journal

• Linked Dataとルールベースの統合に基づく食事療法支援サービスの開発と評価

• 人工知能学会論文誌 advpub(0), 2016
• NAID 130005093173

• Risk Stratification of Coronary Artery Disease in Asymptomatic Diabetic Subjects Using Multidetector Computed Tomography

• Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society 79(11), 2422-2429, 2015-11
• NAID 40020625103

• 糖尿病網膜症と脂質管理 (AYUMI 糖尿病性網膜症Update)

• 医学のあゆみ 255(2), 169-172, 2015-10-10
• NAID 40020608482

• 糖尿病性網膜症の画像診断 (AYUMI 糖尿病性網膜症Update)

• 医学のあゆみ 255(2), 161-167, 2015-10-10
• NAID 40020608469

Related Pictures

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「100Cases 75」「diabetic patient」「diabetic subject」「糖尿病性」
拡張検索	「diabetic atherosclerosis」「prediabetic」「diabetic retinopathy」

「100Cases 75」

　　[★]

☆case75　自宅での意識消失

■症例

21歳　男性

主訴：意識消失

現病歴：男性のアパートで意識を失っている所を彼女に発見され、午後5時に搬送された。彼女が最後に彼に会ったのは午後8時で、クリスマスの買い物をして帰宅した時であった。翌日午後、彼女が彼に会いに行った所、彼がお風呂の床で意識を失っているのを見つけた。彼女によれば、前日変わった様子(unusal mood)はなかった。彼は心理学の期末試験が1週間に迫っておりこのことを心配していたが、勉強はうまくいっているようだった。また以前の試験に問題はなかった。

喫煙歴：なし。

飲酒歴：機会飲酒 10 units/week(1週間に350mlビール6本弱)

既往歴：なし

家族歴：父と2人の兄弟のうち1人が糖尿病

服薬歴：以前、エクスタシー錠剤を服用していたが、静脈注射の薬はやったことがない。

身体所見 examination

　顔貌　青白。注射痕は認められない。脈拍　92/分、血圧　114/74 mmHg、呼吸数　22/分。心血管系、呼吸器系に異常を認めず。神経系　命令に従わないが、痛みに反応して適切に手を引っ込める(GCS M4)。腱反射(+)・対称性、足底反射(-)。瞳孔散大、対光反射(+)。眼底　視神経円板腫脹

■鑑別診断をあげるためのkeyword(司会者用)

・24時間以内に来した意識消失、糖尿病の家族歴、冬、風呂、精神疾患リスク(試験で悩んでいる。薬物の服用歴)、顔色、脈拍、血圧、呼吸数、腱反射、病的反射、瞳孔、眼底(司会者用)

■keywordからどういう疾患を考えるか？

　真っ先にあげたいもの

　・二次的な脳圧亢進

　・糖尿病

　・薬物中毒、中毒物質の摂取・吸引

　・神経疾患(てんかんなど)の発作

・24時間以内に来した意識消失

　・クモ膜下出血：局所神経症状、硝子体下出血(subhyaloid hemorrhage)。

・糖尿病の家族歴

　・低血糖発作

　　低血糖による昏睡は早いが糖尿病の新規症状として起こらない。まれにインスリノーマによる低血糖による昏睡があり得る。

　・糖尿病性ケトアシドーシス diabetic ketoacidosis DKA

　　極度のインスリン欠乏とコルチゾールやアドレナリンなどインスリン拮抗ホルモンの増加により、(1)高血糖(≧250mg/dl)、(2)高ケトン血症(β-ヒドロキシ酪酸の増加)、アシドーシス(pH7.3未満)をきたした状態。(糖尿病治療ガイド 2008-2009 p.66)

　・高浸透圧性非ケトン性昏睡 nonketotic hyperosmolar coma

　　DM type 2

　　50歳以上に好発し、インスリン非依存性糖尿病＊患者が腎不全や中枢神経障害、悪性腫瘍、消化器疾患、呼吸器感染などを合併するときに多くみられ、ステロイドや利尿薬の投与、輸液や高カロリー補給、人工透析などの際に医原性に起きやすい。

　高血糖性の昏睡は発症が早くない。その前に口渇や多尿があるはず。

　→　否定するための検査　→　血糖測定

・風呂

　・脳出血

　・冬だし、風呂(脱衣所のことか)にガスヒーターがあったら疑わしい。

・精神疾患リスク(試験で悩んでいる。薬物の服用歴)

　(最も多いのが)薬物中毒(鎮静薬、アスピリン、アセトアミノフェン)

　(意識障害で運ばれてきたときに考えるべきなのが)一酸化中毒

　一酸化中毒の場合の顔色は蒼白(cherry-red colorと言われてきたが)。眼底所見：(severe CO中毒で)乳頭浮腫

・顔色

・脈拍、血圧、呼吸数

・腱反射、病的反射

　腱反射が亢進していたら、上位運動ニューロンの障害を考慮する。腱反射亢進と意識障害が共存していれば、障害部位は脊髄の伝導路ではなくむしろ脳幹・大脳皮質に障害があると考えることができる。

・瞳孔

　瞳孔が散大していれば交感神経興奮、副交感神経の麻痺：フェニレフリン・エピネフリン・コカインなど交感神経刺激、動眼神経麻痺、脳死の徴候

　瞳孔が縮瞳していれば副交感神経興奮、オピオイド受容体への刺激：麻薬中毒、有機リン中毒、橋出血、脳幹部梗塞(脳底動脈閉塞症など)

・眼底 (IMD.71)

　視神経円板(=視神経乳頭)の腫脹は乳頭浮腫(papilledema, DIF.342)を反映。乳頭浮腫の発生機序は軸索輸送障害や静脈還流うっ滞である。原因として頭蓋内疾患が最も多い。頭蓋外の疾患(高血圧、視神経炎、偽性脳腫瘍)。

乳頭浮腫 papilledema DIF.243

V 動静脈奇形、高血圧による脳血圧脳症・頭蓋内出血、クモ膜下出血、硬膜下血腫

I 脳膿瘍、慢性経過の髄膜炎(細菌性×)、敗血症による血栓や静脈洞血栓

N 脳腫瘍

D -

C 動静脈奇形、水頭症、頭蓋奇形(尖頭症などによる)、血友病、時にSchilder disease

A ループス脳炎、動脈周囲炎

T 急性期の硬膜外血腫や硬膜下血腫ではない。慢性硬膜下血腫ならありうる。

E 褐色細胞腫による悪性高血圧、偽性脳腫瘍(=特発性頭蓋内圧亢進症)(肥満・無月経・感情障害(emotionally disturbed)をきたした女性に多い)

■問題

　症例だけでは絞れないので、最も疑われる疾患をあげ、鑑別診断を列挙し、検査、治療を考えていくことにします。

■一酸化炭素中毒

■オチ

　血中carboxyhemoglobinを測定したところ32%。高レベルの酸素投与でゆっくりだが、48時間で完全に回復。脳浮腫にたいするマンニトールや高圧酸素療法も考慮する。問題は4年間点検されていないガス温水器の不完全燃焼だったとさ。

■KEY POINTS

・薬物中毒は若い人の意識消失の最も一般的な原因だけど、他の診断もいつも考慮しておく。

・一酸化炭素ヘモグロビンレベルは屋内や車内、あるいはよく分からない煙に暴露した意識消失患者で測るべき

・一酸化中毒による重度の低酸素血症ではチアノーゼを欠く。

■initial plan(救急だからのんびりやってられないだろうけど)

A.

1. 呼吸器系、循環器系の安定を確認

2. 血液ガス検査

　3. 血液生化学(電解質(Na,Ca)、血糖)

□ビール1本 = 350ml アルコール5%： 350 (ml/本) x 0.05 / 10 (ml/unit) =1.75 (unit/本)

■参考文献

　DIF　Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care Fourth Edition版 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

「diabetic patient」

　　[★]

• 糖尿病患者

関

diabetic、diabetic subject

「diabetic subject」

　　[★]

• 糖尿病患者

関

diabetic、diabetic patient

「糖尿病性」

　　[★]

英

diabetic

関

糖尿病、糖尿病患者

「diabetic atherosclerosis」

　　[★]

• 糖尿病性動脈硬化、糖尿病性動脈硬化症

「prediabetic」

　　[★]

• 前糖尿病性の

関

pre-diabetic

「diabetic retinopathy」

　　[★] 糖尿病性網膜症, DR