WordNet

spindle-shaped bacterial cell especially one swollen at the center by an endospore (同)clostridia

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/06/09 16:38:48」(JST)

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Clostridium is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria, belonging to the Firmicutes. They are obligate anaerobes capable of producing endospores.^[1]^[2] Individual cells are rod-shaped, which gives them their name, from the Greek kloster (κλωστήρ) or spindle. These characteristics traditionally defined the genus; however many species originally classified as Clostridium have been reclassified in other genera.

Overview

Clostridium consists of around 100 species^[3] that include common free-living bacteria as well as important pathogens.^[4] There are five main species responsible for disease in humans.

C. botulinum, an organism that produces botulinum toxin in food/wound and can cause botulism.^[5] Honey sometimes contains spores of Clostridium botulinum, which may cause infant botulism in humans one year old and younger. The toxin eventually paralyzes the infant's breathing muscles.^[6] Adults and older children can eat honey safely, because Clostridium do not compete well with the other rapidly growing bacteria present in the gastrointestinal tract. This same toxin is known as "Botox" and is used cosmetically to paralyze facial muscles to reduce the signs of aging; it also has numerous therapeutic uses.

C. difficile, which can flourish when other bacteria in the gut are killed during antibiotic therapy, leading to pseudomembranous colitis (a cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea).^[7]

C. perfringens, formerly called C. welchii, causes a wide range of symptoms, from food poisoning to gas gangrene. Also responsible for enterotoxemia (also known as "overeating disease" or "pulpy kidney disease") in sheep and goats.^[8] C. perfringens also takes the place of yeast in the making of salt rising bread. The name perfringens means 'breaking through' or 'breaking in pieces'.

C. tetani, the causative organism of tetanus.^[9] The name is derived from Ancient Greek: τέτανος tetanos “taut”, and τείνειν teinein "to stretch",^[10] due to the violent spasms caused by C. tetani infection.

C. sordellii can cause a fatal infection in exceptionally rare cases after medical abortions.^[11] Less than one case per year has been reported since 2000.^[11]

Clostridium is sometimes found in raw swiftlet nests, a Chinese delicacy. Nests are washed in a sulfite solution to kill the bacteria before being exported to the U.S.^[12]

Neurotoxin production is the unifying feature of the species C. botulinum. Eight types of toxins have been identified and allocated a letter (A-H).^[13] Most strains produce one type of neurotoxin but strains producing multiple toxins have been described. C. botulinum producing B and F toxin types have been isolated from human botulism cases in New Mexico and California. The toxin type has been designated Bf as the type B toxin was found in excess of the type F. Similarly, strains producing Ab and Af toxins have been reported. Organisms genetically identified as other Clostridium species have caused human botulism; Clostridium butyricum producing type E toxin and Clostridium baratii producing type F toxin. The ability of C. botulinum to naturally transfer neurotoxin genes to other Clostridium species is concerning, especially in the food industry where preservation systems are designed to destroy or inhibit only C. botulinum but not other Clostridium species.

Commercial uses

C. thermocellum can utilize lignocellulosic waste and generate ethanol, thus making it a possible candidate for use in production of ethanol fuel. It also has no oxygen requirement and is thermophilic, which reduces cooling cost.

C. acetobutylicum, also known as the Weizmann organism, was first used by Chaim Weizmann to produce acetone and biobutanol from starch in 1916 for the production of gunpowder and TNT.

C. botulinum produces a potentially lethal neurotoxin that is used in a diluted form in the drug Botox, which is carefully injected to nerves in the face, which prevents the movement of the expressive muscles of the forehead, to delay the wrinkling effect of aging. It is also used to treat spasmodic torticollis and provides relief for approximately 12 to 16 weeks.^[14]

C. butyricum MIYAIRI 588 strain is marketed in Japan, Korea and China for C. difficile prophylaxis due to its reported ability to interfere with the growth of that highly pathogenic organism.

The anaerobic bacterium C. ljungdahlii, recently discovered in commercial chicken wastes, can produce ethanol from single-carbon sources including synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen that can be generated from the partial combustion of either fossil fuels or biomass. Use of these bacteria to produce ethanol from synthesis gas has progressed to the pilot plant stage at the BRI Energy facility in Fayetteville, Arkansas.^[15]

Fatty acids are converted by yeasts to long-chain dicarboxylic acids and then to 1,3-propanediol using Clostridium diolis.^{[citation needed]}

Genes from C. thermocellum have been inserted into transgenic mice to allow the production of endoglucanase. The experiment was intended to learn more about how the digestive capacity of monogastric animals could be improved. Hall et al. published their findings in 1993.

Non-pathogenic strains of Clostridium may help in the treatment of diseases such as cancer. Research shows that Clostridium can selectively target cancer cells. Some strains can enter and replicate within solid tumours. Clostridium could, therefore, be used to deliver therapeutic proteins to tumours. This use of Clostridium has been demonstrated in a variety of preclinical models.^[16]

Mixtures of Clostridium species, such as a mixtures of C. beijerinckii, C. butyricum, and species from other genera have been shown to produce biohydrogen from yeast waste.^[17]

Taxonomy

This genus like several others has undergone a number of revisions with the increasing availability of genomic data. An analysis of a number of proteins from a number of members of this genus has suggested another revision.^[18] The main findings of this study were:

The Selenomonas-Megasphaera-Sporomusa branch are members of the genus Clostridium

Clostridium difficile and its close relatives are members of the family Peptostreptococcaceae

Members of the family Ruminococcaceae belong to the genus Clostridium

It has been proposed to create six new genera accommodate the 78 validly described species that do not appear to be Clostridia. These genera are: Erysipelatoclostridium, Gottschalkia, Lachnoclostridium, Peptoclostridium, Ruminiclostridium and Tyzzerella.

Under this proposal the species Clostridium difficile would become Peptoclostridium difficile.

References

^ Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9.
^ Bruggemann H, Gottschalk G (editors). (2009). Clostridia: Molecular Biology in the Post-genomic Era. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-38-7.
^ UK Standards for Microbiology Investigations (October 10, 2011). "Identification of Clostridium Species". Standards Unit, Health Protection Agency. p. 7. 8. Retrieved November 3, 2013.
^ Wells CL, Wilkins TD (1996). Clostridia: Sporeforming Anaerobic Bacilli in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.) (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
^ Wells CL, Wilkins TD (1996). Botulism and Clostridium botulinum in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.) (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
^ Tanzi MG, Gabay MP (2002). "Association between honey consumption and infant botulism". Pharmacotherapy 22 (11): 1479–83. doi:10.1592/phco.22.16.1479.33696. PMID 12432974.
^ Wells CL, Wilkins TD (1996). Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea, Pseudomembranous Colitis, and Clostridium difficile in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.) (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
^ Wells CL, Wilkins TD (1996). Other Pathogenic Clostridia Food Poisoning and Clostridium perfringens in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.) (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
^ Wells CL, Wilkins TD (1996). Tetanus and Clostribium tetani in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.) (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
^ tetanus. CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved October 01, 2012
^ ^a ^b Meites E, Zane S, Gould C (2010). "Fatal Clostridium sordellii infections after medical abortions". New England Journal of Medicine 363 (14): 1382–3. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1001014.
^ Valli, Eric and Diane Summers (January 1990). "The Nest Gatherers of Tiger Cave" in National Geographic.
^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24106295
^ Velickovic M, Benabou R, Brin MF. Cervical dystonia pathophysiology and treatment options" Drugs 2001;61:1921–1943.
^ "Providing for a Sustainable Energy Future". Bioengineering Resources, inc. Retrieved 21 May 2007.
^ Mengesha et al. (2009). "Clostridia in Anti-tumor Therapy". Clostridia: Molecular Biology in the Post-genomic Era. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-38-7.
^ Chou, Chia-Hung; Chang-Lung Han, Jui-Jen Chang, Jiunn-Jyi Lay (October 2011). "Co-culture of Clostridium beijerinckii L9, Clostridium butyricum M1 and Bacillus thermoamylovorans B5 for converting yeast waste into hydrogen". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 36 (21): 13972–13983. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.03.067. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Yutin N, Galperin MY (2013) A genomic update on Clostridial phylogeny: Gram-negative spore formers and other misplaced Clostridia. Environ Microbiol doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12173

External links

Clostridium genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID
Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology
UK Clostridium difficile Support Group
Pathema-Clostridium Resource
Water analysis: Clostridium video

UpToDate Contents

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1. 成人におけるクロストリジウム・ディフィシル：治療 clostridium difficile in adults treatment
2. 成人におけるクロストリジウム・ディフィシル感染症：臨床症状および診断 clostridium difficile infection in adults clinical manifestations and diagnosis
3. クロストリジウム性筋肉壊死 clostridial myonecrosis
4. 成人におけるクロストリジウム・ディフィシル：疫学、微生物学、および病態生理 clostridium difficile in adults epidemiology microbiology and pathophysiology
5. クロストリジウム・ソルデリによる毒素性ショック症候群 toxic shock syndrome due to clostridium sordellii

English Journal

Acetate adaptation of clostridia tyrobutyricum for improved fermentation production of butyrate.

Jaros AM, Rova U, Berglund KA.SourceLuleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden ; Michigan State University, 48824 East Lansing, MI USA.
SpringerPlus.Springerplus.2013 Dec;2(1):47. Epub 2013 Feb 11.
Clostridium tyrobutyricum ATCC 25755 is an acidogenic bacterium capable of utilizing xylose for the fermentation production of butyrate. Hot water extraction of hardwood lingocellulose is an efficient method of producing xylose where autohydrolysis of xylan is catalysed by acetate originating from a
PMID 23519192

The ability of Clostridium bifermentans strains to lactic acid biosynthesis in various environmental conditions.

Leja K, Myszka K, Czaczyk K.SourceDepartment of Biotechnology and Food Microbiology, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 48, 60-627 Poznan, Poland.
SpringerPlus.Springerplus.2013 Dec;2(1):44. Epub 2013 Feb 11.
Clostridium bifermentans strains, isolated from a manure, were examinated for their ability to produce lactic acid from PY medium with glycerol under different pH conditions and when PY medium was supplemented with saccharides such as fructose, sorbitol, glucose, mannose, mannitol, maltose, xylose,
PMID 23503672

EFFECT OF FERMENTATION PARAMETERS ON BIO-ALCOHOLS PRODUCTION FROM GLYCEROL USING IMMOBILIZED Clostridium pasteurianum: AN OPTIMIZATION STUDY.

Khanna S, Goyal A, Moholkar VS.Sourcea Center for Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati , Guwahati , Assam , India.
Preparative biochemistry & biotechnology.Prep Biochem Biotechnol.2013 Nov 17;43(8):828-47. doi: 10.1080/10826068.2013.805625.
This article addresses the issue of effect of fermentation parameters for conversion of glycerol (in both pure and crude form) into three value-added products, namely, ethanol, butanol, and 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PDO), by immobilized Clostridium pasteurianum and thereby addresses the statistical optim
PMID 23876141

Japanese Journal

32.進行肺癌に対するS-1+CPT-11投与後にClostridium difficile感染症(CDI)を発症した3例(第37回日本呼吸器内視鏡学会東北支部会)

戸井之裕,菅原俊一,小林隆夫,川嶋庸介,小泉達彦,岡崎慶斗,高原政利,久田友哉,田中章子,石本修,渡辺洋,本田芳宏
気管支学 : 日本気管支研究会雑誌 33(5), 391, 2011-09-25
NAID 110008750480

Oral administration of multispecies microbial supplements to sows influences the composition of gut microbiota and fecal organic acids in their post-weaned piglets(MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY)

Mori Kenichi,Ito Toshiyuki,Miyamoto Hirokuni,Ozawa Masayo,Wada Shinji,Kumagai Yoshifumi,Matsumoto Jiro,Naito Rie,Nakamura Shogo,Kodama Hiroaki,Kurihara Yuriko
Journal of bioscience and bioengineering 112(2), 145-150, 2011-08
… Especially the Clostridium cluster IV and subcluster XIVa were particularly increased in group B, although the administered microbes were undetectable. …
NAID 110008711115

Structural and mutational analyses of the receptor binding domain of botulinum D/C mosaic neurotoxin : Insight into the ganglioside binding mechanism

Nuemket Nipawan,Tanaka Yoshikazu,Tsukamoto Kentaro,Tsuji Takao,Nakamura Keiji,Kozaki Shunji,Yao Min,Tanaka Isao
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 411(2), 433-439, 2011-07-29
… Clostridium botulinum type D strain OFD05, which produces the D/C mosaic neurotoxin, was isolated from cattle killed by the recent botulism outbreak in Japan. …
NAID 120003311403

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「細菌の鑑別」「メトロニダゾール」「クロストリジウム属」「芽胞」「clostridial」
拡張検索	「Clostridium thermocellum」「Clostridium kluyveri」
関連記事	「clostridium」

「細菌の鑑別」

Clostridium
	SEM micrograph of Clostridium difficile colonies from a stool sample
Scientific classification
Domain:	Bacteria
Phylum:	Firmicutes
Class:	Clostridia
Order:	Clostridiales
Family:	Clostridiaceae
Genus:	Clostridium; Prazmowski 1880
Selected species
	C. acetobutylicum; C. argentinense; C. aerotolerans; C. baratii; C. beijerinckii; C. bifermentans; C. botulinum; C. butyricum; C. cadaveris; C. cellulolyticum; C. chauvoei; C. clostridioforme; C. colicanis; C. difficile; C. estertheticum; C. fallax; C. feseri; C. formicaceticum; C. histolyticum; C. innocuum; C. kluyveri; C. ljungdahlii; C. lavalense; C. leptum; C. methylpentosum; C. novyi; C. oedematiens; C. paraputrificum; C. perfringens (Alias: C. welchii); C. phytofermentans; C. piliforme; C. ragsdalei; C. ramosum; C. scatologenes; C. septicum; C. sordellii; C. sporogenes; C. sticklandii; C. tertium; C. tetani; C. thermocellum; C. thermosaccharolyticum; C. tyrobutyricum

　　[★]

関: 細菌

グラム陽性菌の鑑別 LAB.994

菌種	形態	抗酸性	芽胞	運動性	空気中での発育	嫌気条件下での発育	カタラーゼ	オキシダーゼ	ブドウ糖分解	OF試験
Micrococcus	C	－	－	－	＋	－	＋	－	D	O/－
Staphylococcus	C	－	－	－	＋	＋	＋	－	＋	F
Aerococcus	C	－	－	－	＋	W	W/－	－	＋	F
Streptococcus	C	－	－	＋/－	＋	＋	－	－	＋	F
Pediococcus	C.	－	－	－	＋	＋	－	－	＋	F
Gemella	C.	－	－	－	＋	＋	－	－	＋	F
嫌気性球菌*1	C	－	－	－	－	＋	－	－	＋/－	F/－
Kurthia	R	－	－	＋	＋	＋	＋	－	－	－
Corynebacterium	R	－	－	－	＋	＋	＋	－	＋/－	F/－
Listeria	R	－	－	＋	＋	＋	＋	－	＋	F
Erysipelothnx	R		－	－	＋	＋			＋	F
Lactobacillus
Arachnia*2
Rothia	R	－	－	－	＋	－	＋	●	＋	F
Propiombacterium	R	－	－	－	－	＋	＋	.	＋	F
Achnomyces	R	－	－	－	－	＋	－	●	＋	F
Bifidobacterium
Eubacterium	R	－	－	－	－	＋	－	.	＋/－	F/－
Clostridium	R	－	<＋>	D	－	＋	－	●	D	F/－
Bacillus	R	－	<＋>	D	＋	D	＋	d	D	F/O/－
Nocardia	R	W	－	－	＋	－	＋	－	＋	O
Mycobacterium	R	＋	－	－	＋	.	＋	－	＋	O/NT
1:Peptococcus, Peptostreptococus(あるいは Leuconostoc) 2:あるいはActinomyces odontolyticus D:その属の菌種によって反応が異なる。　d: 菌種によって反応が異なる。 F:発酵 O:酸化 W:弱反応・:不明 NT:テストできない <＋>:芽胞非形成筋もある C:球菌 R:桿菌

グラム陰性菌の鑑別 LAB.995

(再編集の時に－*に注意)

菌種	形態	運動性	空気中での発育	嫌気条件下での発育	カタラーゼ	オキシダーゼ	ブドウ糖(酸)	OF試験
Bacteroides	R	－	－	＋	d	－	D	F/－
Veillonella	C	－	－	＋	D	・	－	－
Neissena	C	－	＋	－	＋	＋	＋	O
Branhamella	C	－	＋	－	＋	＋	－	－
Acinetobacter	C/R	－	＋	－	＋	－	＋	O
Moraxella	R	－	＋		＋	＋	－
Brucella
Bordetella
Chromobacterium lividum	R	＋	＋	－	＋	＋	＋	O
Alcahsenes	R	＋	＋	－	＋	＋	－	－
Flavobacterium	R	－	＋	－	＋	＋	＋	O
Pseudomonas	R	＋	＋	＋	＋	＋	＋	O
Actinobacillus	R	－	＋	＋	＋	＋	＋	F
Pasteurella
Necromonas
Cardiobacterium	R	－	＋	＋	－	＋	＋	F
Chromobacterium violaceum
Beneckea	R	＋	＋	＋	＋	＋	＋	F
Vibrio
Plesiomonas
Aeromonas
腸内細菌	R	D	＋	＋	＋	－	＋	F
Haemophilus	R	－	＋	＋	D	－	D	NT
Eikenella	R	－	－*	＋	－	＋	－	－
Campylobacter	R	＋	－+1	－	D	＋	－	－
Streptobacillus+2	R	－	＋	＋	－	－	＋	F
マイコプラズマ	R	－	＋	＋	－	－	＋	F
1:Peptococcus, Peptostreptococus(あるいは Leuconostoc) 2:あるいはActinomyces odontolyticus D:その属の菌種によって反応が異なる。　d: 菌種によって反応が異なる。 F:発酵 O:酸化 W:弱反応・:不明 NT:テストできない <＋>:芽胞非形成筋もある C:球菌 R:桿菌・: 不明 *: 空気中では発育せず。空気CO2で発育。+1: 好気的または嫌気的には発育せず。5-6%O2中で発育。+2: あるいはShigella dysenteriae 1

「メトロニダゾール」

　　[★]

英: metronidazole, MTZ
商: フラジール Flagyl, Metro-IV、アスゾール。ランピオンパック(ランソプラゾール、アモキシシリン、メトロニダゾール)
関: トリコモナス

first aid step1 2006 p.139,142,148,165,172,178,208,276,282

特徴

原虫(トリコモナスなど)による感染症に対して用いる

構造

作用機序 PPC. 641, 647

メトロニダゾールの活性化には嫌気性生物の発酵に関与する酵素 pyruvate-derredocin oxidoreductase,PFORが必要
pyruvate-ferredoxin oxidoreductaseはferredoxinをreduced ferredoxinに変換するが、これに共役してメトロニダゾールがreduced metronidazole(活性型)に変換される。

PFORは宿主細胞(好気性生物)には存在しないので、原虫や嫌気性生物が特異的に障害を受ける

微生物の蛋白質、膜、DNAに傷害を与える

適応

USMLE (first aid step1 2006 p.172)

横隔膜より下の嫌気性菌に対して用いられる

原虫：Giardia, Entamoeba, Trichomonas
嫌気性菌：Bacteroides, Clostridium
細菌：Clostridium difficile, Helicobacter pylori, Gardnerella vaginalis

H. pylori：bismuth + amoxicillin/tetracycline + metronidazole

副作用

disulfiram-like reaction with alcohol; headache,metallic taste (first aid step1 2006 p.172)

「クロストリジウム属」

　　[★]

英: Clostridium
関: 細菌

芽胞形成
グラム陽性桿菌
ほとんどが偏性嫌気性菌

例外的に酸素に耐性が有るのがC. tertium, C. histolyticum, C.innocuum, C.perfringens

クロストリジウム属

Clostridium tetani：破傷風菌：破傷風
Clostridium botulinum：ボリツヌス菌：ボリツヌス中毒
Clostridium perfringens：ウェルシュ菌：(a:創傷より侵入)ガス壊疽(クロストリジウム性ガス壊疽)、蜂巣炎、子宮感染、菌血症 (b:腸管内で外毒素分泌)食中毒、致死性腸炎
Clostridium difficile：ディフィシル菌：偽膜性大腸炎、抗生物質関連大腸炎・下痢症
Clostridium septicum：
Clostridium novyi：
Clostridium histolyticum：
Clostridium oedematiens：

「芽胞」

　　[★]

英: spore
同: 胞子、エンドスポア endospore
関

Bacillus属、Clostridium属の菌が菌体内に作る (SMB.71)
- Bacillus属

炭疽菌、セレウス菌など

Clostridium属

破傷風菌、ボツリヌス菌、ガス壊疽菌群など

物理的・化学的に安定

加熱滅菌：121℃,15分で死滅
多くの消毒剤に抵抗性。煮沸消毒無効(100℃,15分以上)

「clostridial」

　　[★]

adj.

クロストリジウムの

関: clostridia、Clostridium

「Clostridium thermocellum」

　　[★]

クロストリジウム・サーモセラム

関: C. thermocellum

「Clostridium kluyveri」

　　[★]

クロストリジウム・クライベリ

「clostridium」

　　[★]

関: クロストリジウム、クロストリジウム属

[Sherris-1] Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9.

[BruggemannGottschalk-2] Bruggemann H, Gottschalk G (editors). (2009). Clostridia: Molecular Biology in the Post-genomic Era. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-38-7.

[3] UK Standards for Microbiology Investigations (October 10, 2011). "Identification of Clostridium Species". Standards Unit, Health Protection Agency. p. 7. 8. Retrieved November 3, 2013.

[Baron_a-4] Wells CL, Wilkins TD (1996). Clostridia: Sporeforming Anaerobic Bacilli in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.) (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.

[Baron_b-5] Wells CL, Wilkins TD (1996). Botulism and Clostridium botulinum in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.) (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.

[6] Tanzi MG, Gabay MP (2002). "Association between honey consumption and infant botulism". Pharmacotherapy 22 (11): 1479–83. doi:10.1592/phco.22.16.1479.33696. PMID 12432974.

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[13] ttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24106295

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[17] Chou, Chia-Hung; Chang-Lung Han, Jui-Jen Chang, Jiunn-Jyi Lay (October 2011). "Co-culture of Clostridium beijerinckii L9, Clostridium butyricum M1 and Bacillus thermoamylovorans B5 for converting yeast waste into hydrogen". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 36 (21): 13972–13983. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.03.067. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

[Yutin2013-18] Yutin N, Galperin MY (2013) A genomic update on Clostridial phylogeny: Gram-negative spore formers and other misplaced Clostridia. Environ Microbiol doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12173

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