関: クロストリジウム、クロストリジウム属

WordNet

spindle-shaped bacterial cell especially one swollen at the center by an endospore (同)clostridia
anaerobic Gram-positive rod bacterium that produces epsilon toxin; can be used as a bioweapon

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/03/10 14:02:20」(JST)

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Clostridium is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria, which includes several significant human pathogens, most notably the causative agent of botulism. They are obligate anaerobes capable of producing endospores. The normal, reproducing cells of Clostridium, called the vegetative form, are rod-shaped, which gives them their name, from the Greek κλωστήρ or spindle. Clostridium endospores have a distinct bowling pin or bottle shape, distinguishing them from other bacterial endospores, which are usually ovoid in shape. Clostridium species inhabit soils and the intestinal tract of animals, including humans.^[1] Clostridium is a normal inhabitant of the healthy lower reproductive tract of women.^[2]^[3]

Overview

Clostridium contains around 100 species that include common free-living bacteria, as well as important pathogens.^[4] The main species responsible for disease in humans are:^[5]

Clostridium botulinum can produce botulinum toxin in food or wounds and can cause botulism. This same toxin is known as Botox and is used in cosmetic surgery to paralyze facial muscles to reduce the signs of aging; it also has numerous other therapeutic uses.
Clostridium difficile can flourish when other gut flora bacteria are killed during antibiotic therapy, leading to superinfection and potentially fatal pseudomembranous colitis (a severe necrotizing disease of the large intestine).
Clostridium perfringens causes a wide range of symptoms, from food poisoning to cellulitis, fasciitis, and gas gangrene.
Clostridium tetani causes tetanus.
Clostridium sordellii can cause a fatal infection in exceptionally rare cases after medical abortions.^[6]

Bacillus and Clostridium are often described as gram-variable, because they show an increasing number of gram-negative cells as the culture ages.^[7]

Clostridium and Bacillus are both in the division Firmicutes, but they are in different classes, orders, and families. Microbiologists distinguish Clostridium from Bacillus by the following features:^[1]

Clostridium grows in anaerobic conditions; Bacillus grows in aerobic conditions.
Clostridium forms bottle-shaped endospores; Bacillus forms oblong endospores.
Clostridium does not form the enzyme catalase; Bacillus secretes catalase to destroy toxic byproducts of oxygen metabolism.

Clostridium and Desulfotomaculum are both in the class Clostridia and order Clostridiales, and they both produce bottle-shaped endospores, but they are in different families. Clostridium can be distinguished from Desulfotomaculum on the basis of the nutrients each genus uses (the latter requires sulfur).

Glycolysis and fermentation of pyruvic acid by Clostridia yield the end products butyric acid, butanol, acetone, isopropanol, and carbon dioxide.^[7]

The Schaeffer-Fulton stain (0.5% malachite green in water) can be used to distinguish endospores of Bacillus and Clostridium from other microorganisms.^[8] There is a commercially available polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test kit (Bactotype) for the detection of C. perfringens and other pathogenic bacteria.^[9]

Treatment

In general, the treatment of clostridial infection is high-dose penicillin G, to which the organism has remained susceptible.^[10] Clostridium welchii and Clostridium tetani respond to sulfonamides.^[11] Clostridia are also susceptible to tetracyclines, carbapenems (imipenem), metronidazole, vancomycin, and chloramphenicol.^[12]

The vegetative cells of Clostridia are heat-labile and are killed by short heating at temperatures above 72–75 °C. The thermal destruction of Clostridium spores requires higher temperatures (above 121.1 °C, for example in an autoclave) and longer cooking times (20 min, with a few exceptional cases of > 50 min recorded in the literature). Clostridia and Bacilli are quite radiation-resistant, requiring doses of about 30 kGy, which is a serious obstacle to the development of shelf-stable irradiated foods for general use in the retail market.^[13] The addition of lysozyme, nitrate, nitrite and propionic acid salts inhibits Clostridia in various foods.^[14]^[15]^[16]

Fructooligosaccharides (fructans) such as inulin, occurring in relatively large amounts in a number of foods such as chicory, garlic, onion, leek, artichoke, and asparagus, have a prebiotic or bifidogenic effect, selectively promoting the growth and metabolism of beneficial bacteria in the colon, such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, while inhibiting harmful ones, such as clostridia, fusobacteria, and bacteroides.^[17]

History

In the late 1700s, Germany experienced a number of outbreaks of an illness that seemed connected to eating certain sausages. In 1817, the German neurologist Justinus Kerner detected rod-shaped cells in his investigations into this so-called sausage poisoning. In 1897, the Belgian biology professor Emile van Ermengem published his finding of an endospore-forming organism he isolated from spoiled ham. Biologists classified van Ermengem's discovery along with other known gram-positive spore formers in the genus Bacillus. This classification presented problems, however, because the isolate grew only in anaerobic conditions, but Bacillus grew well in oxygen.^[1]

In 1924, Ida A. Bengtson separated van Ermengem's microorganisms from the Bacillus group and assigned them to a new genus, Clostridium. By Bengtson's classification scheme, Clostridium contained all of the anaerobic endospore-forming rod-shaped bacteria, except the genus Desulfotomaculum.^[1]

Use

Clostridium thermocellum can use lignocellulosic waste and generate ethanol, thus making it a possible candidate for use in production of ethanol fuel. It also has no oxygen requirement and is thermophilic, which reduces cooling cost.
Clostridium acetobutylicum was first used by Chaim Weizmann to produce acetone and biobutanol from starch in 1916 for the production of cordite (smokeless gunpowder).
Clostridium botulinum produces a potentially lethal neurotoxin used in a diluted form in the drug Botox, which is carefully injected to nerves in the face, which prevents the movement of the expressive muscles of the forehead, to delay the wrinkling effect of aging. It is also used to treat spasmodic torticollis and provides relief for around 12 to 16 weeks.^[18]
Clostridium butyricum MIYAIRI 588 strain is marketed in Japan, Korea, and China for Clostridium difficile prophylaxis due to its reported ability to interfere with the growth of the latter.
Clostridium histolyticum has been used as a source of the enzyme collagenase, which degrades animal tissue. Clostridium species excrete collagenase to eat through tissue and, thus, help the pathogen spread throughout the body. The medical profession uses collagenase for the same reason in the débridement of infected wounds.^[1] Hyaluronidase, deoxyribonuclease, lecithinase, leukocidin, protease, lipase, and hemolysin are also produced by some clostridia that cause gas gangrene.^[7]^[19]
Clostridium ljungdahlii, recently discovered in commercial chicken wastes, can produce ethanol from single-carbon sources including synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, that can be generated from the partial combustion of either fossil fuels or biomass.^[20]
Clostridium diolis converts dicarboxylic acids to 1,3-propanediol.^{[citation needed]}
Genes from Clostridium thermocellum have been inserted into transgenic mice to allow the production of endoglucanase. The experiment was intended to learn more about how the digestive capacity of monogastric animals could be improved.
Nonpathogenic strains of Clostridium may help in the treatment of diseases such as cancer. Research shows that Clostridium can selectively target cancer cells. Some strains can enter and replicate within solid tumors. Clostridium could, therefore, be used to deliver therapeutic proteins to tumours. This use of Clostridium has been demonstrated in a variety of preclinical models.^[21]
Mixtures of Clostridium species, such as Clostridium beijerinckii, Clostridium butyricum, and species from other genera have been shown to produce biohydrogen from yeast waste.^[22]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Anne Maczulak (2011), "Clostridium", Encyclopedia of Microbiology, Facts on File, pp. 168–173, ISBN 978-0-8160-7364-1
^ Hoffman, Barbara (2012). Williams gynecology (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 65. ISBN 0071716726.
^ Senok, Abiola C; Verstraelen, Hans; Temmerman, Marleen; Botta, Giuseppe A; Senok, Abiola C (2009). "Probiotics for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev: CD006289. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006289.pub2. PMID 19821358.
^ UK Standards for Microbiology Investigations (October 10, 2011). "Identification of Clostridium Species". Standards Unit, Health Protection Agency. p. 7. 8. Retrieved November 3, 2013.
^ Baron, S.; et al., eds. (1996). Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ. of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
^ Meites E, Zane S, Gould C (2010). "Fatal Clostridium sordellii infections after medical abortions". New England Journal of Medicine 363 (14): 1382–3. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1001014. PMID 20879895.
^ ^a ^b ^c Gerard J. Tortora; Berdell R. Funke; Christine L. Case (2010), Microbiology: An Introduction (10th ed.), Benjamin Cummings, pp. 87, 134, 433, ISBN 978-0-321-55007-1
^ Anne Maczulak (2011), "stain", Encyclopedia of Microbiology, Facts on File, pp. 726–729, ISBN 978-0-8160-7364-1
^ Hermann Willems; Cornelie Jäger; Gerald Reiner (2007), "Polymerase Chain Reaction", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–27, doi:10.1002/14356007.c21_c01.pub2
^ Jerrold B. Leikin; Frank P. Paloucek, eds. (2008), "Clostridium perfringens Poisoning", Poisoning and Toxicology Handbook (4th ed.), Informa, pp. 892–893, ISBN 978-1-4200-4479-9
^ Paul Actor; Alfred W. Chow; Frank J. Dutko; Mark A. McKinlay (2007), "Chemotherapeutics", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–61, doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_173
^ Richard A. Harvey, ed. (2012), Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology (5th ed.), Lippincott, pp. 389–404, ISBN 978-1-4511-1314-3
^ Pavel Jelen (2007), "Foods, 2. Food Technology", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–38, doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_523
^ Guido Burkhalter; Christian Steffen; Zdenko Puhan (2007), "Cheese, Processed Cheese, and Whey", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–11, doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_163
^ Karl-Otto Honikel (2007), "Meat and Meat Products", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–17, doi:10.1002/14356007.e16_e02.pub2
^ Ulf-Rainer Samel; Walter Kohler; Armin Otto Gamer; Ullrich Keuser (2007), "Propionic Acid and Derivatives", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–18, doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_223
^ Ralf Zink; Andrea Pfeifer (2007), "Health Value Added Foods", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–12, doi:10.1002/14356007.d12_d01
^ Velickovic M, Benabou R, Brin MF. Cervical dystonia pathophysiology and treatment options" Drugs 2001;61:1921–1943.
^ Gerard M. Doherty, ed. (2005), "Inflammation, Infection, & Antimicrobial Therapy", Current Diagnosis & Treatment: Surgery, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-159087-7
^ "Providing for a Sustainable Energy Future". Bioengineering Resources, inc. Retrieved 21 May 2007.
^ Mengesha; et al. (2009). "Clostridia in Anti-tumor Therapy". Clostridia: Molecular Biology in the Post-genomic Era. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-38-7.
^ Chou, Chia-Hung; Chang-Lung Han; Jui-Jen Chang; Jiunn-Jyi Lay (October 2011). "Co-culture of Clostridium beijerinckii L9, Clostridium butyricum M1 and Bacillus thermoamylovorans B5 for converting yeast waste into hydrogen". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 36 (21): 13972–13983. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.03.067.

External links

Clostridium genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID
Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology
UK Clostridium difficile Support Group
Pathema-Clostridium Resource
Water analysis: Clostridium video

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. 成人におけるクロストリジウム・ディフィシル：治療 clostridium difficile in adults treatment
2. 成人におけるクロストリジウム・ディフィシル：臨床症状および診断 clostridium difficile in adults clinical manifestations and diagnosis
3. 成人におけるクロストリジウム・ディフィシル：疫学、微生物学、および病態生理 clostridium difficile in adults epidemiology microbiology and pathophysiology
4. クロストリジウム性筋肉壊死 clostridial myonecrosis
5. 病院および施設におけるクロストリジウム・ディフィシルの予防および管理 prevention and control of clostridium difficile in hospital and institutional settings

English Journal

Vaccines against Clostridium perfringens alpha-toxin.

Nagahama M.
Current pharmaceutical biotechnology.Curr Pharm Biotechnol.2014 Nov;14(10):913-7.
Clostridium perfringens alpha-toxin is thought to be an important agent in gas gangrene, which is a lifethreatening infection with fever, pain, edema, myonecrosis, and gas production. The toxin (370 residues) is composed of an N-terminal domain (1-250 residues, N-domain) in which the catalytic site
PMID 24372250

Towards molecular biomarkers for biogas production from lignocellulose-rich substrates.

Lebuhn M1, Hanreich A2, Klocke M2, Schlüter A3, Bauer C4, Pérez CM5.
Anaerobe.Anaerobe.2014 Oct;29C:10-21. doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2014.04.006. Epub 2014 Apr 28.
Biogas production from lignocellulose-rich agricultural residues is gaining increasingly importance in sustainable energy production. Hydrolysis/acidogenesis (H/A) of lignocellulose as the initial rate-limiting step deserves particular optimization. A mixture of straw/hay was methanized applying two
PMID 24785351

Use of fluorescent staining and flow cytometry for monitoring physiological changes in solventogenic clostridia.

Patakova P1, Linhova M2, Vykydalova P3, Branska B3, Rychtera M3, Melzoch K3.
Anaerobe.Anaerobe.2014 Oct;29C:113-117. doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.10.006. Epub 2013 Nov 5.
Physiological changes in populations of Clostridium beijerinckii and Clostridium tetanomorphum were monitored by fluorescence staining and flow cytometry. To estimate the number of metabolically active cells in exponential growth, a combination of the dyes propidium iodide and carboxy fluorescein di
PMID 24211310

Japanese Journal

抗菌薬関連下痢症の予防と対策 : Clostridium difficile感染症 (特集小児感染症の予防2014) -- (特殊な病態下における感染の予防)

吉澤定子
小児科臨床 67(4), 682-689, 2014-04
NAID 40020021975

症例報告多発微小肝膿瘍を伴うClostridium perfringens敗血症の1剖検例

若杉健弘,高橋広城,竹山廣光
日本外科感染症学会雑誌 11(1), 87-91, 2014-02
NAID 40020012086

Clostridium difficile感染症を起こしやすい抗菌薬とは

渡邉学,草地信也,浅井浩司 [他]
日本外科感染症学会雑誌 11(1), 21-25, 2014-02
NAID 40020011940

Related Pictures

Clostridium perfringens - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Clostridium Characteristics | Medical Laboratories Clostridium - Pictures, posters, news and videos on your pursuit, hobbies, interests Clostridium perfringens; Clostridium welchii Clostridium septicum Clostridium Tetani Bacteria | www.imgkid.com - The Image Kid Has It! Clostridium sporogenes - microbewiki Preventing C difficile Infection: Common Misperceptions

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関連記事	「Clostridium」

「Clostridium」

Clostridium
	SE micrograph of Clostridium difficile colonies from a stool sample
Scientific classification
Domain:	Bacteria
Phylum:	Firmicutes
Class:	Clostridia
Order:	Clostridiales
Family:	Clostridiaceae
Genus:	Clostridium; Prazmowski 1880
Selected species
	Clostridium absonum, Clostridium aceticum, Clostridium acetireducens, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Clostridium acidisoli, Clostridium aciditolerans, Clostridium acidurici, Clostridium aerotolerans, Clostridium aestuarii, Clostridium akagii, Clostridium aldenense, Clostridium aldrichii, Clostridium algidicarni, Clostridium algidixylanolyticum, Clostridium algifaecis, Clostridium algoriphilum, Clostridium alkalicellulosi, Clostridium aminophilum, Clostridium aminovalericum, Clostridium amygdalinum, Clostridium amylolyticum, Clostridium arbusti, Clostridium arcticum, Clostridium argentinense, Clostridium asparagiforme, Clostridium aurantibutyricum, Clostridium baratii, Clostridium barkeri, Clostridium bartlettii, Clostridium beijerinckii, Clostridium bifermentans, Clostridium bolteae, Clostridium bornimense, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium bowmanii, Clostridium bryantii, Clostridium butyricum, Clostridium cadaveris, Clostridium caenicola, Clostridium caminithermale, Clostridium carboxidivorans, Clostridium carnis, Clostridium cavendishii, Clostridium celatum, Clostridium celerecrescens, Clostridium cellobioparum, Clostridium cellulofermentans, Clostridium cellulolyticum, Clostridium cellulosi, Clostridium cellulovorans, Clostridium chartatabidum, Clostridium chauvoei, Clostridium chromiireducens, Clostridium citroniae, Clostridium clariflavum, Clostridium clostridioforme, Clostridium coccoides, Clostridium cochlearium, Clostridium colletant, Clostridium colicanis, Clostridium colinum, Clostridium collagenovorans, Clostridium cylindrosporum, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium diolis, Clostridium disporicum, Clostridium drakei, Clostridium durum, Clostridium estertheticum, Clostridium estertheticum estertheticum, Clostridium estertheticum laramiense, Clostridium fallax, Clostridium felsineum, Clostridium fervidum, Clostridium fimetarium, Clostridium formicaceticum, Clostridium frigidicarnis, Clostridium frigoris, Clostridium ganghwense, Clostridium gasigenes, Clostridium ghonii, Clostridium glycolicum, Clostridium glycyrrhizinilyticum, Clostridium grantii, Clostridium haemolyticum, Clostridium halophilum, Clostridium hastiforme, Clostridium hathewayi, Clostridium herbivorans, Clostridium hiranonis, Clostridium histolyticum, Clostridium homopropionicum, Clostridium huakuii, Clostridium hungatei, Clostridium hydrogeniformans, Clostridium hydroxybenzoicum, Clostridium hylemonae, Clostridium jejuense, Clostridium indolis, Clostridium innocuum, Clostridium intestinale, Clostridium irregulare, Clostridium isatidis, Clostridium josui, Clostridium kluyveri, Clostridium lactatifermentans, Clostridium lacusfryxellense, Clostridium laramiense, Clostridium lavalense, Clostridium lentocellum, Clostridium lentoputrescens, Clostridium leptum, Clostridium limosum, Clostridium litorale, Clostridium lituseburense, Clostridium ljungdahlii, Clostridium lortetii, Clostridium lundense, Clostridium magnum, Clostridium malenominatum, Clostridium mangenotii, Clostridium mayombei, Clostridium methoxybenzovorans, Clostridium methylpentosum, Clostridium neopropionicum, Clostridium nexile, Clostridium nitrophenolicum, Clostridium novyi, Clostridium oceanicum, Clostridium orbiscindens, Clostridium oroticum, Clostridium oxalicum, Clostridium papyrosolvens, Clostridium paradoxum, Clostridium paraperfringens (Alias: C. welchii), Clostridium paraputrificum, Clostridium pascui, Clostridium pasteurianum, Clostridium peptidivorans, Clostridium perenne, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium pfennigii, Clostridium phytofermentans, Clostridium piliforme, Clostridium polysaccharolyticum, Clostridium populeti, Clostridium propionicum, Clostridium proteoclasticum, Clostridium proteolyticum, Clostridium psychrophilum, Clostridium puniceum, Clostridium purinilyticum, Clostridium putrefaciens, Clostridium putrificum, Clostridium quercicolum, Clostridium quinii, Clostridium ramosum, Clostridium rectum, Clostridium roseum, Clostridium saccharobutylicum, Clostridium saccharogumia, Clostridium saccharolyticum, Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum, Clostridium sardiniense, Clostridium sartagoforme, Clostridium scatologenes, Clostridium schirmacherense, Clostridium scindens, Clostridium septicum, Clostridium sordellii, Clostridium sphenoides, Clostridium spiroforme, Clostridium sporogenes, Clostridium sporosphaeroides, Clostridium stercorarium, Clostridium stercorarium leptospartum, Clostridium stercorarium stercorarium, Clostridium stercorarium thermolacticum, Clostridium sticklandii, Clostridium straminisolvens, Clostridium subterminale, Clostridium sufflavum, Clostridium sulfidigenes, Clostridium symbiosum, Clostridium tagluense, Clostridium tepidiprofundi, Clostridium termitidis, Clostridium tertium, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium tetanomorphum, Clostridium thermaceticum, Clostridium thermautotrophicum, Clostridium thermoalcaliphilum, Clostridium thermobutyricum, Clostridium thermocellum, Clostridium thermocopriae, Clostridium thermohydrosulfuricum, Clostridium thermolacticum, Clostridium thermopalmarium, Clostridium thermopapyrolyticum, Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum, Clostridium thermosuccinogenes, Clostridium thermosulfurigenes, Clostridium thiosulfatireducens, Clostridium tyrobutyricum, Clostridium uliginosum, Clostridium ultunense, Clostridium villosum, Clostridium vincentii, Clostridium viride, Clostridium xylanolyticum, Clostridium xylanovorans

　　[★] クロストリジウム属

[eom-clostridium-1] Anne Maczulak (2011), "Clostridium", Encyclopedia of Microbiology, Facts on File, pp. 168–173, ISBN 978-0-8160-7364-1

[Hoffman2012-2] Hoffman, Barbara (2012). Williams gynecology (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 65. ISBN 0071716726.

[SenokVerstraelen2009-3] Senok, Abiola C; Verstraelen, Hans; Temmerman, Marleen; Botta, Giuseppe A; Senok, Abiola C (2009). "Probiotics for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev: CD006289. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006289.pub2. PMID 19821358.

[UK2013-4] UK Standards for Microbiology Investigations (October 10, 2011). "Identification of Clostridium Species". Standards Unit, Health Protection Agency. p. 7. 8. Retrieved November 3, 2013.

[baron-5] Baron, S.; et al., eds. (1996). Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ. of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.

[Meites2010-6] Meites E, Zane S, Gould C (2010). "Fatal Clostridium sordellii infections after medical abortions". New England Journal of Medicine 363 (14): 1382–3. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1001014. PMID 20879895.

[tfc-7] Gerard J. Tortora; Berdell R. Funke; Christine L. Case (2010), Microbiology: An Introduction (10th ed.), Benjamin Cummings, pp. 87, 134, 433, ISBN 978-0-321-55007-1

[eom-stain-8] Anne Maczulak (2011), "stain", Encyclopedia of Microbiology, Facts on File, pp. 726–729, ISBN 978-0-8160-7364-1

[9] Hermann Willems; Cornelie Jäger; Gerald Reiner (2007), "Polymerase Chain Reaction", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–27, doi:10.1002/14356007.c21_c01.pub2

[10] Jerrold B. Leikin; Frank P. Paloucek, eds. (2008), "Clostridium perfringens Poisoning", Poisoning and Toxicology Handbook (4th ed.), Informa, pp. 892–893, ISBN 978-1-4200-4479-9

[11] Paul Actor; Alfred W. Chow; Frank J. Dutko; Mark A. McKinlay (2007), "Chemotherapeutics", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–61, doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_173

[12] Richard A. Harvey, ed. (2012), Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology (5th ed.), Lippincott, pp. 389–404, ISBN 978-1-4511-1314-3

[13] Pavel Jelen (2007), "Foods, 2. Food Technology", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–38, doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_523

[14] Guido Burkhalter; Christian Steffen; Zdenko Puhan (2007), "Cheese, Processed Cheese, and Whey", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–11, doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_163

[15] Karl-Otto Honikel (2007), "Meat and Meat Products", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–17, doi:10.1002/14356007.e16_e02.pub2

[16] Ulf-Rainer Samel; Walter Kohler; Armin Otto Gamer; Ullrich Keuser (2007), "Propionic Acid and Derivatives", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–18, doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_223

[17] Ralf Zink; Andrea Pfeifer (2007), "Health Value Added Foods", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–12, doi:10.1002/14356007.d12_d01

[Velickovic1943-18] Velickovic M, Benabou R, Brin MF. Cervical dystonia pathophysiology and treatment options" Drugs 2001;61:1921–1943.

[19] Gerard M. Doherty, ed. (2005), "Inflammation, Infection, & Antimicrobial Therapy", Current Diagnosis & Treatment: Surgery, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-159087-7

[B.Resources-20] "Providing for a Sustainable Energy Future". Bioengineering Resources, inc. Retrieved 21 May 2007.

[Mengesha2009-21] Mengesha; et al. (2009). "Clostridia in Anti-tumor Therapy". Clostridia: Molecular Biology in the Post-genomic Era. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-38-7.

[Chou2011-22] Chou, Chia-Hung; Chang-Lung Han; Jui-Jen Chang; Jiunn-Jyi Lay (October 2011). "Co-culture of Clostridium beijerinckii L9, Clostridium butyricum M1 and Bacillus thermoamylovorans B5 for converting yeast waste into hydrogen". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 36 (21): 13972–13983. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.03.067.

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