血小板活性化因子, platelet activating factor, platelet-activating factor
WordNet
- the 16th letter of the Roman alphabet (同)p
PrepTutorEJDIC
- personal assistant個人秘書 / public address [system]
- parking
- phosphorusの化学記号
Wikipedia preview
出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/06/16 21:39:14」(JST)
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| この項目では、ギターのピックアップについて説明しています。脂質メディエーターについては「血小板活性化因子」をご覧ください。 |
PAF (PATENT APPLIED FOR) とはギブソン社のギターに搭載されたオリジナル・ハムバッキング・ピックアップの俗称である。
概要
ギブソン社のオリジナル・ハムバッカーにはPATENT APPLIED FOR（特許出願中）という刻印が為されたシールが貼付けられていた。
ハムバッカー自体はギブソンの技術者、セス・ラバーとテッド・マッカーティが開発したもので、其の構造からダブルコイル・ピックアップともよばれる。これは位相の異なる二つのコイルを一つの筐体に固定し、ハムノイズ（雑音）をキャンセルするという設計から来ている。
このピックアップのデザインがどれだけ画期的であったかは、歴史が証明している。このピックアップは現在でもリプレイスメントメーカーのコピーと崇拝の対象でありつづけている。
来歴
ハムバッカー以前にギブソン社製のギターに搭載されていたピックアップは殆どがP-90と呼ばれるものであり、これにはソープバーおよびドッグイアーと呼ばれるデザイン上のヴァリエーションが存在する。P-90自体は単一のコイルを備えた構造であって、いわゆるシングルコイルであるが、音質自体はハムバッカーに酷似しているといえる。勿論、より早い時期に存在したピックアップ・デザインはP-90のものであったことから、ハムバッカーはP-90の音質をコピーし、それからノイズを除くようにデザインされた同質のピックアップであると言えるだろう。 音質に関するギブソンのリサーチが確かであって、尚かつその系統、血統に同質の裏打ちを施されたものがハムバッカーなのであると言えるかも知れない。
wiki en
"PAF" redirects here. For other uses, see PAF (disambiguation).
| Pakistan Air Force | |
|---|---|
| Founded | 14 August 1947 |
| Country | Pakistan |
| Role | Air force |
| Size | 65,000 full-time personnel (including 3,000 pilots) |
| Part of | Pakistan Armed Forces |
| Air Headquarters | AHQ, Islamabad |
| Nickname | PAF |
| Motto | A symbol of pride for the nation |
| Anniversaries | Air Force Day: September 7 |
| Engagements | Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 1965 Rann of Kutch Skirmishes |
| Website | http://www.paf.gov.pk/ |
| Commanders | |
| Chief of Air Staff | Air Chief Marshal Tahir Rafique Butt |
| Vice Chief of Air Staff | Air Marshal Syed Athar Hussain Bukhari |
| Insignia | |
| Air Force Ensign | |
| PAF Roundel | |
| PAF Fin flash | |
| Aircraft flown | |
| Attack | Mirage 5 |
| Electronic warfare |
Falcon DA-20, Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C, Shaanxi AEW&C |
| Fighter | F-16C/D, F-16A/B, JF-17, Mirage III, F-7P/PG |
| Helicopter | Alouette III, Mi-171 |
| Reconnaissance | Mirage IIIRP, Falco UAV, Jasoos II Bravo+ |
| Trainer | FT-5, K-8P, MFI-17, MFI-395, C-12, T-37 |
| Transport | An-26, Boeing 707, Airbus A310, Cessna Citation V, Gulfstream IV, C-130, CN-235, IL-78MP, Phenom 100, Fokker F27 Friendship, Saab 2000 |
The Pakistan Air Force (Urdu: پاک فِضائیہ—Pāk Fizāʾiyah, Urdu: [pɑːk fɪzɑːɪjəɦ]), abbreviated as PAF, is the air warfare branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces, primarily tasked with the aerial defence of Islamic Republic of Pakistan with a secondary role of providing air logistics support to the Pakistan Army and the Pakistan Navy. The PAF also has a tertiary role of providing strategic air transport and logistics capability to Pakistan. The PAF employs approximately 65,000 full-time personnel (including approximately 3,000 pilots) and, currently, operates 400 combat aircraft as well as various transport and training aircraft.[1]
Contents
- 1 History
- 1.1 1959
- 1.2 1965 India-Pakistan Rann of Kutch border skirmish
- 1.3 1965 India-Pakistan War
- 1.4 1967 The Six-Day War
- 1.5 1971 India-Pakistan War
- 1.6 1973 Yom Kippur War
- 1.7 1979–1988 Soviet-Afghan War
- 1.8 1990–2001
- 1.9 2008 air alert
- 1.10 2011 Abbottabad Operation
- 1.11 Counter-insurgency operations
- 2 Structure
- 2.1 Commands
- 2.2 Bases
- 2.3 Rank structure
- 3 Personnel
- 3.1 Current High Command
- 3.2 List of Air Force chiefs
- 3.3 Awards for valour
- 3.4 Special Forces
- 3.5 Women in the PAF
- 3.6 Religious Minorities in the PAF
- 4 Inventory
- 4.1 Combat aircraft
- 4.2 Special mission aircraft
- 4.3 Transport aircraft
- 4.4 Air defence systems
- 4.5 Modernisation and acquisitions
- 5 Exercises
- 6 In popular Pakistani culture
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 External links
History
1959
On 10 April 1959, on the occasion of the Islamic Eid ul-Fitr festival holiday in Pakistan, an Indian Air Force (IAF) English Electric Canberra B(I)58 entered Pakistani airspace on a photo reconnaissance mission. Two PAF F-86F Sabres from No. 15 Squadron on Air Defence Alert (ADA) were scrambled from Sargodha Air Base to intercept the IAF aircraft. The Sabre pilots were Flt. Lt. M. N. Butt (leader) and Flt. Lt. M. Yunis (wingman)(Later Air Vice Marshal) whereas Pilot Officer Rab Nawaz was the on-duty Air Defence Controller for this mission. Nawaz successfully vectored both Sabres to the location of the high-flying Canberra. Butt attempted to bring down the Canberra by firing his Sabre's machine guns, but the Canberra was flying at an altitude of more than 50,000 feet - beyond the operational ceiling of the F-86F. When Yunis took over from his leader, the Canberra suddenly lost height while executing a turn over Rawalpindi. Yunis grabbed this opportunity and fired a burst from his 12.7 mm guns that struck the Canberra at an altitude of 47,500 feet and brought it down over Rawat, near Rawalpindi. Marking the first aerial victory of the PAF . '55-5005' was the serial number of the F-86F Sabre that was flown by Flt. Lt. Yunis that day. Both the occupants of the IAF Canberra, namely Sqn. Ldr. J.C. Sen Gupta (pilot) and Flt. Lt. S.N. Rampal (navigator) from the IAF's No. 106 Sqn., ejected and were captured by Pakistani authorities and were subsequently released after remaining in detention for some time.[2]
1965 India-Pakistan Rann of Kutch border skirmish
In June 1965, prior to the outbreak of the 1965 India-Pakistan War, India and Pakistan had a border skirmish in the Rann of Kutch region near the south-eastern coastline of Pakistan. The PAF was tasked with providing point-defence to the Rann of Kutch region to prevent the Indian Air Force (IAF) from entering Pakistani airspace and attacking Pakistan Army positions. On 24 June 1965, an IAF Ouragan fighter (Serial No. IC 698), flown by Flt. Lt. Rana Lal Chand Sikka of No. 51 Auxiliary Squadron from the IAF's Jamnagar Air Station entered Pakistani airspace. A PAF F-104A Starfighter from No. 9 Squadron intercepted the IAF fighter near Badin in Sindh, Pakistan. Just as the PAF pilot locked on to the Indian fighter and was about to release his AIM-9B Sidewinder Air-to-Air Missile (AAM), the Indian pilot lowered his aircraft's landing gear (an internationally recognized sign of aerial surrender). The IAF pilot landed at an open field near Jangshahi village near Badin. The IAF pilot was taken prisoner and released on 14 August 1965 - as a goodwill gesture on the 18th Anniversary of Pakistan's Independence Day. The IAF Ouragan fighter was retained by the PAF as a trophy and flown by a PAF pilot to an airbase in Karachi. (NOTE: This event is not to be confused with the surrender of an IAF Gnat on 4 September 1965 during the 1965 India-Pakistan War, which is on display at the PAF Museum Karachi).[3]
1965 India-Pakistan War
Main article: Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
PAF B-57 Canberra bombers lined up at an airbase.
The PAF fleet at the time consisted of 12 F-104 Starfighters, some 120 F-86 Sabres and around 20 B-57 Canberra bombers.[4] The PAF claims to have had complete air superiority over the battle area from the second day of operations.[5]
Many publications have credited the PAF's successes to U.S. equipment, claiming it to be superior to the aircraft operated by the IAF and giving the PAF a "qualitative advantage". However some people refute this argument. As per them, the IAF's MiG-21, Hawker Hunter and Folland Gnat aircraft had better performance than the PAF's F-86 fighters.[6] According to Air Cdre (retired) Sajad Haider, the F-86 Sabre was inferior in both power and speed to the IAF's Hawker Hunter.[6][7]
According to Air Commodore (retired) Sajjad Haider who flew with No. 19 squadron, the F-104 Starfighter did not deserve its reputation as "the pride of the PAF" because it "was unsuited to the tactical environment of the region. It was a high-level interceptor designed to neutralize Soviet strategic bombers in altitudes above 40,000 feet." Nevertheless the IAF is believed to have feared the Starfighter[8] although, according to some, it was not as effective as the IAF's Folland Gnat.[9] According to Indian sources, the F-86F performed reasonably well against the IAF Hawker Hunters but not as well against the Folland Gnat, which was nicknamed Sabre Slayer by the IAF.[10][11]
According to Indian sources most aircraft losses of IAF were on ground while PAF lost most in aerial combat.[12] Even though the IAF flew a larger offensive air campaign by devoting 40% of its air effort to offensive air support alone, according to Indian sources the majority of its losses came from aircraft destroyed on the ground through PAF air strikes.[12] The PAF without doubt, had achieved far more in terms of enemy aircraft destroyed on the ground but the IAF had achieved much more in the close support role.[12]
During the last days of the war Pakistani aircraft flew over Indian cities and airbases without any response from the opposing side. At the end of the war, India had lost 110 aircraft with 19 damaged, not including those destroyed on the ground at night, against a loss of 16 PAF planes.[13]
1967 The Six-Day War
Main article: Six-Day War
During this conflict the PAF sent personnel to Egypt, Jordan and Syria to support the Arabs in their battle against the Israelis. Some Pakistani sources have claimed that PAF pilots managed to shoot down ten Israeli aircraft.[citation needed][14]
1971 India-Pakistan War
Main articles: Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
In December 1971, India and Pakistan went to war over East Pakistan. At the start of the war, the PAF inventory contained around 270[15] combat aircraft while the IAF had 635[16]
One of the major operations of the war by PAF was Operation Chengiz Khan which inflicted damages to IAF with all PAF fighters landing home unscratched.[17][18]
At the end of the war, the Indian Air Force claimed that it had shot down 94 PAF aircraft (including 54 F-86 Sabres) compared to 44[19] to 130[13] IAF aircraft losses. Independent research, conducted after the war reported 29 PAF aircraft lost including 10 F-86s left on the ground in the East compared to 59 IAF aircraft lost.[16] the PAF flying 2,914 combat sorties while the IAF flew 7,346 combat sorties[20][21] during the conflict.[22]
1973 Yom Kippur War
Main article: Yom Kippur War
During the war, sixteen Pakistan Air Force pilots volunteered to leave for the Middle East in order to support Egypt and Syria but by the time they arrived Egypt had already agreed on a cease-fire. Syria remained in a state of war against Israel so the PAF pilots became instructors there and formed the A-flight of 67 Squadron at Dumayr AB. One of the PAF pilots, Flt. Lt. Sattar Alvi flying a MiG-21 shot down an Israeli Air Force Mirage and was honoured by the Syrian government.[23][24][25]
1979–1988 Soviet-Afghan War
Main articles: Soviet war in Afghanistan, Soviet-Afghan War and Air Force Strategic Command (Pakistan)
In 1979, the PAF's Chief of Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Anwar Shamim, was told by then President, and Chief of Army Staff General Zia-ul-Haq, that Pakistan had reliable intels on Indian plans to attack and destroy the Pakistan's nuclear research facilities at Kahuta. ACM Shamim told General Zia that, "Indian aircraft could reach the area in 3 minutes whereas the PAF would take 8 minutes, allowing the Indians to attack the facility and return before the PAF could defend it". Because Kahuta was close to the Indian border it was decided that the best way to deter an Indian attack would be to procure new advanced fighters and weaponry. These could be used to mount a retaliatory attack on India's nuclear research facilities at Trombay in the event of an Indian attack on Kahuta. It was decided the most suitable aircraft would be the F-16 Fighting Falcon, which the United States eventually agreed to supply after the PAF refused to purchase the F-5E and F-5G. In 1983, when the first batch of F-16s reached Pakistan, ACM Shamim informed Zia of the PAF's capability to respond to an attack on the nuclear research facilities at Kahuta.[26][27]
A letter of agreement for up to 28 F-16A's and 12 F-16B's was signed December 1981. The contracts, Peace Gate I and Peace Gate II, were for 6 and 34 Block 15 models respectively which would be powered by the F100-PW-200 engine. The fist Peace Gate I aircraft was accepted at Fort Worth in October 1982. Two F-16A and four F-16B were delivered to Pakistan in 1983, the first F-16 arriving at PAF Base Sargodha (now known as PAF Base Mushaf) on 15 January 1983 flown by Squadron Leader Shahid Javed. The 34 remaining Peace Gate II aircraft were delivered between 1983 and 1987.[28][29]
Between May 1986 and November 1988,[30] PAF F-16s have shot down at least eight intruders from Afghanistan. The first three of these (one Su-22, one probable Su-22, and one An-26) were shot down by two pilots from No. 9 Squadron. Pilots of No. 14 Squadron destroyed the remaining five intruders (two Su-22s, two MiG-23s, and one Su-25).[31] Most of these kills were by the AIM-9 Sidewinder, but at least one (a Su-22) was destroyed by cannon fire. Flight Lieutenant Khalid Mahmoud is credited with three of these kills. One F-16 was lost in these battles during an encounter between two F-16s and four Soviet Air Force MiG 23s on 29 April 1987. The pilot, Flight Lieutenant Shahid Sikandar Khan, ejected safely.[32]
The PAF is believed to have evaluated the Dassault Mirage 2000 in early 1981 and was planning to evaluate the F-16 Fighting Falcon afterwards.[33]
1990–2001
| Pakistan Air Force | |||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||
After the Pressler amendment was passed, the U.S. placed sanctions and an arms embargo on Pakistan on 6 October 1990 due to the country's continued nuclear weapons programme. All eleven Peace Gate III F-16s, along with 7 F-16A and 10 F-16B of the 60 Peace Gate IV F-16s, which had been built by the end of 1994 were embargoed and put into storage in the United States.[28][29]
Desperate for a new high-tech combat aircraft, between late 1990 and 1993 the PAF evaluated the European Panavia Tornado MRCA (multi-role combat aircraft) and rejected it. The Mirage 2000E and an offer from Poland for the supply of MiG-29 and Su-27 were also considered but nothing materialised. In 1992 the PAF again looked at the Mirage 2000, reviving a proposal from the early 1980s to procure around 20-40 aircraft, but again a sale did not occur because France did not want to sell a fully capable version due to political reasons. In August 1994 the PAF was offered the Saab JAS-39 Gripen by Sweden, but again the sale did not occur because 20% of the Gripen's components were from the U.S. and Pakistan was still under U.S. sanctions.[34]
In mid-1992 Pakistan was close to signing a contract for the supply of 40 Dassault Mirage 2000, equipped with Thomson-CSF RDM/7 radars, from France.[35]
In mid-1994 it was reported that the Russian manufacturers Sukhoi and Mikoyan were offering the Su-27 and MiG-29.[36] But Pakistan was later reported to be negotiating for supply of the Dassault Mirage 2000-5.[37] French and Russian teams visited Pakistan on 27 November 1994 and it was speculated that interest in the Russian aircraft was to pressure France into reducing the price of the Mirage 2000. Stated requirement was for up to 40 aircraft.[38]
2008 air alert
After the 2008 Mumbai attacks, PAF was put on high alert. It deployed to all its wartime locations and started combat air patrols. The speed and intensity of the deployment and PAF's readiness took the Indian Army High Command by surprise and later reports suggest was the main factor in the Indian decision of not going for cross border raids inside Pakistan.[39][40] Pakistani press reported issuance of a PAF Standing Order to launch an immediate counterattack in case of an air attack from India, after Indian Foreign Minister Pranab Mukherjee threatened Pakistani President.[39][40]
2011 Abbottabad Operation
An initial investigation report revealed that the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) reported the movement of some half-a-dozen planes near the Jalalabad border at 11 pm before the US helicopters entered Abbottabad to kill Osama bin Laden. "One aircraft was identified as a US AWACS and the remaining five were recognised as F-18 jets of the US. These planes flew near the Pakistani border, but did not cross into the airspace of Pakistan,"[41]
On detection of intrusion, PAF jets on air defence alert were scrambled and the PAF immediately took adequate operational measures as per standard operating procedure. The PAF aircraft continued their presence in Abbottabad area until early morning and later returned to their air bases.[42]
Counter-insurgency operations
See also: War in North-West Pakistan
The Pakistan Army faced several problems during its 2009 offensive against the Taliban in north-west Pakistan. Hundreds of thousands of Pakistanis vacated the area when the offensive was announced and, eventually, over 2 million had to be accommodated in refugee camps. The offensive was to be completed as quickly as possible to allow the refugees to return to their homes but the army's fleet attack helicopters were not sufficient to provide adequate support to the infantry. The PAF was sent into action against the Taliban to make up for the lack of helicopter gunships. Because the PAF was trained and equipped to fight a conventional war, a new "counter-terrorist doctrine" had to be improvised.[43]
The PAF's Saffron Bandit 2009/2010 exercise focused on extensive training of combat personnel to undertake COIN operations. New equipment was inducted to improve the PAF's joint intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities. A C-130 transport aircraft was indigenously modified for day/night ISR operations.[43][44]
Use of laser-guided bombs was increased to 80% of munitions used, as compared to 40% in the previous 2008 Bajaur campaign. A small corps of ground spotters were trained and used by the PAF, in addition to PA spotters, to identify high value targets.[45]
Prior to the PA's offensive into South Waziristan the PAF attacked militant infrastructure with 500 lb and 2000 lb bombs.[45]
A number of civilian deaths occurred during PAF air strikes on 10 April 2010 in the Khyber tribal region. According to a Pakistani military source, the first bombing was targeted at a gathering of militants in a compound. Local people, who had quickly moved onto the scene to recover the dead and wounded, were then killed during a second air strike. There was no confirmed death toll but at least 30 civilian deaths had occurred according to the military source, whereas a local official stated at least 73 locals, including women and children, were killed.[46] A six-member committee of tribal elders from the area, tasked with finding the exact number of civilian casualties, reported that 61 civilians were killed and 21 wounded. This was not confirmed by military or political leaders but Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, General Ashfaq Kayani, gave a public apology on 17 April.[47][48] It is reported that BBC news and several other media correspondences were not allowed to take interviews from injured which makes the whole episode more mysterious.[49]
Structure
Commands
- Air Force Strategic Command (AFSC), Islamabad
- Northern Air Command (NAC), Peshawar
- Central Air Command (CAC), Lahore
- Southern Air Command (SAC), Karachi
- Air Defence Command (ADC), Chaklala, Rawalpindi
Bases
Main article: List of Pakistan Air Force bases
These are the bases from which the PAF planes operate during peace time.[50] They have complete infrastructure of hardened shelters, control towers, workshops, ordnance depots etc. There are ten flying bases and also seven non-flying bases:
|
|
Rank structure
Main article: Air Force Ranks of Pakistan
| Structure of the Commissioned officer rank of the Pakistan Air Force | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pay grade | O-10 | O-9 | O-8 | O-7 | O-6 | O-5 | O-4 | O-3 | O-2 | O-1 | |
| Insignia | |||||||||||
| Title | Air Chief Marshal | Air Marshal | Air-vice Marshal | Air-Commodore | Group-Captain | Wing-Commander | Squadron Leader | Flight Lieutenant | Flying Officer | Pilot Officer | |
| Abbreviation | ACM | AM | AVM | Air Cdre | Gp Capt | Wg Cdr | Sqn Ldr | Ft Lt | F Off | P Off | |
| NATO Code | OF-10 | OF-9 | OF-8 | OF-7 | OF-6 | OF-5 | OF-4 | OF-3 | OF-2 | OF-1 | |
| Rank Hierarchy | 4-star Air Marshal | 3-star Air-Marshall | 2-star Air-Marshal | 1-star Officer | |||||||
| Structure of the Enlisted rank of the Pakistan Air Force | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pay grade | OR-9 | OR-8 | OR-7 | OR-6 | OR-5 | OR-4 | OR-3 | OR-2 | OR-1 | OR-1 | ||
| Insignia | ||||||||||||
| Title | Chief Warrant Officer | Warrant Officer | Assistant Warrant Officer | Chief Technician | Senior Technician | Corporal Technician | Junior Technician | Senior Aircraftman | Leading Aircraftman | Aircraftman | ||
| Abbreviation | CWO | WO | AWO | Chf Tech | Snr Tech | Cpl Tech | Jnr Tech | SAC | LAC | AC | ||
| NATO Code | OR-9 | OR-8 | OR-7 | OR-6 | OR-5 | OR-4 | OR-3 | OR-2 | OR-1 | OR-1 | ||
- Civilians
- Civilian Gazetted Officer
- Stenographer
- Stenotypist
- Storeman
- Clerk
Personnel
Current High Command
- Air Headquarters
- Air Chief Marshal Tahir Rafique Butt, NI(M), TBt — Chief of Air Staff (CAS)
- Air Marshal Syed Athar Hussain Bukhari, HI(M), SBt — Vice Chief of Air Staff (VCAS)
- Air Marshal Asim Suleiman, HI(M), SBt — Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Administration (DCAS A)
- Air Marshal Muhammad Jamshed Khan, HI(M), SBt — Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Support (DCAS S)
- Air Marshal Sohail Aman, HI(M) — Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Operations (DCAS O)
- Air Vice Marshal Saeed Muhammad Khan, HI(M), SBt — Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Training (DCAS T)
- Air Vice Marshal Javaid Ahmed, SI(M) — Chief Project Director, JF-17 Thunder (CPD JF-17)
- Air Vice Marshal Sohail Ahmad, SI(M) — Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Personnel (DCAS P)
- Air Vice Marshal Junaid Ahmed Siddiqui, SI(M), SBt — DG Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (DG C4I)
- Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Ashfaque Arain, SI(M), SBt — DG Air Force Strategic Command (DG AFSC)
- Air Vice Marshal Anis-ur-Rehman, SI(M) — Inspector General Air Force (IG AF)
- Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Salman, SI(M) — Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Engineering (DCAS E)
- Air Vice Marshal Pirzada Kamaluddin A Siddiqui, TI(M) — DG Air Intelligence (DG AI)
- Commands
- Air Vice Marshal Ijaz Mahmood Malik, HI(M) — Air Officer Commanding, Air Defence Command (AOC ADC), Chaklala
- Air Vice Marshal Rashid Kamal, SI(M) — Air Officer Commanding, Pakistan Air Force Academy (AOC PAF Academy), Risalpur
- Air Vice Marshal Farooq Habib, SI(M) — Commandant, PAF Air War College (Comdt PAF AWC), Karachi
- Air Vice Marshal Mujahid Anwar Khan, SI(M) — Air Officer Commanding, Central Air Command (AOC CAC), Lahore
- Air Vice Marshal Arshad Mahmood Malik, SI(M) — Air Officer Commanding, Northern Air Command (AOC NAC), Peshawar
- Air Vice Marshal Azhar Hasan Rizvi, SI(M) — Air Officer Commanding, Southern Air Command (AOC SAC), Karachi
- External appointments
- Air Marshal Sohail Gul Khan, HI(M) — Chairman, Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC), Kamra
- Air Vice Marshal Arshad Quddus, HI(M), TBt — Additional Secretary-II (PAF) at Ministry of Defence (MoD), Rawalpindi
- Air Vice Marshal Syed Razi Nawab, HI(M) — Dean, Faculty of Security Studies (Dean FSS) at NDU, Islamabad
- Air Vice Marshal Syed Hassan Raza, HI(M), SBt — DG Logistics (DG Log) at Joint Staff HQ (JSHQ), Chaklala
- Air Vice Marshal Hamid Shahab Hashmi, HI(M) — Director, Precision Engineering Complex (Dir PEC) at PIA, Karachi
- Air Vice Marshal Sohail Ahmad Malik, HI(M) — Managing Director, Aircraft Manufacturing Factory (MD AMF) at PAC Kamra
- Air Vice Marshal Arshad Khan, SI(M) — DG Air Weapons Complex (DG AWC), Wah Cantonment
- Air Vice Marshal Azam Khan, SI(M) — DG Joint Operations (DG JO) at GHQ, Rawalpindi
- Air Vice Marshal Asad Lodhi, SI(M) — DG Defence Purchase (DG DP) at Ministry of Defence Production (MoDP), Rawalpindi
- Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Iqbal, SI(M) — DG (Media) at Inter-Services Intelligence (DGM ISI), Islamabad
- Air Vice Marshal Ahmad Ejaz Nadeem, SI(M) — Principal, Research Center for Modeling and Simulation (RCMS) at NUST, Islamabad
- Air Vice Marshal Khawar Hussain, SI(M) — Deputy DG, Civil Aviation Authority (DDG CAA), Karachi
List of Air Force chiefs
Main article: Chief of Air Staff (Pakistan)
- Air Vice Marshal Allan Perry-Keene (15 August 1947 – 17 February 1949)
- Air Vice Marshal Richard Atcherley (18 February 1949 – 6 May 1951)
- Air Vice Marshal Leslie William Cannon (7 May 1951 – 19 June 1955)
- Air Vice Marshal Arthur McDonald (20 June 1955 – 22 July 1957)
- Air Marshal Asghar Khan (23 July 1957 – 22 July 1965)
- Air Marshal Nur Khan (23 July 1965 – 31 August 1969)
- Air Marshal Abdul Rahim Khan (1 September 1969 – 2 March 1972)
- Air Marshal Zafar Chaudhry (3 March 1972 – 15 April 1974)
- Air Chief Marshal Zulfiqar Ali Khan (16 April 1974 – 22 July 1978)
- Air Chief Marshal Anwar Shamim (23 July 1978 – 5 March 1985)
- Air Chief Marshal Jamal A. Khan (6 March 1985 – 8 March 1988)
- Air Chief Marshal Hakimullah (9 March 1988 – 9 March 1991)
- Air Chief Marshal Farooq Feroze Khan (9 March 1991 – 8 November 1994)
- Air Chief Marshal Abbas Khattak (8 November 1994 – 7 November 1997)
- Air Chief Marshal Parvaiz Mehdi Qureshi (7 November 1997 – 20 November 2000)
- Air Chief Marshal Mushaf Ali Mir (20 November 2000 – 20 February 2003)
- Air Chief Marshal Kaleem Saadat (18 March 2003 – 18 March 2006)
- Air Chief Marshal Tanvir Mahmood Ahmed (18 March 2006 – 18 March 2009)
- Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman (19 March 2009 – 19 March 2012)
- Air Chief Marshal Tahir Rafique Butt (19 March 2012 – present)
Awards for valour
Air Commodore Muhammad Mahmood Alam "Little Dragon". Ace in a Day of the Pakistan Air Force
The Nishan-e-Haider (Urdu:نشان حیدر) (Order of Ali), is the highest military award given by Pakistan. Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas (1951–20 August 1971) is the only officer of the PAF to be awarded the Nishan-e-Haider for sacrificing his life to save an aircraft from being hijacked to India.[51] Other awards include:
- Squadron Leader Muhammad Mahmood Alam — awarded for downing nine fighters,[52] five in a minute,[53][54][55][56][57] of the Indian Air Force in air-to-air combat.[58]
- Squadron Leader Sarfaraz Ahmed Rafiqui Shaheed — awarded for refusing to abandon his group of fighters during a battle despite his guns being jammed. He continued his attempts to assist his squadron in the battle by chasing enemy fighters until eventually being shot down.[59]
Special Forces
Main article: Special Service Wing
Women in the PAF
Previously, women had been employed by Pakistan's armed forces in non-combat roles only, such as the medical corps,[60] and the PAF had remained all-male throughout its history.[61] However, since 2003 women have been allowed to enroll in the aerospace engineering and other programs of PAF Academy Risalpur, including fighter pilot training programmes.[60] It has been stated that standards are not compromised for women, those who do not achieve the same performance as their male counterparts are dropped from the course. A level of segregation between the genders is maintained. For example, early-morning parades are performed together but some parts of training, mainly physical exercises, are done with males and females separated. According to Squadron Leader Shazia Ahmed, the officer in charge of the first female cadets and a psychologist, this also improves confidence of the women.[61]
In 2005 it was reported that two batches in the Air Force Academy's flying wing contained 10 women, with many more in the engineering and aerospace wings. Cadet Saba Khan, from Quetta in Balochistan, applied after reading a newspaper advertisement seeking female cadets. She was one of the first four women to pass the first stages of flying training on propeller-driven light aircraft and move onto faster jet-powered training aircraft.[61]
In March 2006, the PAF inducted a batch of 34 fighter pilots which included the organisation's first four female fighter pilots. Three years of training had been completed by the pilots at PAF Academy Risalpur before they graduated and were awarded their Flying Badges during the ceremony. Certificates of honour were handed to the successful cadets by a "delighted" General Ahsan Saleem Hayat, vice chief of the Pakistan Army, who acknowledged that the PAF was the first of the Pakistan Armed Forces to introduce women to its combat units. One of the women, Flying Officer Nadia Gul, was awarded a trophy for best academic achievement. The other female graduates were Mariam Khalil, Saira Batool and the above-mentioned Saba Khan.[60] A second batch of pilots, including 3 female pilots, graduated from the 117th GD(P) course at PAF Academy Risalpur in September 2006. The Sword of Honour for best all-round performance was awarded to Aviation Cadet Saira Amin, the first female pilot to win the award. Aviation Cadet Saira Amin won the Asghar Hussain Trophy for best performance in academics.[62]
| A news report on the PAF's first operationally qualified female fighter pilots. | |
| An interview with Ambreen Gul. (Urdu language) |
In September 2009 it was reported that seven women had qualified as operational fighter pilots on the Chengdu F-7, the first female combat pilots in the PAF's history, one of them being Ambreen Gull. Commanding Officer Tanvir Piracha emphasised that if the female pilots "are not good enough as per their male counterparts, we don't let them fly." It was noted that some of the female pilots wear the hijab while others do not.[63]
Religious Minorities in the PAF
Religious minorities have served in the PAF with distinction since its inception: Air Vice Marshal Eric Gordon Hall was Base Commander of Chaklala Air Base during the 1965 Indo-Pak War; Air Commodore Nazir Latif; Group Captain Cecil Chaudhry fought in the 1965 Indo-Pak War and, later helped establish the Combat Commanders School (CCS); Wing Commander Melvin Leslie Middlecoat was Commanding Officer of No. 9 Squadron during the 1965 Indo-Pak War; Squadron Leader Peter Christy; Patrick Desmond Callaghan is another Christian officer of who rose to the rank of Air Vice Marshal. He served as Eastern Air Force Command and Deputy Chief of Air Staff.[64] Wing Commander Ronald Felix is a test pilot on the JF-17 Thunder since 2010 and was one of two PAF pilots flying the JF-17 at the 2011 Izmir Air Show in Turkey.
Inventory
Combat aircraft
Main article: List of aircraft of the Pakistan Air Force
See also: List of Pakistan Air Force aircraft squadrons
Chengdu F-7PG
PAF F-16s in 2010
The PAF currently operates approximately 450 combat aircraft of 4 different types, planned to be reduced to 3 types by 2015. There are around 20 front-line squadrons.[65]
PAF F-16D Block 52+
The most capable fighter in PAF service from 1983 to 2007 has been the F-16 Fighting Falcon. 40 of the F-16A/B Block 15 models were delivered from 1983 to 1987. Deliveries of another 28 F-16A/B were stopped after the 1990 arms embargo imposed on Pakistan under the Pressler amendment but 14 of these were later delivered during 2005-2008. The F-16A/B fleet is to be upgraded with MLU (Mid-Life Update) modification kits and Falcon Star Structural Service Life Enhancement kits by Turkish Aerospace Industries starting in September 2010 at a rate of 1 per month. Four F-16A/B are already undergoing upgrade in the U.S. for delivery in 2011. The MLU package will include new APG-69v9 radars, Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing Systems and Link-16 data-links, along with other new communications, targeting and electronic warfare systems.[66][67]
In 2006, 12 F-16C and 6 F-16D Block 52+ were ordered with a further 18 aircraft optional. 14 of the optional fighters were ordered in 2010.[68][69] The first batch of 3 F-16C/D fighters landed at PAF Base Shahbaz, Jacacobad, on 26 June 2010.[70][71] Pakistan also received 14 used F-16s from the US free of cost.[72]
The PAF is to induct a number of the Chinese Chengdu FC-20, an advanced PAF-specific variant of the Chengdu J-10. 36 fighters equipping two FC-20 squadrons are expected to be delivered by 2015[73] and, according to some reports, the FC-20 fleet may eventually be increased to 150 fighters.[74]
Special mission aircraft
Airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft were first sought by the PAF in the 1980s, but the requirement was not met until December 2009 when the first of four Saab 2000 Erieye aircraft ordered in 2006 was delivered. The remaining three Erieye are expected to be delivered in 2010. Built to the PAF's specifications, the Saab 2000 Erieye is fitted with 5 operator stations and 4 command stations. The aircraft's Erieye radar has a range of 450 km and is also capable of identifying the type of aircraft and the weapons it is carrying.[75]
Four Chinese ZDK-03 AEW&C aircraft have also been ordered, with first delivery expected in late 2010.[76] These are believed to be a PAF-specific version of the KJ-200, incorporating a Chinese AESA radar similar to the Erieye mounted on the Shaanxi Y-8F600 transport aircraft.
Transport aircraft
PAF C-130 Hercules
PAF Il-78 aircraft.
The C-130 Hercules has been the PAF's primary tactical transport aircraft since its induction in the early 1960s. Currently around 5 C-130B and 11 C-130E models are in service, upgraded with Allison T56-A-15 turboprops and extended fatigue lives by Lockheed-Georgia Company.[77] The C-130 is supplemented by 4 CASA CN-235 STOL transports, although the 4th aircraft is equipped with an interior for transporting VIPs such as the PAF Chief of Air Staff. Heavy-lift transports comprise 3 Boeing 707s transferred from Pakistan International Airlines starting 1986.
| A pair of Mirage III fighters are refuelled in the air by the PAF's Il-78 tanker during exercise High Mark 2010.[75] |
In December 2009 the PAF received its first of four Il-78 aircraft which is capable of aerial refuelling as well as transporting cargo. Aerial refuelling capability was first demonstrated during the High Mark 2010 exercise on 6 April 2010 when two of the PAF's Mirage III fighters were simultaneously refuelled in the air by the Il-78.[75][78][79][80][81]
PAF Super Mushak Trainer
Air defence systems
Crotale is expected to be replaced by Spada 2000.[82]
- MBDA Spada 2000 - A low to medium altitude air defence system consisting of a radar with 60 km range and four 6-cell missile launchers. The Aspide 2000 missile can intercept enemy missiles and aircraft at a range of over 20 km. A contract for 10 batteries was signed after Spada 2000 was selected over competing systems from Raytheon, Diehl BGT and Saab AB and pre-contract firing tests in Pakistan, which were assisted by the Italian Air Force.[83] Latest reports state Pakistan is to test the Spada 2000 air defence system in July 2010, followed by deliveries of first of ten batteries. Deliveries of all ten batteries are reported to be completed by 2013 with further orders possible.[84] Pakistan test fired the new SPADA 2000 Plus air defence missile system in July 2010. The missile system was tested by the Range & Instrumentation Division of SUPARCO (National Space Agency). Three drone planes were successfully intercepted and shot down by the SPADA 2000 Plus Missile System.
- HQ-2 - Chinese version of SA-2 Guideline high altitude air defence system, 12 or more batteries procured circa 1970s.[citation needed]
- HQ-9 - In October 2003 it was reported that China had closed a deal with Pakistan to supply an unspecified number of FT-2000 systems, an anti-radiation variant of the HQ-9 long range air defence system,[85] although in March 2009 a report was published stating that Pakistan was not considering importing the missile.[86] It was reported in mid-2008 that Pakistan intended to purchase a high altitude air defence and missile defence system and the FD-2000, another variant of HQ-9, was expected to be chosen.[82][87]
- AML HE 60-20: Recently sighted at PAF Base Nur Khan. Modified Panhard armoured car with a 20mm anti-aircraft cannon. Used for on-base security.[88]
Modernisation and acquisitions
The first F-16D Block 52 fighter of PAF, rolled out on 13 October 2009, undergoing flight testing in the U.S. prior to delivery.
JF-17 Thunder
Saab2000 ERIEYE AEW&C Made for PAF on 2008 Farnborough
In light of Pakistan's significant contribution to the War on Terror,[89][90]
The modernisation stall ended in April 2006 when the Pakistani cabinet approved the PAF's proposals to procure new aircraft and systems from several sources, including modern combat aircraft from the U.S. and China. The AFFDP 2019 (Armed Forces Development Programme 2019) would oversee the modernisation of the Pakistan Air Force from 2006 to 2019.[91]
The Bush administration on 24 July 2008 informed the US Congress it plans to shift nearly $230 million of $300 million in aid from counterterrorism programs to upgrading Pakistan's aging F-16s.[92] The Bush administration previously announced on 27 June 2008 it was proposing to sell Pakistan ITT Corporation's electronic warfare gear valued at up to $75 million to enhance Islamabad's existing F-16s.[93] Pakistan has asked about buying as many as 21 AN/ALQ-211(V)9 Advanced Integrated Defensive Electronic Warfare Suite pods, or AIDEWS, and related equipment.[94] The proposed sale will ensure that the existing fleet is "compatible" with new F-16 Block 50/52 fighters being purchased by Islamabad.
After 9/11 the U.S. and Pakistan began discussing the release of the embargoed F-16s and a purchase of new aircraft. Of the 28 F-16A/B built under the Peace Gate III/IV contracts and embargoed in 1990, 14 delivered as EDA (Excess Defense Articles) from 2005 to 2008.,[95] two of which were delivered on 10 July 2007.[96]
Between 2005 and 2008, 14 F-16A/B Block 15 OCU fighters were delivered to the PAF under renewed post-9/11 ties between the U.S. and Pakistan. These had originally been built for Pakistan under the Peace Gate III/IV contracts but were never delivered due to the U.S. arms embargo imposed in 1990.[97]
To upgrade the F-16A/B fleet, 32 Falcon STAR kits were purchased for the original Peace Gate I aircraft and 35 Mid-Life Update (MLU) kits were ordered, with 11 more MLU kits optional, in . 4 F-16A/B being upgraded in the U.S. to F-16AM/BM, delivery expected December 2011.[95] F-16A/B in PAF service to be upgraded starting October 2010 by Turkish Aerospace Industries, 1 per month.[98][99]
The Peace Drive I contract for 12 F-16C and 6 F-16D Block 52+ (Advanced Block 52) aircraft, powered by F100-PW-229 engines was signed on 30 September 2006.[100][101] The first F-16 to be completed, an F-16D, was rolled out on 13 October 2009 and began flight testing.[102][103][104][105][106] The first batch of F-16C/D Block 52+, two F-16D and one F-16C, landed at PAF Base Shahbaz, Jacobabad, on 26 June 2010[70][71] and one more F-16C was received by 5 July 2010.[107]
On 13 December 2008, the Government of Pakistan stated that two Indian Air Force aircraft were intercepted by the PAF kilometres within Pakistani airspace. This charge was denied by the Indian government.[108]
During talks with a delegation from the French Senate on Monday 28 September 2009, Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani stated that the PAF had used most of its stockpile of laser-guided munitions against militants in the Malakand and FATA regions and that replacements for such types of equipment were urgently required.[109]
December 2009 saw the delivery of the PAF's first Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C from Sweden and Il-78MP Midas aerial refuelling tanker/military transport aircraft from Ukraine.[110][111][112]
The PAF is reported to be considering purchasing the Hongdu L-15 advanced jet trainer to train pilots for high-tech fighters such as the FC-20. Extensive evaluations of the aircraft took place in Pakistan during December 2009.[113][114]
On 26 June 2010 the first batch of 3 F-16C/D Block 52+ fighters were delivered to PAF Base Shahbaz, Jacobabad.[115] According to Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman (the then Chief of Air Staff) the new fighters would eliminate the PAF's limitations in precision night-time strike operations,[116] the existing capability being based on around 34 Dassault Mirage 5 fighters upgraded with new avionics for night-time precision strike missions under the Retrofit Of Strike Element (ROSE) programme during 1999-2004.[117][118][119] SABIR (Special Airborne Mission Installation & Response System) which is a FLIR System that has Brite Star II and Star Safire III EO/IR sensors installed on the one C130. (this a 'bolt on system' and is installed in place of the parachute door) This system was extensively used during operation in FATA.
Exercises
A PAF F-7PG flies alongside a Mirage 2000-9 and F-16E/F Block 60 fighters of the UAEAF and a RJAF F-16 during ATLC 2009.
The PAF sent a contingent of six F-16A/B fighters to the international Anatolian Eagle 2004 exercise in Turkey.[120][121]
After around 1 year of planning, in 2005 the PAF launched the High Mark 2005 exercise which lasted for one month and also involved the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Navy. The scenario saw two opposing forces, Blueland and Foxland, engaging in simulated combat involving both offensive and defensive operations. It was stated that the exercise would have 3 stages and PAF aircraft would fly 8200 sorties. Involvement of army and navy units was aimed at providing more realistic operational scenarios. High Mark 2005 followed the Tempest-1 exercise which was focused purely on air power but differed in terms of duration, intensity and complexity of air operations.[122]
A contingent of six F-16A/B fighters was sent to Turkey's international Anatolian Eagle 2006 exercise. In 2008 the Turkish Air Force sent five F-16C/D fighters and 50 personnel of 191 Kobras Filo (191 Cobras Squadron) to Pakistan to take part in the joint Operation Indus Viper 2008 exercise at PAF Base Mushaf (Sargodha).[121]
In the summer of 2005 a PAF team of 20 airmen, including pilots, navigators, engineers, maintenance technicians and a C-130E was sent to the U.S. to take part in the AMC (Air Mobility Command) Rodeo.[123] The PAF later took part in the July 2007 AMC Rodeo.[124][125]
A PAF Mirage III of No. 7 Bandits Squadron alongside a US Navy F-18 and F-16s of the USAF and RJAF
In 2009, while undertaking combat operations against militants in FATA and Swat, the PAF initiated the Saffron Bandit exercise with the aim of training the PAF's entire combat force to undertake such anti-terrorist operations.[126][127]
In December 2009 the PAF sent six Chengdu F-7PG fighters, of No. 31 Wing based at PAF Base Samungli, to the United Arab Emirates to take part in the Air Tactics Leadership Course (ATLC), also known as Exercise Iron Falcon, at Al Dhafra Air Base.[128][129][130]
The PAF's High Mark 2010 exercise was launched on 15 March 2010, the first time a High Mark exercise had been conducted since 2005, after all PAF received their Air Tasking Orders (ATO). The country-wide exercise involved units based all over Pakistan, from Skardu to the Arabian Sea, at all Main Operating Bases and Forward Operating Bases. Joint operations involving the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Navy were also conducted, aiming to test and improve integration and cooperation between the three arms. Operations emphasised a near-realistic simulation of the war-time environment, exposure of PAF aircrews to contemporary concepts of air combat, new employment concepts and joint operations between air force, army and navy. New inductions such as the JF-17 Thunder fighter, Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C and Il-78 Multi-Role Tanker Transports also took part.[131] On 6 April 2010 the end of the first phase of exercise High Mark 2010 was celebrated with a firepower demonstration at the PAF's firing range facility in the deserts of Thal. The 90-minute demo involved the new JF-17 Thunder fighter, Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C and Il-78 MRTT aircraft. The H-2 SOW (Stand-Off Weapon) was also shown to the public for the first time, being launched from around 60 km away before hitting its target, and a mock counter-insurgency operation was performed by troops. The demo heralded the beginning of High Mark 2010's second phase where the PAF would practice joint operations with the Pakistan Army during the army's exercise Azm-e-Nau-3 (New Resolve 3).[132] During High Mark 2010 a Chengdu F-7 and Mirage 5 fighter (flown by Squadron Leader Nasir Mehmood and Wing Commander Atta ur Rehman respectively) practised landing, refuelling and take-off operations from a Pakistani motorway. It was reported that the PAF is in negotiations with the Ministry of Communications to set up all required facilities for Air Force operations on the motorways and highways of Pakistan.[133][134]
A PAF F-16 is refuelled in-flight by a USAF KC-135 tanker during Red Flag 2010.
A PAF Mirage III competes in the Alert Scramble Competition during Falcon Air Meet 2010 in Jordan.
In July 2010 the PAF sent six F-16B fighters of No. 9 Griffins Squadron and 100 PAF personnel to Nellis Air Force Base in the U.S. to participate in the international Red Flag exercise for the first time. During the exercise the PAF pilots practised in-flight refuelling of their F-16s with the KC-135 Stratotanker.[135][136][137][138][139]
| Mirage III ROSE fighters of the PAF's No. 7 Bandits Squadron take part in the Falcon Air Meet 2010 exercise. |
In October 2010 the PAF's No. 7 Bandits Squadron sent a team of its Dassault Mirage III ROSE fighters to Jordan to participate in the Falcon Air Meet 2010 exercise at Azraq Royal Jordanian Air Base.[140][141] January 2011 saw a PAF contingent of F-16A/B and Dassault Mirage fighters take part in the Al-Saqoor II exercise in Saudi Arabia with the Royal Saudi Air Force.[142][143][144]
In March 2011 a joint Sino-Pakistani exercise, Shaheen 1, was conducted involving a contingent of Chinese aircraft and personnel from the PLAAF.[145] Information on which aircraft were used by each side in the exercise was not released, but photos of Pakistani pilots inspecting what appeared to be Chinese Shenyang J-11B fighters were released on the internet. The exercise lasted for around 4 weeks and was the first time the PLAAF had deployed to and conducted "operational" aerial maneuvers in Pakistan with the PAF.[146]
In popular Pakistani culture
The bird is the Shaheen Falcon.
In Pakistani literature, the shaheen has a special association with the poetry of the country's national poet, Allama Muhammad Iqbal.[147] It also appears on the official seal of the Pakistani Air Force logo.
See also
| Military of Pakistan portal |
- Pakistan and Nuclear weapons
- Pakistan Aeronautical Complex
- PAF Museum, Karachi
- PAF Hospitals
- Pakistan Army
- Pakistan Navy
- List of aircraft of the Pakistan Air Force
- List of Pakistan Air Force aircraft squadrons
- List of Pakistan Air Force bases
- List of Dassault Mirage III operators
- List of F-104 Starfighter operators
- Pakistan Naval Air Arm
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- ^ Top Story: War on Terror: Contribution of Pakistan, Saudi Arabia cited[dead link]. Pakistan Times (2001-09-11). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ International : U.S. lauds Pakistan role in war against terror. The Hindu (2007-06-17). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ "Pakistan to buy 98 hi-tech aircraft from US and China". Brecorder.com. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ Schmitt, Eric (2008-07-24). "Plan Would Use Antiterror Aid on Pakistani Jets". Pakistan: Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "US eyes electronic-warfare sale to Pakistan". Uk.reuters.com. 2008-06-27. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "Pakistan - AN/ALQ-211(V)9 AIDEWS Pods". Asd-network.com. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ a b "Written Statement of" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "Archive | Your Source of News on the World Wide Web". Dawn.Com. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ Asia Times Online :: South Asia news - Pakistan heading for a crackdown. Atimes.com (2007-07-13). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ "Turkish Aerospace Industries Inc". Tai.com.tr. 2009-06-29. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ Govindasamy, Siva. "Turkish Aerospace to start Pakistani F-16 upgrades in 2010". Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ [5][dead link]
- ^ "LOCKHEED MARTIN RECEIVES INITIAL $78 MILLION CONTRACT TO PRODUCE 18 NEW F-16s". Lockheedmartin.com. 2006-12-11. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "Unveils First New F-16 For Pakistan In Ceremony Attended By Air Force Chiefs". Lockheed Martin. 2009-10-13. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "Associated Press Of Pakistan ( Pakistan's Premier NEWS Agency ) - Inauguration of first BLK-52 F-16D aircraft". App.com.pk. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "Peace Drive I - First F-16 unveiled". F-16.net. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "PICTURES: Lockheed Martin unveils first F-16 Block 52 ordered by Pakistan". Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "Rah-e-Nijat and PAF’s new F-16". Nation.com.pk. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "Pakistan gets fourth F-16 jet". The Express Tribune website. The Express Tribune. 5 July 2010. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
- ^ Pakistan, India row over 'violation' by fighter jets. News.asiaone.com (2008-12-14). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ Pakistan|Laser-guided munition exhausted, says Gilani. Dawn.Com (2009-09-29). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ Front Page|PAF gets mid-air refueller aircraft. Dawn.Com (2009-12-20). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ Pakistan Receiving IL-78 Refueling aircraft. Defenseindustrydaily.com (2008-12-08). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ "First aircraft tanker arrives in Pakistan: PAF". GEO.tv. 2009-12-19. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ Pakistan Eyes Acquisition of Chinese Training Aircraft. Defense News (2010-02-01). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ "US-Pak air forces conduct joint refuelling operation". Pakistan: Daily Times (Pakistan). 5 March 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2010.
- ^ "First batch of latest version of F-16 aircraft reaches Pakistan". APP website. Associated Press of Pakistan (APP). 24 June 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
- ^ "PAF attains night time attack capability: PAF Chief". App.com.pk. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ Improvise and modernise-24 February 1999-Flight International. Flightglobal.com (1999-02-24). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ Top Story: New Fighter Squadron added to Pakistan Air Force[dead link]. Pakistan Times. Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ PAF gets new Mirage fighter squadron - News - Webindia123.com. News.webindia123.com (2007-04-20). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ "Pakistan Air Force F-16s Fly Off to Turkey for exercise". www.turks.us. 30 September 2004. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
- ^ a b Daly, John C. K. (30 April 2008). "Turkey Holds Joint Air Force Exercises With Pakistan". Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: 5 Issue: 82. The Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
- ^ "Pakistan Air Force exercise 'Highmark-2005' starts". Pakistan Times (pakistantimes.net). 2005. Retrieved 25 May 2011. [dead link]
- ^ Airlift Tanker Quarterly 13 (3). Summer 2005 http://www.atalink.org/ATQ/Issues/ATQ_Summer_2005.pdf
|url=missing title (help). Retrieved 26 May 2011. - ^ "International teams build relationships at AMC Rodeo". 2007-07-20. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
- ^ Haider, Masood (http://archives.dawn.com/2007/04/25/nat19.htm). "PAF to participate in US air show". Dawn News. Retrieved 26 May 2011. Check date values in:
|date=(help) - ^ "PAF starts Saffron Bandits exercise". 6 September 2009. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
- ^ "PAF 'Saffron Bandit' annual war games have begun". Nation.com.pk. 2009-09-05. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ^ "Fighters from six nations train in the UAE's skies". Arabian Aerospace online news service. 6 August 2010. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- ^ Hoyle, Craig. "Dubai 09: Raptor and Typhoon make surprise appearances". Flight Daily News via Flightglobal. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- ^ Trimble, Stephen. "Dubai 09: UAE hosts first mock dogfights for F-22, Typhoon, Rafale". Flight International via Flightglobal. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- ^ "PAF starts High Mark-2010 exercise". The News International. 16 March 2010. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- ^ Minhas, Saeed (7 April 2010). "High Mark 2010 culminates in display of firepower". Daily Times (Pakistan). Retrieved 22 May 2011.
- ^ PAF's tactical flexibility|Pakistan|News|Newspaper|Daily|English|Online. Nation.com.pk (2010-04-03). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ F-16′s Motorway landing and Take off. MarketWatch.pk (2010-04-03). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.
- ^ "Red Flag 10-04 kicks off July 19". Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ "PAF F-16s depart for RED Flag Exercise in USA". Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ "Pakistan Air Force (PAF) At Red Flag Exercise". Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ "PAF's F-16 jets leave for ‘Red Flag’ exercises in US". Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ "F16s depart for Red Flag Exercise in US". Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ Parsons, Gary. "Video: Falcon Air Meet 2010". key.Aero Network. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- ^ Adams, Chyenne A. "Falcon Air Meet 2010". f16.net. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- ^ "Pakistan, Saudi air forces conduct joint exercise". Daily Times (Pakistan). 17 January 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
- ^ "Pakistan And Royal Saudi Air Forces Conduct Joint Exercise "Al Saqoor-Ii"". PAF Press Release. Pakistan Air Force. 16 January 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
- ^ "Pakistan and Saudi Arabia Conduct Joint Air Exercise". airforce-technology.com. 18 January 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
- ^ "Pak Air force conducts joint exercise with China". Times of India. 19 Mar 2011. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
- ^ Zambelis, Chris (20 May 2011). ""Shaheen 1" Exercise Signals Expansion of China-Pakistan Alliance". China Brief Volume: 11 Issue: 9. The Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
- ^ "National Symbols of Pakistan". Government of Pakistan. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
External links
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Air force of Pakistan. |
| Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Pakistan Air Force |
- Official website
- PAF Falcons - Second to None
- Pakistani Air Force aircraft and equipment of Pakistan(Air recognition)
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| Flag Rank Officers | |||||
| Army | Navy | Air Force | |||
| General (4-star general) | Admiral (4-star admiral) | Air Chief Marshal (4-star air marshal) | |||
| Lieutenant-General (3-star general) | Vice-Admiral (3-star admiral) | Air-Marshal (3-star air marshal) | |||
| Major-General (2-star general) | Rear-Admiral (2-star admiral) | Air-vice Marshal (2-star air marshal) | |||
| Brigadier (1-star officer) | Commodore (1-star officer) | Air Commodore (1-star officer) | |||
| Commissioned Officers | |||||
| Colonel | Captain | Group Captain | |||
| Lieutenant Colonel | Commander | Wing Commander | |||
| Major | Lieutenant Commander | Squadron Leader | |||
| Captain | Lieutenant | Flight Lieutenant | |||
| Lieutenant | Sub Lieutenant | Flying Officer | |||
| Second Lieutenant | Midshipman | Pilot Officer | |||
| Junior Commissioned Officers |
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| Subedar Major | N/A | Chief Warrant Officer | |||
| Subedar | N/A | N/A | |||
| Naib Subedar | N/A | N/A | |||
| Other ranks |
|||||
| Battalion Havildar Major | Master chief petty officer | Warrant Officer | |||
| Battalion Quartermaster Havildar | Fleet Chief Petty Officer | Assistant Warrant Officer | |||
| Company Havildar Major | Chief Petty Officer | Senior Technician | |||
| Company Quartermaster Havildar | Petty Officer | Corporal Technician | |||
| Havildar | Leading Rate | Junior Technician | |||
| Naik | Able Seaman Tech-I | Senior Aircraftman | |||
| Lance Naik | Ordinary Rate Tech-II | Leading Aircraftman | |||
| Jawan | N/A | Aircraftman | |||
| Template source: "Pakistani Army Ranks". Retrieved 2009-06-05. "Pakistani Navy Ranks". Retrieved 2009-06-05. "Pakistani Air Force Ranks". Retrieved 2009-06-05. | |||||
UpToDate Contents
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- 1. 発作性心房細動 paroxysmal atrial fibrillation
- 2. 心房細動における洞調律の維持：カテーテルアブレーションおよび抗不整脈薬の比較 maintenance of sinus rhythm in atrial fibrillation catheter ablation versus antiarrhythmic drug therapy
- 3. 最新の診療アップデート practice changing updates
- 4. 心房細動再発予防のためのカテーテルアブレーション catheter ablation to prevent recurrent atrial fibrillation
- 5. 不整脈の評価およびマネージメントにおける加算平均心電図の利用 use of the signal averaged electrocardiogram in arrhythmia evaluation and management
English Journal
- Bioactive oxidatively truncated phospholipids in inflammation and apoptosis: Formation, targets, and inactivation.
- McIntyre TM.AbstractThis report reviews structurally related phospholipid oxidation products that are biologically active where molecular mechanisms have been defined. Phospholipids containing polyunsaturated fatty acyl residues are chemically or enzymatically oxidized to phospholipid hydroperoxides, which may fragment on either side of the newly introduced peroxy function to form phospholipids with a truncated sn-2 residue. These truncated phospholipids not subject to biologic control of their production and, depending on the sn-2 residue length and structure, can stimulate the plasma membrane receptor for PAF. Alternatively, these chemically formed products can be internalized by a transport system to either stimulate the lipid activated nuclear transcription factor PPARγ or at higher levels interact with mitochondria to initiate the intrinsic apoptotic cascade. Intracellular PAF acetylhydrolases specifically hydrolyze truncated phospholipids, and not undamaged, biosynthetic phospholipids, to protect cells from oxidative death. Truncated phospholipids are also formed within cells where they couple cytokine stimulation to mitochondrial damage and apoptosis. The relevance of intracellular truncated phospholipids is shown by the complete protection from cytokine induced apoptosis by PAF acetylhydrolase expression. This protection shows truncated phospholipids are the actual effectors of cytokine mediated toxicity. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Oxidized phospholipids-their properties and interactions with proteins.
- Biochimica et biophysica acta.Biochim Biophys Acta.2012 Oct;1818(10):2456-64. Epub 2012 Mar 16.
- This report reviews structurally related phospholipid oxidation products that are biologically active where molecular mechanisms have been defined. Phospholipids containing polyunsaturated fatty acyl residues are chemically or enzymatically oxidized to phospholipid hydroperoxides, which may fragment
- PMID 22445850
- Risk factors for sporadic Yersinia enterocolitica infections, Germany 2009-2010.
- Rosner BM, Stark K, Höhle M, Werber D.SourceRobert Koch Institute, Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany.
- Epidemiology and infection.Epidemiol Infect.2012 Oct;140(10):1738-47. Epub 2011 Dec 12.
- SUMMARY Yersinia enterocolitica is an important cause of acute gastrointestinal disease and post-infectious complications. In Germany, incidence of reported yersiniosis is relatively high compared with other countries of the European Union. Children aged <5 years are mos
- PMID 22313798
Japanese Journal
- PAF受容体欠損マウスで見いだされた新規なPAF生理機能の解明
- 菅谷 純子,定光 慧,山崎 泰広,黒澤 雅俊,長澤 孝真,杉山 渉,五十里 彰,渡辺 達夫,三輪 匡男,石井 聡,清水 孝雄
- 脂質生化学研究 53, 255-258, 2011-04-28
- NAID 10028179061
- プロアントシアニジンフリー遺伝子ant28の選抜に有効なDNAマーカーの開発
- 春山 直人,大関 美香,五月女 敏範 [他]
- 栃木県農業試験場研究報告 (66), 37-42, 2011-03
- NAID 40018908825
Related Links
- paf（ぱふ、paroxysmal atrial fibrillation）とは、発作性心房細動（1分間に450～600回の頻度で心房が不規則に興奮し、突然起こる心房細動）のことである。
- 【ベストアンサー】発作性心房細動（Paf）は突然起こります。たとえばサクション刺激などでTACHYになるとそのままafになります。これをpafといいます。このとき場合によりますがDC ...
Related Pictures
★リンクテーブル★
| リンク元 | 「敗血症性ショック」「血栓性血小板減少性紫斑病」「リポ多糖」「血小板活性化因子」「platelet activating factor」 |
| 拡張検索 | 「PAF acetylhydrolase」「PAFアセチルヒドロラーゼ」「PAFレセプター」「PAF受容体」 |
| 関連記事 | 「PA」「P」 |
「敗血症性ショック」
- 英
- septic shock
- 同
- 敗血症ショック、感染性ショック、細菌性ショック、エキソトキシンショック(厳密には定義が違う？)
- 関
- ショック、敗血症
概念
- 微生物の感染によって起こる。グラム陰性菌(endotoxic shock)で起こるが、グラム陽性菌・真菌でも起こりうる。(BPT.102)
- 必ずしも全身性の菌血症は必須ではない。局所の生物の血管外感染にたいする宿主の炎症反応で十分おこりうる。(BPT.102)
- 敗血症ショックの70%がグラム陰性菌由来のエンドトキシンによる(endotoxic shock)
特徴
- warm shock：LPSによるショックでは末梢血管の血管透過性が亢進し、末梢血管抵抗が低下するが、体液が組織に移行して体が温かく感じられる。
- 血管末梢抵抗の低下により、代償的に高心拍出量状態となるり、ついには低心拍出量状態、多臓器不全となる。末期では体温は下がる。
病態生理 BPT.103
- 1. LPSが血中に放出される
- 2. 循環血液中のLPS-binding proteinと結合する
- 3. 2.の複合体は単球、マクロファージ、好中球上に発現しているCD14に結合する
- 4. CD14と共役しているTLR-4が細胞内にシグナルを伝達する。
- 5. TLR-4からのシグナルにより、IL-1, TNF等のサイトカインを放出
- 6. IL-1, TNFは血管内皮細胞に作用して抗凝固因子(TFPI、thrombomodulin)の産生を低下させる。 ← この作用は血管内皮上のTLR-4-CD14にLPSが結合することで増強される。
低用量のLPS
- 1. 単球、マクロファージ、好中球を活性化。補体系の直接の活性化。
- 2. LPSに反応してTNFを産生した単球性の食細胞はこんどはIL-1を産生する
- 3. 血管内皮はTNFとIL-1に反応してIL-6, IL-8を産生し、接着分子を発現する。
高用量のLPS
- 1. サイトカインにより産生されたエフェクター(NO、血小板活性化因子(PAF))が増加
- 2. 多量のTNFとIL-1によって発熱、急性相反応物(APR)の産生、好中球の増多
- 3. 血管内皮細胞は前凝固状態になる
高用量のLPSによってもたらされる帰結
- (1) 全身性の血管拡張(低血圧)
- (2) 心筋収縮力の減弱
- (3) びまん性の血管内皮障害と活性化、これにより白血球の血管内皮の接着が促進され、肺における肺胞のびまん性血管内皮損傷がおこる。
- (4) 凝固系の亢進がDICを引き起こす。
症状
- warm shock: 初期は発熱を伴う。発汗、呼吸促迫、頚静脈平坦、脈圧増大(高心拍出量状態を反映。低血圧の代償)、頻脈(発熱による)、心拍数増加、末梢血管抵抗低下、意識低下、尿量減少。
- cold shock: 末期には体温は低下する。
- 呼吸性アルカローシス：乳酸蓄積とサイトカイン増加で頻呼吸となるため(CBT QB vol2 p.554)
新生児
- 低体温、無呼吸発作、出血斑
治療・管理
対症療法
- 初期におけるショックに対する治療 → 輸液負荷、昇圧薬、
- 輸液負荷
- Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, et al: Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008. Crit Care Med 2008; 36:296-327.
- Early goal-directed therapy(Grade 1B)
- 敗血症ショックにおける指標を定めた初期輸液療法
- 敗血症ショックの治療開始後6時間の輸液療法はクリスタロイドであれば1-2l/hrとし、5%アルブミン液であれば0.6-1l/hrとする。
- 以下の4項目を達成目標とする
- 平均血圧≧65mmHg
- 尿量≧0.5ml/kg/h
- 中心静脈圧：8-12mmHg(上限15mmHgを超えない)
- Scvo2(中心静脈血酸素飽和度)≧70%
- 昇圧薬
- 輸液負荷により低血圧が持続する場合に適応となる(ICU.646)
- ドパミンは腹腔内臓器の血流を低下させ組織アシドーシスを促進する可能性があるが、ノルアドレナリンにはこれはない。
- ドパミン、ノルアドレナリンが不応の場合
根治療法
- 感染巣の同定、起炎菌の同定(血液培養の感度は30-40%程度)と薬物感受性の検索
ステロイド治療
- 昇圧薬を必要とする全ての敗血症性ショック患者にステロイドが推奨されている (ICU.646)
「血栓性血小板減少性紫斑病」
- 英
- thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, TTP
- 同
- モシュコビッツ症候群 モシュコウィッツ病 Moschkowitz's syndrome Moschcowitz disease
- 関
- 溶血性尿毒症症候群 hemolytic uremic syndrome HUS、血小板減少、難病
- 同
- TTP
病型
- 先天性：VWF-CPの遺伝子異常
- 後天性
- 特発性：VWF-CP に対する自己抗体産生
- 二次性：自己免疫疾患、薬物(チクロピジン)、妊娠などによる自己抗体の出現
病因
- vWF切断酵素(ADAMTS13)活性の低下
- 1. 先天的な酵素活性の低下
- 2. vWF切断酵素に対する自己抗体
病態
- IMD.985 YN.G-83
- vWF切断酵素(ADAMTS13)活性の低下 → unusually large vWFマルチマーが分解されない → 血小板凝固促進
- 1. 血小板消費 → 出血傾向
- 2. 微小血管血小板血栓
- 2-1. 循環障害 → 腎臓(腎不全)、脳の障害(精神症状)
- 2-2. 狭窄血管の中への赤血球循環 → 破砕赤血球(MAHA) → 溶血性貧血
- 発熱：組織崩壊、溶血、発熱中枢障害による
TTPの5徴候
- let's memorize: The Fr.(=The franch)
- 血小板減少 thrombocytopenia
- 細血管障害性溶血性貧血（microangiopathic hemolytic anemia MAHA）
- 動揺する精神神経症状 encephalopathy
- 発熱 fever
- 腎障害 renal dysfunction
(⇔溶血性尿毒症症候群 HUS は血小板減少、細血管障害性溶血性貧血、腎障害。精神症状と発熱は特徴的ではない)
鑑別診断
- 血小板減少：膠原病(SLEなど)、抗リン脂質抗体症候群、特発性血小板減少症 ITP、肝硬変、骨髄異形成症候群 MDS、播種性血管内凝固症候群(DIC)
治療
- 血漿交換療法
- 奏功するはっきりとしたメカニズムは不明だが、異常なvWF重合体、血小板活性化因子 PAF、あるいは免疫複合体除去、ULvWF重合体やプロスタサイクリンの置換(血漿交換で血漿内に入れる)によるものと考えられている(WCH.1559)
- 血漿輸注療法 → 先天性のTTPの場合
- 抗血小板薬
- 副腎皮質ステロイド
- 血小板輸血は原則禁忌：血小板輸血の間に腎機能や神経学的状態(neurologic status)が著明に悪化するため(WCH.1559)
USMLE
- Q book p.290 14
予後
- 寛解後した患者の1/3が初期再発(完全寛解後1ヶ月間)、あるいは後期再発(late relapse)(最初のエピソードから10年以内)する。
参考
- 難病情報センター
「リポ多糖」
- エンドトキシン endotoxinである
- 主にマクロファージを刺激して多彩な生理作用を表す
- グラム陰性菌の細胞成分
- O抗原多糖体-Rコア-リピドA
LPSの生物活性 (SMB.115-117)
- 1. B細胞マイトジェン活性：B細胞の分裂を誘導
- DNA合成の促進
- 2. ポリクローナルB細胞活性化：B細胞を刺激し、抗原非特異的に抗体産生細胞へと分化誘導。IgMクラスの抗体を産生させる。
- 3. マクロファージの活性化：サイトカイン(IL-1、TNF-α、IFN、コロニー刺激因子(CSF)など)、フリーラジカルを放出させる。
- 4. 補体の古典的経路、別経路を活性化
- 5. アラキドン酸代謝経路の刺激：ロイコトリエン、プロスタグランジンの産生亢進
- 6. 白血球との結合：生体ではLPS投与後1時間目に顆粒球減少(白血球凝集や末梢血管への貯留による)。2-4時間後、急激に白血球増加(骨髄の顆粒球の放出や顆粒球産
生の増加による)
- 7. 血小板の活性化と破壊：セロトニン、核酸、血小板因子3などを放出。LPSにより破壊されやすい
- 8. NK細胞やNKT細胞によるIFN-γの産生亢進
リポ多糖の受容体
リポ多糖のクリアランス(SMB.117)
- 血流に入ったLPSは、LPS結合タンパク質(LBP)や遊離CD14と結合し、ついで血清タンパク質(特に高比重リポタンパク質(HDL)と結合し、速やかに主に肝臓に取り込まれる。肝臓、脾臓などのマクロファージ系の貪食細胞がLPSを捕獲し、比較的長い時間かかって分解するらしい。
リポ多糖の臨床的意義 (SMB.117-118)
エンドトキシンショック
- 1. マクロファージ、単球、好中球、NK細胞、血管内皮細胞、線維芽細胞などに作用し、TNF、IFN、IL-1、IL-6、IL-8などのサイトカインを誘導
- 2. 1.のサイトカインは、標的細胞に作用し、血小板活性化因子(PAF)、ロイコトリエン、プロスタグランジン、活性酸素、NO、プロテアーゼなどを放出させる。
- 3. 発熱、悪寒、白血球減少、DIC、出血、低血圧、頻脈、アシドーシス、多臓器障害、多臓器不全をもたらす。
抗生物質誘発内毒素遊離
- 内毒素は菌が増殖するときに、外膜より遊離。
- ある種の抗生物質は菌を殺す際、大量の内毒素の遊離を招く
検査
「血小板活性化因子」
「platelet activating factor」
「PAF acetylhydrolase」
PAFアセチルヒドロラーゼ、血小板活性化因子アセチルヒドロラーゼ
- 関
- 1-alkyl-2-acetylglycerophosphocholine esterase、lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2、Lp-PLA2、platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase
「PAFアセチルヒドロラーゼ」
- 英
- PAF acetylhydrolase
- 関
- 血小板活性化因子アセチルヒドロラーゼ、1-アルキル-2-アセチルグリセロホスホコリンエステラーゼ、リ・タンパク質関連ホスホリパーゼA2
「PAFレセプター」
「PAF受容体」
- 英
- PAF receptor
- 関
- 血小板活性化因子
「PA」
- 微生物学：粒子凝集法(particle agglutination test)
- 薬理学：
「P」