brain stem

同

脳幹

WordNet

1. grow out of, have roots in, originate in; "The increase in the national debt stems from the last war"
2. stop the flow of a liquid; "staunch the blood flow"; "stem the tide" (同)stanch, staunch, halt
3. remove the stem from; "for automatic natural language processing, the words must be stemmed"
4. the tube of a tobacco pipe
5. cause to point inward; "stem your skis"
6. kill by smashing someones skull
7. mental ability; "hes got plenty of brains but no common sense" (同)brainpower, learning_ability, mental capacity, mentality, wit
8. that part of the central nervous system that includes all the higher nervous centers; enclosed within the skull; continuous with the spinal cord (同)encephalon
9. the brain of certain animals used as meat
10. hit on the head

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. (草の)『茎』,(木の)『幹』 / 葉柄,花梗(かこう) / 『茎状のもの』;(杯・グラスの)『脚』,(パイプ・さじの)柄,(時計の)りゅうず / (単語の)語幹,語根 / 船首;船首材 / …‘の'茎(軸)を取り去る,へたをとる / (…から)生じる,(…に)由来する《+『from』+『名』(do『ing』)》
2. 〈流れなど〉‘を'止める / 〈風・水流など〉‘に'逆らって進む,抵抗する / 〈攻撃・反対など〉‘を'くい止める,押さえる
3. 『脳』,脳髄 / 《しばしば複数形で》『頭脳』,『知力』 / 《話》秀才,知的指導者 / …‘の'頭を打ち砕く
4. =brassiere,　brassiere

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/05/20 12:27:48」(JST)

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

Brain: Brainstem
Hind- and mid-brains; postero-lateral view
Latin	truncus encephali
Gray's	subject #187
Part of	Brain
Components	Medulla, Pons, Midbrain
NeuroNames	ancil-218
MeSH	Brain+Stem
NeuroLex ID	birnlex_1565

In vertebrate anatomy the brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior part of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the spinal cord. It is usually described as including the medulla oblongata (myelencephalon), pons (part of metencephalon), and midbrain (mesencephalon). Less frequently, parts of the diencephalon are included. The brain stem provides the main motor and sensory innervation to the face and neck via the cranial nerves. Though small, this is an extremely important part of the brain as the nerve connections of the motor and sensory systems from the main part of the brain to the rest of the body pass through the brain stem. This includes the corticospinal tract (motor), the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway (fine touch, vibration sensation and proprioception) and the spinothalamic tract (pain, temperature, itch and crude touch). The brain stem also plays an important role in the regulation of cardiac and respiratory function. It also regulates the central nervous system, and is pivotal in maintaining consciousness and regulating the sleep cycle. The brain stem has many basic functions including heart rate, breathing, sleeping and eating.

General anatomy

Ventral view/medulla and pons

In the medial part of the medulla is the anterior median fissure. Moving laterally on each side are the pyramids. The pyramids contain the fibers of the corticospinal tract (also called the pyramidal tract), or the upper motor neuronal axons as they head inferiorly to synapse on lower motor neuronal cell bodies within the ventral horn of the spinal cord.

The anterolateral sulcus is lateral to the pyramids. Emerging from the anterolateral sulci are the CN XII (hypoglossal nerve) rootlets. Lateral to these rootlets and the anterolateral sulci are the olives. The olives are swellings in the medulla containing underlying inferior nucleary nuclei (containing various nuclei and afferent fibers). Lateral (and dorsal) to the olives are the rootlets for cranial nerves IX (glossopharyngeal), CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory nerve). The pyramids end at the pontomedullary junction, noted most obviously by the large basal pons. From this junction, CN VI (abducens nerve), CN VII (facial nerve) and CN VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve) emerge. At the level of the midpons, CN V (the trigeminal nerve) emerges. Cranial nerve III (the occulomotor nerve) emerges ventrally from the midbrain, while the CN IV (the trochlear nerve) emerges out from the dorsal aspect of midbrain.

Dorsal view/medulla and pons

The most medial part of the medulla is the posterior median fissure. Moving laterally on each side is the fasciculus gracilis, and lateral to that is the fasciculus cuneatus. Superior to each of these, and directly inferior to the obex, are the gracile and cuneate tubercles, respectively. Underlying these are their respective nuclei. The obex marks the end of the 4th ventricle and the beginning of the central canal. The posterior intermediate sulci separates the fasciculi gracilis from the fasciculi cuneatus. Lateral to the fasciculi cuneatus is the lateral funiculus.

Superior to the obex is the floor of the 4th ventricle. In the floor of the 4th ventricle, various nuclei can be visualized by the small bumps that they make in the overlying tissue. In the midline and directly superior to the obex is the vagal trigone and superior to that it the hypoglossal trigone. Underlying each of these are motor nuclei for the respective cranial nerves. Superior to these trigones are fibers running laterally in both directions. These fibers are known collectively as the striae medullares. Continuing in a rostral direction, the large bumps are called the facial colliculi. Each facial colliculus, contrary to their names, do not contain the facial nerve nuclei. Instead, they have facial nerve axons traversing superficial to underlying abducens (CN VI) nuclei. Lateral to all these bumps previously discussed is an indented line, or sulcus that runs rostrally, and is known as the sulcus limitans. This separates the medial motor neurons from the lateral sensory neurons. Lateral to the sulcus limitans is the area collectively known as the vestibular area, which is involved in special sensation. Moving rostrally, the inferior, middle, and superior cerebellar peduncles are found connecting the midbrain to the cerebellum. Directly rostral to the superior cerebellar peduncle, there is the superior medullary velum and then the two trochlear nerves. This marks the end of the pons as the inferior colliculus is directly rostral and marks the caudal midbrain.

Spinal Cord to Medulla Transitional Landmark: From a ventral view, there can be seen a decussation of fibers between the two pyramids. This decussation marks the transition from medulla to spinal cord. Superior to the decussation is the medulla and inferior to it is the spinal cord.

Midbrain

Main article: Midbrain

The midbrain is divided into three parts. The first is the tectum, which is "roof" in Latin. The tectum includes the superior and inferior colliculi and is the dorsal covering of the cerebral aqueduct. The inferior colliculus, involved in the sense of hearing sends its inferior brachium to the medial geniculate body of the diencephalon. Superior to the inferior colliculus, the superior colliculus marks the rostral midbrain. It is involved in the special sense of vision and sends its superior brachium to the lateral geniculate body of the diencephalon. The second part is the tegmentum and is ventral to the cerebral aqueduct. Several nuclei, tracts and the reticular formation are contained here. Last, the ventral side is composed of paired cerebral peduncles. These transmit axons of upper motor neurons.

Midbrain internal structures

• Periaqueductal gray: The area around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains various neurons involved in the pain desensitization pathway. Neurons synapse here and, when stimulated, cause activation of neurons in the nucleus raphe magnus, which then project down into the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and prevent pain sensation transmission.
• Occulomotor nerve nucleus: This is the nucleus of CN III.
• Trochlear nerve nucleus: This is the nucleus of CN IV.
• Red Nucleus: This is a motor nucleus that sends a descending tract to the lower motor neurons.
• Substantia nigra: This is a concentration of neurons in the ventral portion of the midbrain that uses dopamine as its neurotransmitter and is involved in both motor function and emotion. Its dysfunction is implicated in Parkinson's Disease.
• Reticular formation: This is a large area in the midbrain that is involved in various important functions of the midbrain. In particular, it contains lower motor neurons, is involved in the pain desensitization pathway, is involved in the arousal and consciousness systems, and contains the locus ceruleus, which is involved in intensive alertness modulation and in autonomic reflexes.
• Central tegmental tract: Directly anterior to the floor of the 4th ventricle, this is a pathway by which many tracts project up to the cortex and down to the spinal cord.
• Ventral tegmental area: is a group of dopaminergic neurons located close to the midline on the floor of the midbrain.

Embryology

The adult human brain stem emerges from two of the three primary vesicles formed of the neural tube. The mesencephalon is the second of the three primary vesicles, and does not further differentiate into a secondary vesicle. This will become the midbrain. The third primary vesicle, the rhombencephalon, will further differentiate into two secondary vesicles, the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The metencephalon will become the cerebellum and the pons. The myelencephalon will become the medulla.

Functions

There are three main functions of the brainstem:

1. The brainstem plays a role in conduction. That is, all information relayed from the body to the cerebrum and cerebellum and vice versa, must traverse the brain stem. The ascending pathways coming from the body to the brain are the sensory pathways, and include the spinothalamic tract for pain and temperature sensation and the dorsal column, fasciculus gracilis, and cuneatus for touch, proprioception, and pressure sensation (both of the body). (The facial sensations have similar pathways, and will travel in the spinothalamic tract and the medial lemniscus also). Descending tracts are upper motor neurons destined to synapse on lower motor neurons in the ventral horn and intermediate horn of the spinal cord. In addition, there are upper motor neurons that originate in the brain stem's vestibular, red, tectal, and reticular nuclei, which also descend and synapse in the spinal cord.
2. The cranial nerves III-XII emerge from the brainstem. The cranial nerves supply the face, head and viscera.
3. The brainstem has integrative functions (it is involved in cardiovascular system control, respiratory control, pain sensitivity control, alertness, awareness, and consciousness). Thus, brain stem damage is a very serious and often life-threatening problem.

Physical signs of brain stem disease

Diseases of the brain stem can result to abnormalities in the function of cranial nerves which may lead to visual disturbances, pupil abnormalities, changes in sensation, muscle weakness, hearing problems, vertigo, swallowing and speech difficulty, voice change, and co-ordination problems. Localizing neurological lesions in the brain stem may be very precise, although it relies on a clear understanding on the functions of brain stem anatomical structures and how to test them.

Additional images

• The midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata are labelled on this coronal section of the human brain.

See also

• Brain stem tumor
• Cranial nerve nucleus
• Triune brain Reptilian brain

References

External links

• Comparative Neuroscience at Wikiversity
• http://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/help/default.asp?page=5019
• http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/Meded/Neuro/frames/nlBSsL/nl40fr.htm
• http://biology.about.com/library/organs/brain/blbrainstem.htm
• http://www.waiting.com/brainanatomy.html
• http://www.martindalecenter.com/MedicalAnatomy_3_SAD.html
• NIF Search - Brainstem via the Neuroscience Information Framework

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

• 1. 脳腫瘍の臨床所見および診断 clinical presentation and diagnosis of brain tumors
• 2. 限局性脳幹部神経膠腫 focal brainstem glioma
• 3. 脳死の診断 diagnosis of brain death
• 4. 下肢末梢動脈疾患の症状を治療するための試験的治療 investigational therapies for treating symptoms of lower extremity peripheral artery disease
• 5. Sleep-wake disorders in patients with traumatic brain injury

English Journal

• Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition: What is the impact on breast cancer stem cells and drug resistance.

• Mallini P1, Lennard T2, Kirby J3, Meeson A4.Author information 1Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Central Parkway, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK. Electronic address: p.mallini@ncl.ac.uk.2Northern Institute for Cancer Research, Newcastle University, 3rd Floor William Leech Building, Framlington Place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE2 4HH, UK. Electronic address: t.w.j.lennard@ncl.ac.uk.3Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, 3rd Floor William Leech Building, Framlington Place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE2 4HH, UK. Electronic address: j.a.kirby@ncl.ac.uk.4Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Central Parkway, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK. Electronic address: annette.meeson@ncl.ac.uk.AbstractThere is increasing interest in cancer stem cells (CSCs) and their role in cancer progression. Recently, CSCs have been identified in brain, skin, and intestinal tumors and it has been suggested that these CSCs are responsible for tumor growth and metastasis. In breast cancer fatality is often due to the development of metastatic disease (MBC). Almost 30% of early breast cancer patients eventually develop MBC and in 90% of these multi-drug resistance (MDR) occurs. This could be attributed to the presence of breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs). Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a process known to contribute to metastasis in cancer and it is mainly characterized by loss of E-cadherin expression. The TGF-β signaling pathway has an established role in promoting EMT by down-regulating E-cadherin via a number of transcription factors, such as Twist, Snail and Slug. EMT has also been reported to produce cells with stem cell-like properties. Definition of the exact molecular mechanisms that are involved in the generation of stem cells through EMT could lead to the identification of new potential therapeutic targets and enable the development of more efficient strategies for particular patient groups. In this review we discuss what is known about the relationship between EMT, BCSCs and MDR.
• Cancer treatment reviews.Cancer Treat Rev.2014 Apr;40(3):341-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2013.09.008. Epub 2013 Sep 15.
• There is increasing interest in cancer stem cells (CSCs) and their role in cancer progression. Recently, CSCs have been identified in brain, skin, and intestinal tumors and it has been suggested that these CSCs are responsible for tumor growth and metastasis. In breast cancer fatality is often due t
• PMID 24090504

• Complete regression of glioblastoma by mesenchymal stem cells mediated prodrug gene therapy simulating clinical therapeutic scenario.

• Altaner C, Altanerova V, Cihova M, Ondicova K, Rychly B, Baciak L, Mravec B.Author information Cancer Research Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Bratislava, Slovakia; St. Elisabeth Cancer Institute, Center for Cell Therapy and Regenerative Medicine, Bratislava, Slovakia.AbstractSuicide gene therapy mediated by mesenchymal stem cells with their ability to engraft into tumors makes these therapeutic stem cells an attractive tool to activate prodrugs directly within the tumor mass. In this study, we evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of human mesenchymal stem cells derived from bone marrow and from adipose tissue, engineered to express the suicide gene cytosine deaminase::uracil phosphoribosyltransferase to treat intracerebral rat C6 glioblastoma in a simulated clinical therapeutic scenario. Intracerebrally grown glioblastoma was treated by resection and subsequently with single or repeated intracerebral inoculations of therapeutic stem cells followed by a continuous intracerebroventricular delivery of 5-fluorocytosine using an osmotic pump. Kaplan-Meier survival curves revealed that surgical resection of the tumor increased the survival time of the resected animals depending on the extent of surgical intervention. However, direct injections of therapeutic stem cells into the brain tissue surrounding the postoperative resection cavity led to a curative outcome in a significant number of treated animals. Moreover, the continuous supply of therapeutic stem cells into the brain with growing glioblastoma by osmotic pumps together with continuous prodrug delivery also proved to be therapeutically efficient. We assume that observed curative therapy of glioblastoma by stem cell-mediated prodrug gene therapy might be caused by the destruction of both tumor cells and the niche where glioblastoma initiating cells reside.
• International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer.Int J Cancer.2014 Mar 15;134(6):1458-65. doi: 10.1002/ijc.28455. Epub 2013 Sep 14.
• Suicide gene therapy mediated by mesenchymal stem cells with their ability to engraft into tumors makes these therapeutic stem cells an attractive tool to activate prodrugs directly within the tumor mass. In this study, we evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of human mesenchymal stem cells derived fr
• PMID 24038033

• Triacetin-based acetate supplementation as a chemotherapeutic adjuvant therapy in glioma.

• Tsen AR, Long PM, Driscoll HE, Davies MT, Teasdale BA, Penar PL, Pendlebury WW, Spees JL, Lawler SE, Viapiano MS, Jaworski DM.Author information Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, VT.AbstractCancer is associated with epigenetic (i.e., histone hypoacetylation) and metabolic (i.e., aerobic glycolysis) alterations. Levels of N-acetyl-l-aspartate (NAA), the primary storage form of acetate in the brain, and aspartoacylase (ASPA), the enzyme responsible for NAA catalysis to generate acetate, are reduced in glioma; yet, few studies have investigated acetate as a potential therapeutic agent. This preclinical study sought to test the efficacy of the food additive Triacetin (glyceryl triacetate, GTA) as a novel therapy to increase acetate bioavailability in glioma cells. The growth-inhibitory effects of GTA, compared to the histone deacetylase inhibitor Vorinostat (SAHA), were assessed in established human glioma cell lines (HOG and Hs683 oligodendroglioma, U87 and U251 glioblastoma) and primary tumor-derived glioma stem-like cells (GSCs), relative to an oligodendrocyte progenitor line (Oli-Neu), normal astrocytes, and neural stem cells (NSCs) in vitro. GTA was also tested as a chemotherapeutic adjuvant with temozolomide (TMZ) in orthotopically grafted GSCs. GTA-induced cytostatic growth arrest in vitro comparable to Vorinostat, but, unlike Vorinostat, GTA did not alter astrocyte growth and promoted NSC expansion. GTA alone increased survival of mice engrafted with glioblastoma GSCs and potentiated TMZ to extend survival longer than TMZ alone. GTA was most effective on GSCs with a mesenchymal cell phenotype. Given that GTA has been chronically administered safely to infants with Canavan disease, a leukodystrophy due to ASPA mutation, GTA-mediated acetate supplementation may provide a novel, safe chemotherapeutic adjuvant to reduce the growth of glioma tumors, most notably the more rapidly proliferating, glycolytic and hypoacetylated mesenchymal glioma tumors.
• International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer.Int J Cancer.2014 Mar 15;134(6):1300-10. doi: 10.1002/ijc.28465. Epub 2013 Sep 30.
• Cancer is associated with epigenetic (i.e., histone hypoacetylation) and metabolic (i.e., aerobic glycolysis) alterations. Levels of N-acetyl-l-aspartate (NAA), the primary storage form of acetate in the brain, and aspartoacylase (ASPA), the enzyme responsible for NAA catalysis to generate acetate,
• PMID 23996800

Japanese Journal

• 脳幹部海綿状血管腫による水平・垂直のone-and-a-half症候群の1例 (第69回 日本臨床眼科学会講演集(1))

• 臨床眼科 70(3), 405-410, 2016-03
• NAID 40020748602

• A link between vascular damage and cognitive deficits after whole-brain radiation therapy for cancer: A clue to other types of dementia?

• Drug Discoveries & Therapeutics advpub(0), 2016
• NAID 130005146363

• Hearing Preservation after Low-dose Gamma Knife Radiosurgery of Vestibular Schwannomas

• Neurologia medico-chirurgica 56(4), 186-192, 2016
• NAID 130005145497

Related Links

• The Brainstem - Coma and Traumatic Brain Injury Information ...

The Brainstem is the lower extension of the brain responsible for neurological functions include those necessary for survival. ... Dr. Erin Bigler and Gordon Johnson discuss brain anatomy and hope after brain injury. Click below for ...

• brain stem - definition of brain stem by Medical dictionary

Cory, pictured with his dad Steven, was diagnosed with a severe malignant tumour the size of a plum around his brain stem in 2011 and since then has battled through intensive chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Related Pictures

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「脳幹」「脳幹部」
拡張検索	「brain stem infarction」「brain stem neoplasm」
関連記事	「stem」「STEM」「brain」

「脳幹」

　　[★]

英

brain stem

ラ

truncus cerebri, truncus encephali

概念

• 中脳、橋、延髄からなる
• 脳幹には生命維持に重要な自律機能を調整する部位が存在。これが中枢と呼ばれる。中枢の実体は、(核などと呼ばれる)局所的なニューロンの集合ではなく、細胞体のニューロンのネットワークである。

• 入出力の構造：脳神経核が散在し、それぞれ機能(遠心性運動ニューロン、求心性感覚ニューロン)が異なる。
• 脳幹に特有の構造
  • 脳幹網様体　
  • モノアミン系
    • モノアミン（ノルアドレナリン、セロトニン、ドーパミン）を伝達物質とするニューロン群
    • ノルアドレナリン細胞群（青斑核と腹側延髄）
    • セロトニン細胞群（縫線核）の大部分
    • ドーパミン細胞群の一部
    • 出力：大脳皮質や脊髄を含めて脳の広い領域に軸索を送り、脳全体の機能を修飾する
  • 上行-下行路
    • 脳幹を上行あるいは下行する線維の束
    • 下行路は脳幹の腹側
    • 上行路は脳幹の背側
  • 小脳前核群　
    • 小脳に線維を投射する一群の神経核
    • (1)橋核
    • (2)下オリーブ核
    • (3)橋被蓋網様核

中枢

循環中枢

以下３つの中枢が存在し、相互に干渉し合う。

昇圧中枢(交感神経興奮性中枢)

• 延髄網様体の外側部
  • 吻側延髄腹外側部(RVLM, rostal ventrolateral medulla)
    • 全身の動脈血圧維持に重要
    • RVLMのニューロン群は各種末梢受容器(動脈圧受容器、化学受容器、体性感覚受容器)からの求心性神経情報並びに上位中枢からの上方を中継・統合し、さらにその統合情報を脊髄の交感神経性節前ニューロンに送っている。

降圧中枢(交感神経抑制性中枢)

• 延髄網様体の内側部

心臓抑制中枢(心臓迷走神経中枢)

• 延髄網様体の迷走神経背側核と迷走神経疑核

「脳幹部」

　　[★]

英

brainstem, brain-stem, brain stem, brain-stem area, brainstem site, region of the brainstem

関

脳幹

「brain stem infarction」

　　[★]

脳幹梗塞

関

brainstem infarction、brainstem stroke、Weber syndrome

「brain stem neoplasm」

　　[★]

脳幹腫瘍、脳幹新生物

関

medullary tumor、midbrain tumor

「stem」

　　[★]

• n.

• (草木の)茎、幹、軸。(菌類の)柄。葉柄、花梗、

• vt
• vi.

• 生じる、起こる、由来する(from,in,out of)

In volvement in such disparate conditions stems from the widespread influences of GSK3 on many cellular functions.

関

accrue、arise、basilar、basilaris、borne、come from、derive、descend、give rise to、happen、occur、plant stem、produce、proximal、proximal region、raise、scanning transmission electron microscopy

　 　 　 　 　 　 　

「STEM」

　　[★]

• 走査透過型電子顕微鏡

関

scanning transmission electron microscope、scanning transmission electron microscopy

「brain」

　　[★] 脳