"Minimal brain dysfunction" redirects here. It is not to be confused with mild cognitive impairment.
"ADD", "A.D.H.D.", and "Hyperactive" redirect here. For other uses, see ADD (disambiguation), A.D.H.D. (disambiguation), and Hyperactive (disambiguation).
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder |
| Synonyms |
attention deficit disorder, hyperkinetic disorder (ICD-10) |
|
| Children with ADHD may find it more difficult to focus and to complete their schoolwork. |
| Classification and external resources |
| Specialty |
Psychiatry |
| ICD-10 |
F90 |
| ICD-9-CM |
314.00, 314.01 |
| OMIM |
143465 |
| DiseasesDB |
6158 |
| MedlinePlus |
001551 |
| eMedicine |
med/3103 ped/177 |
| Patient UK |
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder |
| MeSH |
D001289 |
|
[edit on Wikidata]
|
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type.[1][2] It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling behavior which is not appropriate for a person's age.[3][4] These symptoms begin by age six to twelve, are present for more than six months, and cause problems in at least two settings (such as school, home, or recreational activities).[5][6] In children, problems paying attention may result in poor school performance.[3] Although it causes impairment, particularly in modern society, many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting.[7]
Despite being the most commonly studied and diagnosed mental disorder in children and adolescents, the exact cause is unknown in the majority of cases.[8] It affects about 5–7% of children when diagnosed via the DSM-IV criteria[9][4] and 1–2% when diagnosed via the ICD-10 criteria.[10] The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that it affected about 39 million people as of 2013.[11] Rates are similar between countries and depend mostly on how it is diagnosed.[12] ADHD is diagnosed approximately three times more often in boys than in girls, although the disorder is often overlooked in girls due to their symptoms differing from those of boys.[13][14][15] About 30–50% of people diagnosed in childhood continue to have symptoms into adulthood and between 2–5% of adults have the condition.[16][17][18] The condition can be difficult to tell apart from other disorders, as well as to distinguish from high levels of activity that are still within the normal-range.[6]
ADHD management recommendations vary by country and usually involve some combination of counseling, lifestyle changes, and medications.[3] The British guideline only recommends medications as a first-line treatment in children who have severe symptoms and for medication to be considered in those with moderate symptoms who either refuse or fail to improve with counseling, though for adults medications are a first-line treatment.[19] Canadian and American guidelines recommend that medications and behavioral therapy be used together as a first-line therapy, except in preschool-aged children.[20][21] Stimulant medication therapy is not recommended as a first-line therapy in preschool-aged children in either guideline.[19][21] Treatment with stimulants is effective for up to 14 months; however, its long term effectiveness is unclear.[22][23][24][25] Adolescents and adults tend to develop coping skills which make up for some or all of their impairments.[26]
The medical literature has described symptoms similar to ADHD since the 19th century.[27] ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been considered controversial since the 1970s.[28] The controversies have involved clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Topics include ADHD's causes and the use of stimulant medications in its treatment.[29] Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder in children and adults, and the debate in the scientific community mainly centers on how it is diagnosed and treated.[30][31][32] The condition was officially known as attention deficit disorder (ADD) from 1980 to 1987 while before this it was known as hyperkinetic reaction of childhood.[33][34]
Contents
- 1 Signs and symptoms
- 1.1 Intelligence
- 1.2 Associated disorders
- 2 Cause
- 2.1 Genetics
- 2.2 Environment
- 2.3 Society
- 3 Pathophysiology
- 3.1 Brain structure
- 3.2 Neurotransmitter pathways
- 3.3 Executive function and motivation
- 4 Diagnosis
- 4.1 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
- 4.2 International Classification of Diseases
- 4.3 Adults
- 4.4 Differential diagnosis
- 4.5 Biomarker research
- 5 Management
- 5.1 Behavioral therapies
- 5.2 Medication
- 5.3 Diet
- 6 Prognosis
- 7 Epidemiology
- 8 History
- 9 Society and culture
- 9.1 Controversies
- 9.2 Media commentary
- 10 References
- 11 External links
Signs and symptoms
Inattention, hyperactivity (restlessness in adults), disruptive behavior, and impulsivity are common in ADHD.[35][36] Academic difficulties are frequent as are problems with relationships.[35] The symptoms can be difficult to define as it is hard to draw a line at where normal levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity end and significant levels requiring interventions begin.[37]
According to the DSM-5, symptoms must be present for six months or more to a degree that is much greater than others of the same age[4] and they must cause significant problems functioning in at least two settings (e.g., social, school/work, or home).[4] The full criteria must have been met prior to age 12 in order to receive a diagnosis of ADHD.[4]
ADHD is divided into three subtypes: predominantly inattentive (ADHD-PI or ADHD-I), predominantly hyperactive-impulsive (ADHD-PH or ADHD-HI), and combined type (ADHD-C).[4][37]
A child with ADHD inattentive type has most or all of following symptoms, excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition:[4][38]
- Be easily distracted, miss details, forget things, and frequently switch from one activity to another
- Have difficulty maintaining focus on one task
- Become bored with a task after only a few minutes, unless doing something enjoyable
- Have difficulty focusing attention on organizing and completing a task or learning something new
- Have trouble completing or turning in homework assignments, often losing things (e.g., pencils, toys, assignments) needed to complete tasks or activities
- Seem to not be listening when spoken to
- Daydream, become easily confused, and move slowly
- Have difficulty processing information as quickly and accurately as others
- Struggle to follow instructions
- Have trouble understanding minute details
A child with ADHD hyperactive-impulsive type has most or all of the following symptoms, excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition:[4][38]
- Fidget and squirm in their seats
- Talk nonstop
- Dash around, touching or playing with anything and everything in sight
- Have trouble sitting still during dinner, school, doing homework, and story time
- Be constantly in motion
- Have difficulty doing quiet tasks or activities
- Be very impatient
- Blurt out inappropriate comments, show their emotions without restraint, and act without regard for consequences
- Have difficulty waiting for things they want or waiting their turns in games
- Often interrupt conversations or others' activities
Symptoms of hyperactivity tend to go away with age and turn into "inner restlessness" in teens and adults with ADHD.[16]
People with ADHD of all ages are more likely to have problems with social skills, such as social interaction and forming and maintaining friendships. This is true for all subtypes. About half of children and adolescents with ADHD experience social rejection by their peers compared to 10–15% of non-ADHD children and adolescents. People with attention deficits are prone to having difficulty processing verbal and nonverbal language which can negatively affect social interaction. They also may drift off during conversations, and miss social cues.[39]
Difficulties managing anger are more common in children with ADHD[40] as are poor handwriting[41] and delays in speech, language and motor development.[42][43] Although it causes significant impairment, particularly in modern society, many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting.[7]
Intelligence
Overall, studies have shown that people with ADHD tend to have lower scores on intelligence quotient (IQ) tests.[44] The significance of this is controversial due to the differences between people with ADHD and the difficulty determining the influence of symptoms, such as distractibility, on lower scores rather than intellectual capacity.[44] In studies of ADHD, higher IQs may be over represented because many studies exclude individuals who have lower IQs despite those with ADHD scoring on average 9 points lower on standardized intelligence measures.[45]
Associated disorders
In children, ADHD occurs with other disorders about ⅔ of the time.[7] Some commonly associated conditions include:
- Learning disabilities have been found to occur in about 20–30% of children with ADHD. Learning disabilities can include developmental speech and language disorders and academic skills disorders.[46] ADHD, however, is not considered a learning disability, but it very frequently causes academic difficulties.[46]
- Tourette syndrome has been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population.[3]
- Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD), which occur with ADHD in about 50% and 20% of cases respectively.[47] They are characterized by antisocial behaviors such as stubbornness, aggression, frequent temper tantrums, deceitfulness, lying, and stealing.[48] About half of those with hyperactivity and ODD or CD develop antisocial personality disorder in adulthood.[49] Brain imaging supports that conduct disorder and ADHD are separate conditions.[50]
- Primary disorder of vigilance, which is characterized by poor attention and concentration, as well as difficulties staying awake. These children tend to fidget, yawn and stretch and appear to be hyperactive in order to remain alert and active.[51]
- Sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) is a cluster of symptoms that potentially comprises another attention disorder. It may occur in 30-50% of ADHD cases, regardless of the subtype.[52]
- Mood disorders (especially bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder). Boys diagnosed with the combined ADHD subtype are more likely to have a mood disorder.[53] Adults with ADHD sometimes also have bipolar disorder, which requires careful assessment to accurately diagnose and treat both conditions.[54]
- Anxiety disorders have been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population.[53]
- Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) can co-occur with ADHD and shares many of its characteristics.[48]
- Substance use disorders. Adolescents and adults with ADHD are at increased risk of substance abuse.[16] This is most commonly seen with alcohol or cannabis.[16] The reason for this may be an altered reward pathway in the brains of ADHD individuals.[16] This makes the evaluation and treatment of ADHD more difficult, with serious substance misuse problems usually treated first due to their greater risks.[55][56]
- Restless legs syndrome has been found to be more common in those with ADHD and is often due to iron deficiency anaemia.[57][58] However, restless legs can simply be a part of ADHD and requires careful assessment to differentiate between the two disorders.[59]
- Sleep disorders and ADHD commonly co-exist. They can also occur as a side effect of medications used to treat ADHD. In children with ADHD, insomnia is the most common sleep disorder with behavioral therapy the preferred treatment.[60][61] Problems with sleep initiation are common among individuals with ADHD but often they will be deep sleepers and have significant difficulty getting up in the morning.[62] Melatonin is sometimes used in children who have sleep onset insomnia.[63]
- People with ADHD have an increased risk of persistent bed wetting.[64]
- A 2016 systematic review found a well established association between ADHD and obesity, asthma and sleep disorders, and tentative evidence for association with celiac disease and migraine,[65] while another 2016 systematic review did not support a clear link between celiac disease and ADHD, and stated that routine screening for celiac disease in people with ADHD is discouraged.[66]
Cause
The cause of most cases of ADHD is unknown; however, it is believed to involve interactions between genetic and environmental factors.[67][68] Certain cases are related to previous infection of or trauma to the brain.[67]
Genetics
Twin studies indicate that the disorder is often inherited from one's parents with genetics determining about 75% of cases.[22][69][70] Siblings of children with ADHD are three to four times more likely to develop the disorder than siblings of children without the disorder.[71] Genetic factors are also believed to be involved in determining whether ADHD persists into adulthood.[72]
Typically, a number of genes are involved, many of which directly affect dopamine neurotransmission.[73][74] Those involved with dopamine include DAT, DRD4, DRD5, TAAR1, MAOA, COMT, and DBH.[74][75][76] Other genes associated with ADHD include SERT, HTR1B, SNAP25, GRIN2A, ADRA2A, TPH2, and BDNF.[73][74] A common variant of a gene called LPHN3 is estimated to be responsible for about 9% of cases and when this variant is present, people are particularly responsive to stimulant medication.[77] The 7 repeat variant of dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4–7R) causes increased inhibitory effects induced by dopamine and is associated with ADHD. The DRD4 receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor that inhibits adenylyl cyclase. The DRD4–7R mutation results in a wide range of behavioral phenotypes, including ADHD symptoms reflecting split attention.[78]
Evolution may have played a role in the high rates of ADHD, particularly hyperactive and impulsive traits in males.[79] Some have hypothesized that some women may be more attracted to males who are risk takers, increasing the frequency of genes that predispose to hyperactivity and impulsivity in the gene pool.[80] Others have claimed that these traits may be an adaptation that helped males face stressful or dangerous environments with, for example, increased impulsivity and exploratory behavior.[79][80] In certain situations, ADHD traits may have been beneficial to society as a whole even while being harmful to the individual.[79][80][81] The high rates and heterogeneity of ADHD may have increased reproductive fitness and benefited society by adding diversity to the gene pool despite being detrimental to the individual.[81] In certain environments, some ADHD traits may have offered personal advantages to individuals, such as quicker response to predators or superior hunting skills.[82]
People with Down syndrome are more likely to have ADHD.[83]
Environment
See also: Diet and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
In addition to genetics, some environmental factors might play a role.[84] Alcohol intake during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders which can include ADHD or symptoms like it.[85] Children exposed to certain toxic substances, such as lead or polychlorinated biphenyls, may develop problems which resemble ADHD.[8][86] Exposure to the organophosphate insecticides chlorpyrifos and dialkyl phosphate is associated with an increased risk; however, the evidence is not conclusive.[87] Exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy can cause problems with central nervous system development and can increase the risk of ADHD.[8][88]
Extreme premature birth, very low birth weight, and extreme neglect, abuse, or social deprivation also increase the risk[8][89] as do certain infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood. These infections include, among others, various viruses (measles, varicella zoster encephalitis, rubella, enterovirus 71).[90] At least 30% of children with a traumatic brain injury later develop ADHD[91] and about 5% of cases are due to brain damage.[92]
Some studies suggest that in a minority of children, artificial food dyes or preservative may be associated with an increased prevalence of ADHD or ADHD-like symptoms[8][93] but the evidence is weak and may only apply to children with food sensitivities.[93][94][95] The United Kingdom and the European Union have put in place regulatory measures based on these concerns.[96] In a minority of children, intolerances or allergies to certain foods may worsen ADHD symptoms.[97]
Research does not support popular beliefs that ADHD is caused by eating too much refined sugar, watching too much television, parenting, poverty or family chaos; however, they might worsen ADHD symptoms in certain people.[36]
Society
The diagnosis of ADHD can represent family dysfunction or a poor educational system rather than an individual problem.[98] Some cases may be explained by increasing academic expectations, with a diagnosis being a method for parents in some countries to get extra financial and educational support for their child.[92] The youngest children in a class have been found to be more likely to be diagnosed as having ADHD possibly due to their being developmentally behind their older classmates.[99][100] Behaviors typical of ADHD occur more commonly in children who have experienced violence and emotional abuse.[22]
The social construct theory of ADHD suggests that because the boundaries between "normal" and "abnormal" behavior are socially constructed, i.e. jointly created and validated by all members of society, and in particular by physicians, parents, and teachers, it then follows that subjective valuations and judgements determine which diagnostic criteria are used and, thus, the number of people affected.[101] This could lead to the situation where the DSM-IV arrives at levels of ADHD three to four times higher than those obtained with the ICD-10.[15] Thomas Szasz, a supporter of this theory, has argued that ADHD was "…invented and then given a name."[102]
Pathophysiology
Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems, particularly those involving dopamine and norepinephrine.[103][104] The dopamine and norepinephrine pathways that originate in the ventral tegmental area and locus coeruleus project to diverse regions of the brain and govern a variety of cognitive processes.[103][105] The dopamine pathways and norepinephrine pathways which project to the prefrontal cortex and striatum are directly responsible for modulating executive function (cognitive control of behavior), motivation, reward perception, and motor function;[103][104][105] these pathways are known to play a central role in the pathophysiology of ADHD.[103][105][106][107] Larger models of ADHD with additional pathways have been proposed.[104][106][107]
Brain structure
In children with ADHD, there is a general reduction of volume in certain brain structures, with a proportionally greater decrease in the volume in the left-sided prefrontal cortex.[104][108] The posterior parietal cortex also shows thinning in ADHD individuals compared to controls.[104] Other brain structures in the prefrontal-striatal-cerebellar and prefrontal-striatal-thalamic circuits have also been found to differ between people with and without ADHD.[104][106][107]
Neurotransmitter pathways
Previously it was thought that the elevated number of dopamine transporters in people with ADHD was part of the pathophysiology but it appears that the elevated numbers are due to adaptation to exposure to stimulants.[109] Current models involve the mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway and the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system.[103][104][105] ADHD psychostimulants possess treatment efficacy because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems.[104][105][110] There may additionally be abnormalities in serotoninergic, glutamatergic, or cholinergic pathways.[110][111][112]
Executive function and motivation
The symptoms of ADHD arise from a deficiency in certain executive functions (e.g., attentional control, inhibitory control, and working memory).[62][104][105][113] Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that are required to successfully select and monitor behaviors that facilitate the attainment of one's chosen goals.[62][105][113] The executive function impairments that occur in ADHD individuals result in problems with staying organized, time keeping, excessive procrastination, maintaining concentration, paying attention, ignoring distractions, regulating emotions, and remembering details.[62][104][105] People with ADHD appear to have unimpaired long-term memory, and deficits in long-term recall appear to be attributed to impairments in working memory.[62][114] The criteria for an executive function deficit are met in 30–50% of children and adolescents with ADHD.[115] One study found that 80% of individuals with ADHD were impaired in at least one executive function task, compared to 50% for individuals without ADHD.[116] Due to the rates of brain maturation and the increasing demands for executive control as a person gets older, ADHD impairments may not fully manifest themselves until adolescence or even early adulthood.[62]
ADHD has also been associated with motivational deficits in children.[117] Children with ADHD find it difficult to focus on long-term over short-term rewards, and exhibit impulsive behavior for short-term rewards.[117]
Diagnosis
ADHD is diagnosed by an assessment of a person's childhood behavioral and mental development, including ruling out the effects of drugs, medications and other medical or psychiatric problems as explanations for the symptoms.[55] It often takes into account feedback from parents and teachers[6] with most diagnoses begun after a teacher raises concerns.[92] It may be viewed as the extreme end of one or more continuous human traits found in all people.[118] Whether someone responds to medications does not confirm or rule out the diagnosis. As imaging studies of the brain do not give consistent results between individuals, they are only used for research purposes and not diagnosis.[119]
In North America, DSM-5 criteria are used for diagnosis, while European countries usually use the ICD-10. With the DSM-IV criteria a diagnosis of ADHD is 3–4 times more likely than with the ICD-10 criteria.[15] It is classified as neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorder.[2][16] Additionally, it is classified as a disruptive behavior disorder along with oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and antisocial personality disorder.[120] A diagnosis does not imply a neurological disorder.[22]
Associated conditions that should be screened for include anxiety, depression, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and learning and language disorders. Other conditions that should be considered are other neurodevelopmental disorders, tics, and sleep apnea.[121]
Diagnosis of ADHD using quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) is an ongoing area of investigation, although the value of QEEG in ADHD is currently unclear.[122][123] In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration has approved the use of QEEG to evaluate the morbidity of ADHD.[124]
Self-rating scales, such as the ADHD rating scale and the Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale are used in the screening and evaluation of ADHD.[125]
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
As with many other psychiatric disorders, formal diagnosis should be made by a qualified professional based on a set number of criteria. In the United States, these criteria are defined by the American Psychiatric Association in the DSM. Based on the DSM criteria, there are three sub-types of ADHD:[4]
- ADHD predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-PI) presents with symptoms including being easily distracted, forgetful, daydreaming, disorganization, poor concentration, and difficulty completing tasks.[5][4]
- ADHD, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type presents with excessive fidgetiness and restlessness, hyperactivity, difficulty waiting and remaining seated, immature behavior; destructive behaviors may also be present.[5][4]
- ADHD, combined type is a combination of the first two subtypes.[5][4]
This subdivision is based on presence of at least six out of nine long-term (lasting at least six months) symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity–impulsivity, or both.[126] To be considered, the symptoms must have appeared by the age of six to twelve and occur in more than one environment (e.g. at home and at school or work).[5] The symptoms must be not appropriate for a child of that age[5][127] and there must be evidence that it is causing social, school or work related problems.[126]
International Classification of Diseases
In the ICD-10 by the World Health Organization, the symptoms of "hyperkinetic disorder" are analogous to ADHD in the DSM-5. When a conduct disorder (as defined by ICD-10)[42] is present, the condition is referred to as hyperkinetic conduct disorder. Otherwise, the disorder is classified as disturbance of activity and attention, other hyperkinetic disorders or hyperkinetic disorders, unspecified. The latter is sometimes referred to as hyperkinetic syndrome.[42]
In the preliminary draft for ICD-11 (planned for 2018), ADHD is classified under 6A42 (Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and everything seems to be fully identical now to DSM-5.[128]
Adults
Main article: Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Adults with ADHD are diagnosed under the same criteria, including that their signs must have been present by the age of six to twelve. Questioning parents or guardians as to how the person behaved and developed as a child may form part of the assessment; a family history of ADHD also adds weight to a diagnosis.[16] While the core symptoms of ADHD are similar in children and adults they often present differently in adults than in children, for example excessive physical activity seen in children may present as feelings of restlessness and constant mental activity in adults.[16]
It is estimated that between 2–5% of adults have ADHD.[16] Around 25-50% of children with ADHD continue to experience ADHD symptoms into adulthood, while the rest experiences fewer or no symptoms.[4][16] Currently, most adults remain untreated.[129] Many adults with ADHD without diagnosis and treatment have a disorganized life and some use non-prescribed drugs or alcohol as a coping mechanism.[26] Other problems may include relationship and job difficulties, and an increased risk of criminal activities.[16] Associated mental health problems include: depression, anxiety disorder, and learning disabilities.[26]
Some ADHD symptoms in adults differ from those seen in children. While children with ADHD may climb and run about excessively, adults may experience an inability to relax, or they talk excessively in social situations. Adults with ADHD may start relationships impulsively, display sensation-seeking behavior, and be short-tempered. Addictive behavior such as substance abuse and gambling are common. The DSM-V criteria do specifically deal with adults, unlike those in DSM-IV, which were criticized for not being appropriate for adults; those who presented differently may lead to the claim that they outgrew the diagnosis.[16]
Differential diagnosis
| ADHD symptoms which are related to other disorders[130] |
| Depression |
Anxiety disorder |
Bipolar disorder |
- feelings of hopelessness, low self-esteem, or unhappiness
- loss of interest in hobbies or regular activities
- fatigue
- sleep problems
- difficulty maintaining attention
- change in appetite
- irritability or hostility
- low tolerance for stress
- thoughts of death
- unexplained pain
|
- persistent feeling of anxiety
- irritability
- occasional feelings of panic or fear
- being hyperalert
- inability to pay attention
- tire easily
- low tolerance for stress
- difficulty maintaining attention
|
- in manic state
- excessive happiness
- hyperactivity
- racing thoughts
- aggression
- excessive talking
- grandiose delusions
- decreased need for sleep
- inappropriate social behavior
- difficulty maintaining attention
- in depressive state
- same symptoms as in depression section
|
Symptoms of ADHD such as low mood and poor self-image, mood swings, and irritability can be confused with dysthymia, cyclothymia or bipolar disorder as well as with borderline personality disorder.[16] Some symptoms that are due to anxiety disorders, antisocial personality disorder, developmental disabilities or mental retardation or the effects of substance abuse such as intoxication and withdrawal can overlap with some ADHD. These disorders can also sometimes occur along with ADHD. Medical conditions which can cause ADHD type symptoms include: hyperthyroidism, seizure disorder, lead toxicity, hearing deficits, hepatic disease, sleep apnea, drug interactions, untreated celiac disease, and head injury.[26][66]
Primary sleep disorders may affect attention and behavior and the symptoms of ADHD may affect sleep.[131] It is thus recommended that children with ADHD be regularly assessed for sleep problems.[132] Sleepiness in children may result in symptoms ranging from the classic ones of yawning and rubbing the eyes, to hyperactivity and inattentiveness.[133] Obstructive sleep apnea can also cause ADHD type symptoms.[133]
Biomarker research
Reviews of ADHD biomarkers have noted that platelet monoamine oxidase expression, urinary norepinephrine, urinary MHPG, and urinary phenethylamine levels consistently differ between ADHD individuals and healthy control.[134][135] These measurements could potentially serve as diagnostic biomarkers for ADHD, but more research is needed to establish their diagnostic utility.[135] Urinary and blood plasma phenethylamine concentrations are lower in ADHD individuals relative to controls and the two most commonly prescribed drugs for ADHD, amphetamine and methylphenidate, increase phenethylamine biosynthesis in treatment-responsive individuals with ADHD.[75][134][135] Lower urinary phenethylamine concentrations are also associated with symptoms of inattentiveness in ADHD individuals.[135] Electro encephalogram (EEG)) is not accurate enough to make the diagnosis.[136]
Management
Main article: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management
The management of ADHD typically involves counseling or medications either alone or in combination. While treatment may improve long-term outcomes, it does not get rid of negative outcomes entirely.[137] Medications used include stimulants, atomoxetine, alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists, and sometimes antidepressants.[53][110] In those who have trouble focussing on long-term rewards, a large amount of positive reinforcement improves task performance.[117] ADHD stimulants also improve persistence and task performance in children with ADHD.[104][117]
Behavioral therapies
There is good evidence for the use of behavioral therapies in ADHD and they are the recommended first line treatment in those who have mild symptoms or are preschool-aged.[138][139] Psychological therapies used include: psychoeducational input, behavior therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), interpersonal psychotherapy, family therapy, school-based interventions, social skills training, behavioral peer intervention, organization training,[140] parent management training,[22] and neurofeedback.[141] Behavior modification and neurofeedback have the best support.[142]
Parent training and education have been found to have short-term benefits.[143][144] There is little high quality research on the effectiveness of family therapy for ADHD, but the evidence that exists shows that it is similar to community care and better than a placebo.[145] Several ADHD specific support groups exist as informational sources and may help families cope with ADHD.[146]
Training in social skills, behavioral modification and medication may have some limited beneficial effects. The most important factor in reducing later psychological problems, such as major depression, criminality, school failure, and substance use disorders is formation of friendships with people who are not involved in delinquent activities.[147]
Regular physical exercise, particularly aerobic exercise, is an effective add-on treatment for ADHD in children and adults, particularly when combined with stimulant medication, although the best intensity and type of aerobic exercise for improving symptoms are not currently known.[148][149][150] In particular, the long-term effects of regular aerobic exercise in ADHD individuals include better behavior and motor abilities, improved executive functions (including attention, inhibitory control, and planning, among other cognitive domains), faster information processing speed, and better memory.[148][149][150] Parent-teacher ratings of behavioral and socio-emotional outcomes in response to regular aerobic exercise include: better overall function, reduced ADHD symptoms, better self-esteem, reduced levels of anxiety and depression, fewer somatic complaints, better academic and classroom behavior, and improved social behavior.[148] Exercising while on stimulant medication augments the effect of stimulant medication on executive function.[148] It is believed that these short-term effects of exercise are mediated by an increased abundance of synaptic dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain.[148]
Medication
Methylphenidate (Ritalin) 10 mg tablets
Stimulant medications are the pharmaceutical treatment of choice.[151][152] They have at least some effect on symptoms in the short term in about 80% of people.[25] Methylphenidate appears to improve symptoms as reported by teachers and parents.[153] Stimulants may also reduce the risk of injuries in children with ADHD.[154]
There are a number of non-stimulant medications, such as atomoxetine, bupropion, guanfacine, and clonidine that may be used as alternatives, or added to stimulant therapy.[151][155] There are no good studies comparing the various medications; however, they appear more or less equal with respect to side effects.[156] Stimulants appear to improve academic performance while atomoxetine does not.[157] Atomoxetine, due to its lack of addiction liability, may be preferred in those who are at risk of recreational or compulsive stimulant use.[16] There is little evidence on the effects of medication on social behaviors.[156] As of June 2015[update], the long-term effects of ADHD medication have yet to be fully determined.[158][159] Magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD.[160][161][162]
Guidelines on when to use medications vary by country, with the United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommending use for children only in severe cases, though for adults medication is a first-line treatment, while most United States guidelines recommend medications in most age groups.[20] Medications are not recommended for preschool children.[22][163] Underdosing of stimulants may occur and result in a lack of response or later loss of effectiveness.[164] This is particularly common in adolescents and adults as approved dosing is based on school-aged children, causing some practitioners to use weight based or benefit based off-label dosing instead.[165][166][167]
While stimulants and atomoxetine are usually safe, there are side-effects and contraindications to their use.[151] A large overdose on ADHD stimulants is commonly associated with symptoms such as stimulant psychosis and mania;[168] although very rare, at therapeutic doses these events appear to occur in approximately 0.1% of individuals within the first several weeks after starting amphetamine or methylphenidate therapy.[169][168][170] Administration of an antipsychotic medication has been found to effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.[168] Regular monitoring has been recommended in those on long-term treatment.[171] Stimulant therapy should be stopped periodically to assess continuing need for medication, decrease possible growth delay, and reduce tolerance.[172][173] Long-term misuse of stimulant medications at doses above the therapeutic range for ADHD treatment is associated with addiction and dependence.[174][175] Untreated ADHD, however, is also associated with elevated risk of substance use disorders and conduct disorders.[174] The use of stimulants appears to either reduce this risk or have no effect on it.[16][158][174] The safety of these medications in pregnancy is unclear.[176]
Diet
Dietary modifications may be of benefit to a small proportion of children with ADHD.[177] A 2013 meta-analysis found less than a third of children with ADHD see some improvement in symptoms with free fatty acid supplementation or decreased eating of artificial food coloring.[94] These benefits may be limited to children with food sensitivities or those who are simultaneously being treated with ADHD medications.[94] This review also found that evidence does not support removing other foods from the diet to treat ADHD.[94] A 2014 review found that an elimination diet results in a small overall benefit.[97] A 2016 review stated that the use of a gluten-free diet as standard ADHD treatment is discouraged.[66] Iron, magnesium and iodine may also have an effect on ADHD symptoms.[178] There is a small amount of evidence that lower tissue zinc levels may be associated with ADHD.[179] In the absence of a demonstrated zinc deficiency (which is rare outside of developing countries), zinc supplementation is not recommended as treatment for ADHD.[180] However, zinc supplementation may reduce the minimum effective dose of amphetamine when it is used with amphetamine for the treatment of ADHD.[181] There is evidence of a modest benefit of omega 3 fatty acid supplementation, but it is not recommended in place of traditional medication.[182][183]
Prognosis
An 8-year follow up of children diagnosed with ADHD (combined type) found that they often have difficulties in adolescence, regardless of treatment or lack thereof.[184] In the USA, fewer than 5% of individuals with ADHD get a college degree,[185] compared to 28% of the general population aged 25 years and older.[186] The proportion of children meeting criteria for ADHD drops by about half in the three years following the diagnosis and this occurs regardless of treatments used.[187][188] ADHD persists into adulthood in about 30–50% of cases.[17] Those affected are likely to develop coping mechanisms as they mature, thus compensating to some extent for their previous symptoms.[26]
Epidemiology
Main article: Epidemiology of attention deficit hyperactive disorder
ADHD is estimated to affect about 6–7% of people aged 18 and under when diagnosed via the DSM-IV criteria.[9] When diagnosed via the ICD-10 criteria rates in this age group are estimated at 1–2%.[10] Children in North America appear to have a higher rate of ADHD than children in Africa and the Middle East; this is believed to be due to differing methods of diagnosis rather than a difference in underlying frequency.[189] If the same diagnostic methods are used, the rates are more or less the same between countries.[12] It is diagnosed approximately three times more often in boys than in girls.[14][15] This difference between sexes may reflect either a difference in susceptibility or that females with ADHD are less likely to be diagnosed than males.[190]
Rates of diagnosis and treatment have increased in both the United Kingdom and the United States since the 1970s.[191] This is believed to be primarily due to changes in how the condition is diagnosed[191] and how readily people are willing to treat it with medications rather than a true change in how common the condition is.[10] It is believed that changes to the diagnostic criteria in 2013 with the release of the DSM-5 will increase the percentage of people diagnosed with ADHD, especially among adults.[192]
History
Timeline of ADHD diagnostic criteria, prevalence, and treatment
Main article: History of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Hyperactivity has long been part of the human condition. Sir Alexander Crichton describes "mental restlessness" in his book An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement written in 1798.[193][194][page needed] ADHD was first clearly described by George Still in 1902.[191]
The terminology used to describe the condition has changed over time and has included: in the DSM-I (1952) "minimal brain dysfunction," in the DSM-II (1968) "hyperkinetic reaction of childhood," and in the DSM-III (1980) "attention-deficit disorder (ADD) with or without hyperactivity."[191] In 1987 this was changed to ADHD in the DSM-III-R and the DSM-IV in 1994 split the diagnosis into three subtypes, ADHD inattentive type, ADHD hyperactive-impulsive type and ADHD combined type.[195] These terms were kept in the DSM-5 in 2013.[4] Other terms have included "minimal brain damage" used in the 1930s.[196]
The use of stimulants to treat ADHD was first described in 1937.[197] In 1934, Benzedrine became the first amphetamine medication approved for use in the United States.[198] Methylphenidate was introduced in the 1950s, and enantiopure dextroamphetamine in the 1970s.[191]
Society and culture
Controversies
Main article: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies
ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been controversial since the 1970s.[28][29][199] The controversies involve clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behavior[55][200] to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition.[201] Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children,[29][202] the method of diagnosis, and the possibility of overdiagnosis.[202] In 2009, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, while acknowledging the controversy, states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature.[118] In 2014, Keith Conners, one of the early advocates for recognition of the disorder, spoke out against overdiagnosis in a New York Times article.[203] In contrast, a 2014 peer-reviewed medical literature review indicated that ADHD is underdiagnosed in adults.[18]
With widely differing rates of diagnosis across countries, states within countries, races, and ethnicities, some suspect factors other than the presence of the symptoms of ADHD are playing a role in diagnosis.[99] Some sociologists consider ADHD to be an example of the medicalization of deviant behavior, that is, the turning of the previously non-medical issue of school performance into a medical one.[28][92] Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder, at least in the small number of people with severe symptoms.[92] Among healthcare providers the debate mainly centers on diagnosis and treatment in the much greater number of people with less severe symptoms.[31][32][92]
As of 2009[update], 8% of all United States Major League Baseball players had been diagnosed with ADHD, making the disorder common among this population. The increase coincided with the League's 2006 ban on stimulants, which has raised concern that some players are mimicking or falsifying the symptoms or history of ADHD to get around the ban on the use of stimulants in sport.[204]
A number of public figures have given controversial statements regarding ADHD. Tom Cruise has described the medications Ritalin (methylphenidate) and Adderall (a mixed-salt amphetamine formulation) as "street drugs".[205] Ushma S. Neill criticized this view, stating that the doses of stimulants used in the treatment of ADHD do not cause addiction and that there is some evidence of a reduced risk of later substance addiction in children treated with stimulants.[206] In the UK, Susan Greenfield spoke out publicly in 2007 in the House of Lords about the need for a wide-ranging inquiry into the dramatic increase in the diagnosis of ADHD, and possible causes. Her comments followed a BBC Panorama program that highlighted research that suggested medications are no better than other forms of therapy in the long term.[207] In 2010, the BBC Trust criticized the 2007 Panorama program for summarizing the research as showing "no demonstrable improvement in children's behaviour after staying on ADHD medication for three years" when in actuality "the study found that medication did offer a significant improvement over time" although the long-term benefits of medication were found to be "no better than children who were treated with behavior therapy."[208]
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Up till now, there is no conclusive evidence for a relationship between ADHD and CD. Therefore, it is not advised to perform routine screening of CD when assessing ADHD (and vice versa) or to implement GFD as a standard treatment in ADHD. Nevertheless, the possibility of untreated CD predisposing to ADHD-like behavior should be kept in mind. ... It is possible that in untreated patients with CD, neurologic symptoms such as chronic fatigue, inattention, pain, and headache could predispose patients to ADHD-like behavior (mainly symptoms of inattentive type), which may be alleviated after GFD treatment. (CD: celiac disease; GFD: gluten-free diet)
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Free fatty acid supplementation and artificial food color exclusions appear to have beneficial effects on ADHD symptoms, although the effect of the former are small and those of the latter may be limited to ADHD patients with food sensitivities...
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an elimination diet produces a small aggregate effect but may have greater benefit among some children. Very few studies enable proper evaluation of the likelihood of response in children with ADHD who are not already preselected based on prior diet response.
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Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.
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DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. Cognitive control is impaired in several disorders, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control. ... it has not been shown that 5HT makes a therapeutic contribution to treatment of ADHD.
NOTE: DA: dopamine, LC: locus coeruleus, VTA: ventral tegmental area, 5HT: serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)
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Recent conceptualizations of ADHD have taken seriously the distributed nature of neuronal processing [10,11,35,36]. Most of the candidate networks have focused on prefrontal-striatal-cerebellar circuits, although other posterior regions are also being proposed [10].
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EFs and prefrontal cortex are the first to suffer, and suffer disproportionately, if something is not right in your life. They suffer first, and most, if you are stressed (Arnsten 1998, Liston et al. 2009, Oaten & Cheng 2005), sad (Hirt et al. 2008, von Hecker & Meiser 2005), lonely (Baumeister et al. 2002, Cacioppo & Patrick 2008, Campbell et al. 2006, Tun et al. 2012), sleep deprived (Barnes et al. 2012, Huang et al. 2007), or not physically fit (Best 2010, Chaddock et al. 2011, Hillman et al. 2008). Any of these can cause you to appear to have a disorder of EFs, such as ADHD, when you do not.
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Behavioral studies show altered processing of reinforcement and incentives in children with ADHD. These children respond more impulsively to rewards and choose small, immediate rewards over larger, delayed incentives. Interestingly, a high intensity of reinforcement is effective in improving task performance in children with ADHD. Pharmacotherapy may also improve task persistence in these children. ... Previous studies suggest that a clinical approach using interventions to improve motivational processes in patients with ADHD may improve outcomes as children with ADHD transition into adolescence and adulthood.
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While diagnosis of ADHD is usually done by analysis of the symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), PEA was recently described as a biomarker for ADHD
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Beneficial chronic effects of cardio exercise were found on various functions as well, including executive functions, attention and behavior.
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We may conclude that all different types of exercise ... attenuate the characteristic symptoms of ADHD and improve social behaviour, motor skills, strength and neuropsychological parameters without any undesirable side effects. Available reports do not reveal which type, intensity, duration and frequency of exercise is most effective
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The findings from these studies provide some support for the notion that exercise has the potential to act as a protective factor for ADHD.
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In addition, a consensus has not been reached on the optimal diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Moreover, the benefits and long-term effects of medical and complementary therapies for this disorder continue to be debated. These gaps in knowledge hinder the ability of clinicians to effectively recognize and treat ADHD.
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Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure.
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As most treatment guidelines and prescribing information for stimulant medications relate to experience in school-aged children, prescribed doses for older patients are lacking. Emerging evidence for both methylphenidate and Adderall indicate that when weight-corrected daily doses, equipotent with those used in the treatment of younger patients, are used to treat adults with ADHD, these patients show a very robust clinical response consistent with that observed in pediatric studies. These data suggest that older patients may require a more aggressive approach in terms of dosing, based on the same target dosage ranges that have already been established -- for methylphenidate, 1-1.5-2 mg/kg/day, and for D,L-amphetamine, 0.5-0.75-1 mg/kg/day....
In particular, adolescents and adults are vulnerable to underdosing, and are thus at potential risk of failing to receive adequate dosage levels. As with all therapeutic agents, the efficacy and safety of stimulant medications should always guide prescribing behavior: careful dosage titration of the selected stimulant product should help to ensure that each patient with ADHD receives an adequate dose, so that the clinical benefits of therapy can be fully attained.
- ^ Kessler, S. (1996). "Drug therapy in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder". Southern Medical Journal. 89 (1): 33–38. doi:10.1097/00007611-199601000-00005. ISSN 0038-4348. PMID 8545689.
- ^ a b c Shoptaw SJ, Kao U, Ling W (January 2009). Shoptaw SJ, Ali R, ed. "Treatment for amphetamine psychosis". Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (1): CD003026. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3. PMID 19160215.
A minority of individuals who use amphetamines develop full-blown psychosis requiring care at emergency departments or psychiatric hospitals. In such cases, symptoms of amphetamine psychosis commonly include paranoid and persecutory delusions as well as auditory and visual hallucinations in the presence of extreme agitation. More common (about 18%) is for frequent amphetamine users to report psychotic symptoms that are sub-clinical and that do not require high-intensity intervention ...
About 5–15% of the users who develop an amphetamine psychosis fail to recover completely (Hofmann 1983) ...
Findings from one trial indicate use of antipsychotic medications effectively resolves symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.
- ^ "Adderall XR Prescribing Information" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Shire US Inc. December 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
Treatment-emergent psychotic or manic symptoms, e.g., hallucinations, delusional thinking, or mania in children and adolescents without prior history of psychotic illness or mania can be caused by stimulants at usual doses. ... In a pooled analysis of multiple short-term, placebo controlled studies, such symptoms occurred in about 0.1% (4 patients with events out of 3482 exposed to methylphenidate or amphetamine for several weeks at usual doses) of stimulant-treated patients compared to 0 in placebo-treated patients.
- ^ Mosholder AD, Gelperin K, Hammad TA, Phelan K, Johann-Liang R (February 2009). "Hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms associated with the use of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs in children". Pediatrics. 123 (2): 611–616. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-0185. PMID 19171629.
- ^ Kraemer M, Uekermann J, Wiltfang J, Kis B (July 2010). "Methylphenidate-induced psychosis in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: report of 3 new cases and review of the literature". Clin Neuropharmacol. 33 (4): 204–6. doi:10.1097/WNF.0b013e3181e29174. PMID 20571380.
- ^ van de Loo-Neus GH, Rommelse N, Buitelaar JK (August 2011). "To stop or not to stop? How long should medication treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder be extended?". Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 21 (8): 584–599. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.03.008. PMID 21530185.
- ^ Ibrahim, Kinda; Donyai, Parastou (2015). "Drug Holidays From ADHD Medication: International Experience Over the Past Four Decades" (PDF). Journal of Attention Disorders. 19 (7): 551–568. doi:10.1177/1087054714548035. ISSN 1557-1246. PMID 25253684.
- ^ a b c Malenka, RC; Nestler, EJ; Hyman, SE (2009). Sydor, A; Brown, RY, eds. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 323, 368. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4.
supervised use of stimulants at therapeutic doses may decrease risk of experimentation with drugs to self-medicate symptoms. Second, untreated ADHD may lead to school failure, peer rejection, and subsequent association with deviant peer groups that encourage drug misuse. ... amphetamines and methylphenidate are used in low doses to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and in higher doses to treat narcolepsy (Chapter 12). Despite their clinical uses, these drugs are strongly reinforcing, and their long-term use at high doses is linked with potential addiction
- ^ Oregon Health & Science University (2009). "Black box warnings of ADHD drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration". Portland, Oregon: United States National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
- ^ Ashton H, Gallagher P, Moore B (September 2006). "The adult psychiatrist's dilemma: psychostimulant use in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder". J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford). 20 (5): 602–610. doi:10.1177/0269881106061710. PMID 16478756.
- ^ Nigg JT, Lewis K, Edinger T, Falk M (January 2012). "Meta-analysis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, restriction diet, and synthetic food color additives". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 51 (1): 86–97. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.015. PMID 22176942.
- ^ Konikowska K, Regulska-Ilow B, Rózańska D (2012). "The influence of components of diet on the symptoms of ADHD in children". Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig. 63 (2): 127–134. PMID 22928358.
- ^ Arnold LE, DiSilvestro RA (2005). "Zinc in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology. 15 (4): 619–27. doi:10.1089/cap.2005.15.619. PMID 16190793.
- ^ Bloch, MH; Mulqueen, J (October 2014). "Nutritional supplements for the treatment of ADHD.". Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America. 23 (4): 883–97. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.002. PMC 4170184. PMID 25220092.
- ^ Krause J (April 2008). "SPECT and PET of the dopamine transporter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Expert Rev. Neurother. 8 (4): 611–625. doi:10.1586/14737175.8.4.611. PMID 18416663.
Zinc binds at ... extracellular sites of the DAT [103], serving as a DAT inhibitor. In this context, controlled double-blind studies in children are of interest, which showed positive effects of zinc [supplementation] on symptoms of ADHD [105,106]. It should be stated that at this time [supplementation] with zinc is not integrated in any ADHD treatment algorithm.
- ^ Bloch MH, Qawasmi A (October 2011). "Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 50 (10): 991–1000. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.008. PMC 3625948. PMID 21961774.
- ^ Königs A, Kiliaan AJ (July 2016). "Critical appraisal of omega-3 fatty acids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder treatment". Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 12: 1869–1882. doi:10.2147/NDT.S68652. PMC 4968854. PMID 27555775.
- ^ Molina BS, Hinshaw SP, Swanson JM, et al. (May 2009). "The MTA at 8 years: prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-type ADHD in a multisite study". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 48 (5): 484–500. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819c23d0. PMC 3063150. PMID 19318991.
- ^ Cimera, Robert E. (2002). Making ADHD a gift : teaching Superman how to fly. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-8108-4318-9. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
- ^ Bergman, Mike (28 March 2005). "College Degree Nearly Doubles Annual Earnings, Census Bureau Reports". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 23 September 2008. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
- ^ Jensen PS, Arnold LE, Swanson JM (August 2007). "3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA study". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 46 (8): 989–1002. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3180686d48. PMID 17667478.
- ^ "What is the evidence for using CNS stimulants to treat ADHD in children?". Therapeutics Initiative. University of British Columbia. March 2008. Archived from the original on 6 September 2010.
- ^ Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA (June 2007). "The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 164 (6): 942–8. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.6.942. PMID 17541055.
- ^ Staller J, Faraone SV (2006). "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in girls: epidemiology and management". CNS Drugs. 20 (2): 107–23. doi:10.2165/00023210-200620020-00003. PMID 16478287. (subscription required (help)).
- ^ a b c d e "ADHD Throughout the Years" (PDF). Center For Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2 August 2013.
- ^ Dalsgaard, Søren (February 2013). "Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 22 Suppl 1: S43–8. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0360-z. PMID 23202886. (subscription required (help)).
- ^ Palmer ED, Finger S (May 2001). "An early description of ADHD (inattentive subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and 'Mental restlessness' (1798)". Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 6 (2): 66–73. doi:10.1111/1475-3588.00324. (subscription required (help)).
- ^ Crichton, Alexander (1976) [1798]. An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement: comprehending a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their effects. United Kingdom: AMS Press. p. 271. ISBN 0-404-08212-2. Retrieved 17 January 2014 – via Google Books.
- ^ Millichap, J. Gordon (2010). "Definition and History of ADHD". Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD (2nd ed.). Springer Science. pp. 2–3. doi:10.1007/978-104419-1397-5_1. ISBN 978-1-4419-1396-8. LCCN 2009938108 – via Google Books.
- ^ Weiss, Margaret; Hechtman, Lily Trokenberg; Weiss, Gabrielle (2001). "ADHD in Adulthood: An Introduction". ADHD in Adulthood: A Guide to Current Theory, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Taylor & Francis. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8018-6822-1 – via Google Books.
- ^ Patrick KS, Straughn AB, Perkins JS, González MA (January 2009). "Evolution of stimulants to treat ADHD: transdermal methylphenidate". Human Psychopharmacology. 24 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1002/hup.992. PMC 2629554. PMID 19051222.
- ^ Rasmussen, Nicolas (July 2006). "Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929–1950". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 61 (3): 288–323. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrj039. PMID 16492800. (subscription required (help)).
- ^ Foreman DM (February 2006). "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: legal and ethical aspects". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 91 (2): 192–194. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.064576. PMC 2082674. PMID 16428370.
- ^ Faraone, Stephen V. (February 2005). "The scientific foundation for understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as a valid psychiatric disorder". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 14 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1007/s00787-005-0429-z. PMID 15756510. (subscription required (help)).
- ^ Boseley, Sarah (30 September 2010). "Hyperactive children may suffer from genetic disorder, says study". The Guardian.
- ^ a b Cormier, Eileen (October 2008). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and update". Journal of Pediatric Nursing. 23 (5): 345–57. doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2008.01.003. PMID 18804015.
- ^ Schwarz, Alan (14 December 2013). "The Selling of Attention Deficit Disorder". The New York Times (14 December 2013). Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ^ Saletan, William (12 January 2009). "Doping Deficit Disorder: Need performance-enhancing drugs? Claim ADHD". Slate. The Slate Group LLC. Archived from the original on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 2 May 2009.
- ^ Leiby, Richard (25 June 2005). "A Couch Tom Cruise Won't Jump On". Washington Post. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
- ^ Neill, Ushma S. (August 2005). "Tom Cruise is dangerous and irresponsible". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 115 (8): 1964–5. doi:10.1172/JCI26200. PMC 1180571. PMID 16075033.
- ^ "Peer calls for ADHD care review". BBC News. 14 November 2007. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ^ Singh, Anita (25 February 2010). "BBC must broadcast apology over inaccurate Panorama programme". The Telegraph. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
External links
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. |
- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder at DMOZ
- National Institute of Mental Health on ADHD
- New Zealand MOH Guidelines for the Assessment and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
- AACAP Practice Parameters for the Assessment and Treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
- Faraone, Stephen V.; Asherson, Philip; Banaschewski, Tobias; Biederman, Joseph; Buitelaar, Jan K.; Ramos-Quiroga, Josep Antoni; Rohde, Luis Augusto; Sonuga-Barke, Edmund J. S.; Tannock, Rosemary; Franke, Barbara (6 August 2015). "Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Nature Reviews Disease Primers: 15020. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2015.20.
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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (F90, 314)
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| Main articles |
- History of ADHD
- ADHD in adults
- ADHD controversies
- ADHD management
- Social construct theory of ADHD
- ADHD coaching
- Major characteristics: Attention
- Hyperactivity
- Impulsivity
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| Sub-types |
- ADHD predominantly inattentive (ADHD-I, formerly ADD)
- ADHD predominantly hyperactive (ADHD-H, formerly ADHD)
- ADHD combined type (ADHD-C)
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| Notable publications |
- Driven to Distraction (1994)
- Delivered from Distraction (2005)
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| Medications |
- Stimulants:
- Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, and others)
- Dexmethylphenidate (Focalin, Focalin XR)
- Amphetamine (Evekeo, Adderall, Adzenys XR, Dyanavel XR)
- Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine, Zenzedi, ProCentra, and others)
- Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse)
- Non-stimulant:
- Atomoxetine (Strattera)
- Guanfacine (Tenex (off-label), Intuniv)
- Clonidine (Catapres (off-label), Kapvay)
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| Related or outdated topics |
- Auditory processing disorder
- Deficits in attention, motor control and perception
- Developmental coordination disorder
- Low arousal theory
- Sluggish cognitive tempo
- Sensory processing disorder
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ADHD pharmacotherapies
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Central nervous system (CNS)
stimulants |
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Amphetamine
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- Adderall
- Adzenys
- Dyanavel
- Evekeo
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Dextroamphetamine
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- Dexedrine
- ProCentra
- Zenzedi
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Lisdexamfetamine
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Methamphetamine
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Methylphenidate
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- Ritalin
- Concerta
- Aptensio
- Biphentin
- Daytrana
- Equasym
- Medikinet
- Metadate
- Methylin
- Quillivant
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Dexmethylphenidate
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Non-classical
CNS stimulants |
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α2 adrenoceptor
agonists |
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| Antidepressants/Anxiolytics |
- Amitriptyline
- Bupropion
- Buspirone
- Desipramine
- Duloxetine
- Imipramine
- Milnacipran
- Moclobemide
- Nortriptyline
- Reboxetine
- Venlafaxine
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| Miscellaneous others |
- Amantadine
- Carbamazepine
- Memantine
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| Related articles |
- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management
- Monoamine releasing agent
- Dopamine (DA)
- Dopamine transporter (DAT)
- Dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI)
- Norepinephrine (NE)
- Norepinephrine transporter (NET)
- Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI)
- Serotonin (5-HT)
- Serotonin transporter (SERT)
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)
- Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI)
- Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI)
- Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (SNDRI)
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Amphetamine
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Main articles
and
pharmaceuticals |
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Amphetamine
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- Adderall
- Adzenys
- Dyanavel
- Evekeo
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Levoamphetamine
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N/A
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Dextroamphetamine
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- Dexedrine
- ProCentra
- Zenzedi
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Lisdexamfetamine
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| Neuropharmacology |
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Biomolecular targets
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- TAAR1 (full agonist)
- CART (mRNA inducer)
- 5-HT1A receptor (low affinity ligand)
- MAO (weak competitive inhibitor)
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Inhibited transporters
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- DAT
- NET
- SERT
- VMAT1
- VMAT2
- EAAT3
- SLC22A3
- SLC22A5
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| Active metabolites |
- 4-Hydroxyamphetamine
- 4-Hydroxynorephedrine
- Norephedrine
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| Related articles |
- ADD
- ADHD
- ADHD management
- Amphetamine psychosis
- Dopamine
- Doping in sport
- Formetorex
- ΔFosB
- History and culture of substituted amphetamines
- History of Benzedrine
- Methamphetamine
- Methylphenidate
- N-Methylphenethylamine
- Narcolepsy
- Nootropic
- Norepinephrine
- Performance-enhancing substance
- Pharmaceutical drug
- Phenethylamine
- Phentermine
- Phenylacetone
- Recreational drug use
- Serotonin
- Substituted amphetamine
- Trace amine
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Emotional and behavioral disorders (F90–F98, 312–314)
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| Emotional/behavioral |
- ADHD
- Conduct disorder
- Oppositional defiant disorder
- Emotional/behavioral disorder (EBD)
- Separation anxiety
- Social functioning
- Tic disorders
- Speech disorders
- Stereotypic movement disorder
- Body-focused repetitive behavior
- Nose-picking
- Nail biting
- Hair pulling
- Skin picking
- Elimination disorders
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Mental and behavioral disorders (F 290–319)
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Neurological/symptomatic
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Dementia
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- Mild cognitive impairment
- Alzheimer's disease
- Vascular dementia
- Pick's disease
- Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
- Huntington's disease
- Parkinson's disease
- AIDS dementia complex
- Frontotemporal dementia
- Sundowning
- Wandering
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Autism spectrum
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- Autism
- Asperger syndrome
- Savant syndrome
- PDD-NOS
- High-functioning autism
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Other
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- Delirium
- Post-concussion syndrome
- Organic brain syndrome
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Psychoactive substances, substance abuse, drug abuse and substance-related disorders
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- Intoxication/Drug overdose
- Physical dependence
- Substance dependence
- Rebound effect
- Double rebound
- Withdrawal
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Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional
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| Psychosis |
- Schizoaffective disorder
- Schizophreniform disorder
- Brief reactive psychosis
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| Schizophrenia |
- Disorganized schizophrenia
- Paranoid schizophrenia
- Simple-type schizophrenia
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| Delusional disorders |
- Delusional disorder
- Folie à deux
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Mood (affective)
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- Mania
- Bipolar disorder
- (Bipolar I
- Bipolar II
- Cyclothymia
- Bipolar NOS)
- Depression
- (Major depressive disorder
- Dysthymia
- Seasonal affective disorder
- Atypical depression
- Melancholic depression)
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Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform
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Anxiety disorder
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Phobia
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- Agoraphobia
- Social anxiety
- Social phobia
- (Anthropophobia)
- Specific phobia
- (Claustrophobia)
- Specific social phobia
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Other
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- Panic disorder
- Panic attack
- Generalized anxiety disorder
- OCD
- stress
- (Acute stress reaction
- PTSD)
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Adjustment disorder
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- Adjustment disorder with depressed mood
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Somatic symptom
disorder
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- Somatization disorder
- Body dysmorphic disorder
- Hypochondriasis
- Nosophobia
- Da Costa's syndrome
- Psychalgia
- Conversion disorder
- (Ganser syndrome
- Globus pharyngis)
- Neurasthenia
- Mass psychogenic illness
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Dissociative disorder
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- Dissociative identity disorder
- Psychogenic amnesia
- Fugue state
- Depersonalization disorder
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Physiological/physical behavioral
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Eating disorder
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- Anorexia nervosa
- Bulimia nervosa
- Rumination syndrome
- NOS
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Nonorganic
sleep disorders
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- (Nonorganic hypersomnia
- Nonorganic insomnia)
- Parasomnia
- (REM sleep behavior disorder
- Night terror
- Nightmare)
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Sexual
dysfunction
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- sexual desire
- (Hypoactive sexual desire disorder
- Hypersexuality)
- sexual arousal
- (Female sexual arousal disorder)
- Erectile dysfunction
- orgasm
- (Anorgasmia
- Delayed ejaculation
- Premature ejaculation
- Sexual anhedonia)
- pain
- (Vaginismus
- Dyspareunia)
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Postnatal
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- Postpartum depression
- Postpartum psychosis
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Adult personality and behavior
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Gender dysphoria
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- Sexual maturation disorder
- Ego-dystonic sexual orientation
- Sexual relationship disorder
- Paraphilia
- (Voyeurism
- Fetishism)
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Other
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- Personality disorder
- Impulse control disorder
- (Kleptomania
- Trichotillomania
- Pyromania
- Dermatillomania)
- Body-focused repetitive behavior
- Factitious disorder
- (Münchausen syndrome)
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Disorders typically diagnosed in childhood
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Intellectual disability
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- X-linked intellectual disability
- (Lujan–Fryns syndrome)
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Psychological development
(developmental disabilities)
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- Specific
- Pervasive
- Autism spectrum
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Emotional and behavioral
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- ADHD
- Conduct disorder
- (ODD)
- Emotional/behavioral disorder
- (Separation anxiety disorder)
- social functioning
- (Selective mutism
- RAD
- DAD)
- Tic disorder
- (Tourette syndrome)
- Speech
- (Stuttering
- Cluttering)
- Movement disorder
- (Stereotypic)
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Symptoms and uncategorized
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- Catatonia
- False pregnancy
- Intermittent explosive disorder
- Psychomotor agitation
- Stereotypy
- Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures
- Klüver–Bucy syndrome
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