WordNet

without possessing something at the time it is contractually sold; "he made his fortune by selling short just before the crash"
the location on a baseball field where the shortstop is stationed
low in stature; not tall; "he was short and stocky"; "short in stature"; "a short smokestack"; "a little man" (同)little
lacking foresight or scope; "a short view of the problem"; "shortsighted policies"; "shortsighted critics derided the plan"; "myopic thinking" (同)shortsighted, unforesightful, myopic
at a disadvantage; "I was caught short" (同)unawares
(primarily spatial sense) having little length or lacking in length; "short skirts"; "short hair"; "the board was a foot short"; "a short toss"
at some point or distance before a goal is reached; "he fell short of our expectations"
clean across; "the cars axle snapped short"
not holding securities or commodities that one sells in expectation of a fall in prices; "a short sale"; "short in cotton"
of speech sounds or syllables of relatively short duration; "the English vowel sounds in `pat, `pet, `pit, `pot, putt are short"
primarily temporal sense; indicating or being or seeming to be limited in duration; "a short life"; "a short flight"; "a short holiday"; "a short story"; "only a few short months"
so as to interrupt; "She took him up short before he could continue"
tending to crumble or break into flakes due to a large amount of shortening; "shortbread is a short crumbly cookie"; "a short flaky pie crust"
(sports) the score by which a team or individual is losing
a deficiency or failure in neurological or mental functioning; "the people concerned have a deficit in verbal memory"; "they have serious linguistic deficits"
an excess of liabilities over assets (usually over a certain period); "last year there was a serious budgetary deficit"
the property of being an amount by which something is less than expected or required; "new blood vessels bud out from the already dilated vascular bed to make up the nutritional deficit" (同)shortage, shortfall
a lack of competence; "pointed out the insufficiencies in my report"; "juvenile offenses often reflect an inadequacy in the parents" (同)inadequacy
(pathology) inability of a bodily part or organ to function normally
lack of an adequate quantity or number; "the inadequacy of unemployment benefits" (同)inadequacy, deficiency
the state of needing something that is absent or unavailable; "there is a serious lack of insight into the problem"; "water is the critical deficiency in desert regions"; "for want of a nail the shoe was lost" (同)deficiency, want
the condition of being short of something; "there was no shortness of money"; "can cause shortness of breath"
the property of being truncated or short (同)truncation
the property of being of short spatial extent; "the shortness of the Channel crossing"
the property of being of short temporal extent; "the shortness of air travel time"
the property of being shorter than average stature

PrepTutorEJDIC

『不足』,欠乏;〈C〉不足高
(長さ・時間・距離などが)『短い』,近い・(人が)『背が低い』・(数量・期間などが)不足の』,乏しい;目標(標準)に達しない・(文などが)『簡潔な』,手短な・『そっけない』,ぞんぞいな,無愛想な・(ケーキなどが)かりかりする,さくさくする・(母音・音節が)短い;(詩の行の母音が)強勢のない・急に,突然・短いもの;欠けているもの・短篇映画(short movie, short subject) ・=short circuit・《複数形で》不足,欠損 / …‘を'短絡させる,ショートさせる / 短絡する,ショートする
(金銭の)不足額,赤字
不十分な[点],不足;不適当,不向き
…‘を'『欠く』,‘が'ない(受動態にできない) / (…になるまでに)…‘だけ'不足する《+『名』+『of』[『being』]+『名』》 / 〈U〉《時にa~》(必要なものの)『欠乏』,不足;(…が)ないこと《+『of』+『名』》 / 〈C〉欠けて(不足して)いるもの
短いこと;無愛相;不足

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/07/07 18:16:05」(JST)

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

For the opposite, see: surplus (also called excess supply)

A 2014 image of product shortages in Venezuela.

In economics, a shortage or excess demand is when the demand for a product or service exceeds its supply in a market. It is the opposite of an excess supply (surplus).

Definitions

In a perfect market (one that matches a simple microeconomic model), an excess of demand will prompt sellers to increase prices until demand at that price matches the available supply - market equilibrium^[1]^{[citation needed]}. In economic terminology, a shortage occurs when for some reason (such as government intervention, or decisions by buyers not to raise prices) the price does not rise to reach equilibrium. In this circumstance, there are more buyers at the market price than the quantity of the good or service that is available, and some non-price mechanism (such as "first come, first served" or a lottery) determines which buyers are served.

In common use, the term "shortage" may refer to a situation where most people are unable to find a desired good at an affordable price, especially where supply problems have increased the price. "Market clearing" happens when all buyers and sellers willing to transact at the equilibrium price are able to find partners. There are almost always willing buyers at a lower-than-market-clearing price; the narrower technical definition doesn't consider failure to serve this demand as a "shortage", even if it would be described that way in a social or political context (which the simple model of supply and demand does not attempt to encompass).

Causes

Shortages (in the technical sense) may be caused by:

Price ceilings, a type of price control which involves a government-imposed limit on the price of a product service.
Anti-price gouging laws.
Government ban on the sale of a product or service, such as prostitution or certain recreational drugs.
Decisions by suppliers not to raise prices, for example to maintain friendly relationships with potential future customers during a supply disruption.

Effects

Decisions which result in a below-market-clearing price help some people and hurt others. In this case, shortages may be accepted because they theoretically enable a certain portion of the population to purchase a product that they couldn't afford at the market-clearing price. The cost is to those who are willing to pay for a product and either can't, or experience greater difficulty in doing so.

In the case of government intervention in the market, there is always a trade-off with positive and negative effects. For example, a price ceiling may cause a shortage, but it will also enable a certain percentage of the population to purchase a product that they couldn't afford at market costs. Economic shortages caused by higher transaction costs and opportunity costs (e.g., in the form of lost time) also mean that the distribution process is wasteful. Both of these factors contribute to a decrease in aggregate wealth.

Shortages may cause:

Black markets, illegal markets in which products that are unavailable in conventional markets are sold, or in which products with excess demand are sold at higher prices than in the conventional market.
Artificial controls of demand, such as time (such as waiting in line) and rationing.
Non-monetary bargaining methods, such as time (for example queuing), nepotism, or even violence.
Price discrimination.
The inability to purchase a product.

Examples

Rationing in the United Kingdom occurred mainly during and after the world wars
From 1920 to 1933 during prohibition in the United States, the creation of a black market for liquor was created due to the low supply of alcoholic beverages.
During the 1973 oil crisis, during which long lines and rationing was used to control demand.
In the former Soviet Union during the 1980s, prices were artificially low by fiat (i.e., high prices were outlawed). Soviet citizens waited in line (or "queued") for various price-controlled goods and services such as cars, apartments, or some types of clothing. From the point of view of those waiting in line, such goods were in perpetual "short supply"; some of them were willing and able to pay more than the official price ceiling, but were legally prohibited from doing so. This method for determining the allocation of goods in short supply is known as "rationing".
From the mid-2000s through the 2010s, shortages in Venezuela occurred due to the Venezuelan government's economic policies;^[2] such as relying on foreign imports while creating strict foreign exchange controls, put price controls in place and having expropriations result with lower domestic production. As a result of such shortages, Venezuelans had to search for products, wait in lines for hours and rationing was initiated, with the government allowing the purchase of a certain amount of products through fingerprint recognition.^[3]^[4]^[5]

Whether an economic shortage of a certain good or service is beneficial or detrimental to society often depends on one's ethical and political views. For instance, consider the shortage of recreational drugs discussed above, and the controversies around the use of such drugs. Likewise, consider the economic shortage of cars in the Soviet Union during the 1980s: On the one hand, people had to wait in line to buy a new car; on the other hand, cars were more affordable than they would have been at market prices.

Shortages and "longages"

Garrett Hardin emphasised that a shortage of supply can just as well be viewed as a "longage" of demand. For instance, a shortage of food can just as well be called a longage of people (overpopulation). By looking at it from this view, he felt the problem could be better dealt with.^[6]

Labour shortage

In its narrowest definition, a labour shortage is an economic condition in which there are insufficient qualified candidates (employees) to fill the market-place demands for employment at any price. Such a condition is sometimes referred to by Economists as "an insufficiency in the labour force." An ageing population and a contracting workforce may curb U.S. economic expansion for several decades, for example.^[7]

Wage factors

Wage levels have been suggested as one way to measure a labour shortage. However, this often does not match people's common perceptions. For example, if wages alone are the best measure of labour shortages, then that would imply that we should be importing doctors instead of farm workers because doctors are far more expensive than farm workers. However, there are institutionally-imposed limits on the number of doctors that are allowed to be licensed.^{[citation needed]} If foreign migrant workers were not allowed into a nation, then farm wages may go up, but probably not enough to approach the wages of doctors.

The Atlantic slave trade (which originated in the early 17th century but ended by the early 19th century) was said to have originated due to perceived shortages of agricultural labour in the Americas (particularly in the American South). As this was the only means of malaria resistance available at the time.^[8] Ironically malaria seems to itself have been introduced to the "New World" via the slave trade.^[9]

References

^ Tucker (2014) Economics Today
^ "Venezuela seizes warehouses packed with medical goods, food". Reuters. 2014-10-24. Retrieved 2015-12-07.
^ "Why are Venezuelans posting pictures of empty shelves?". BBC. 8 January 2015. Retrieved 10 January 2015.
^ Cawthorne, Andrew (21 January 2015). "In shortages-hit Venezuela, lining up becomes a profession". Reuters. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
^ Schaefer Muñoz, Sara (22 October 2014). "Despite Riches, Venezuela Starts Food Rationing; Government Rolls Out Fingerprint Scanners to Limit Purchases of Basic Goods; 'How Is it Possible We've Gotten to This Extreme'". Dow Jones & Company Inc. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
^ Video Interview with Garrett Hardin: Longages and Overpopulation Predictions Educational Communications program 803, 1990
^ Shrinking labour force may curb U.S. expansion for two decades
^ "As American as…Plasmodium vivax?"
^ "UCI: New World malaria linked to slave trade."

Kornai, János, Socialist economy, Princeton University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-691-00393-9
Kornai, János, Economics of Shortage, Amsterdam: North Holland Press, Volume A, p. 27; Volume B, p. 196 .
Gomulka, Stanislaw: Kornai's Soft Budget Constraint and the Shortage Phenomenon: A Criticism and Restatement, in: Economics of Planning, Vol. 19. 1985. No. 1.
Planning Shortage and Transformation. Essays in Honor of Janos Kornai, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000
Myant, Martin; Drahokoupil, Jan (2010), Transition Economies: Political Economy in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-470-59619-7

External links

János Kornai Home Page at Harvard University
János Kornai Home Page at Collegium Budapest
Part 1 and Part 2 of COMPARING AND ASSESSING ECONOMIC SYSTEMS, Shortage and Inflation: The Phenomenon, PPT (PowerPoint file presentation) at West Virginia University
János Kornai 'The Soft Budget Constraint'
David Lipton and Jeffrey Sachs 'The Consequences of Central Planning in Eastern Europe'
On overview and critique of Kornai's account can be found in Myant, Martin; Jan Drahokoupil (2010). Transition Economies: Political Economy in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 19–23. ISBN 978-0-470-59619-7.
Planning For The Looming Labor Shortage - A Supply Chain Perspective by HK Systems
"America's New Immigrant Entrepreneurs" - A Duke University Study
Criticism of high-tech shortage claims
Disputation of High-tech Labor Shortage by Dr. Matloff
RAND Study on Alleged Shortage of Scientists
Shortage of skilled workers knocks red tape off top of business constraints league table - Grant Thornton IBR
The Real Science Gap - "It's not insufficient schooling or a shortage of scientists. It’s a lack of job opportunities."

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. アシクロビル：概要 acyclovir an overview
2. 糖尿病性網膜症：スクリーニング diabetic retinopathy screening
3. 肝細胞移植 hepatocyte transplantation
4. ウイルス性髄膜炎：小児におけるマネージメント、予後、および予防 viral meningitis management prognosis and prevention in children
5. Liver transplantation in primary biliary cholangitis (primary biliary cirrhosis)

English Journal

"Endeavoring to Carry On Their Work": The National Debate Over Midwives and Its Impact in Rhode Island, 1890-1940.

Caron SM1.
Nursing history review : official journal of the American Association for the History of Nursing.Nurs Hist Rev.2017;25(1):26-53. doi: 10.1891/1062-8061.25.26.
This article analyzes the national discourse over "the problem" of midwifery in medical literature and examines the impact of this dialogue on Rhode Island from 1890 to 1940. Doctors did not speak as a monolithic bloc on this "problem": some blamed midwives while others impugned poorly trained physi
PMID 27502612

SERS nanoprobes for the monitoring of endogenous nitric oxide in living cells.

Cui J1, Hu K1, Sun JJ1, Qu LL2, Li DW3.
Biosensors & bioelectronics.Biosens Bioelectron.2016 Nov 15;85:324-30. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2016.04.094. Epub 2016 Apr 30.
Nitric Oxide (NO) is a significant gaseous signalling molecule in various pathological and physiological pathways, whereas many of its functions are still ambiguous in part because of the shortage of powerful detection approaches. Herein, we present a type of reaction-based surface-enhanced Raman sc
PMID 27183283

Re-manufacture of cobalt-manganese-bromide as a liquid catalyst from spent catalyst containing cobalt generated from petrochemical processes via hydrometallurgy.

Joo SH1, Shin DJ2, Oh CH2, Wang JP3, Shin SM4.
Journal of hazardous materials.J Hazard Mater.2016 Nov 15;318:24-31. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.06.008. Epub 2016 Jun 6.
Cobalt and manganese have been the subject of individual separation studies because their fields of application are different. However, this study shows that high-value products can be manufactured in the form of a cobalt-manganese-bromide (CMB) liquid catalyst by simultaneously recovering cobalt an
PMID 27391861