母子感染

関: maternal-fetal transmission、mother-to-child transmission、vertical disease transmission、vertical transmission

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/01/12 10:58:35」(JST)

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A vertically transmitted infection is an infection caused by pathogens (such as bacteria and viruses) that uses mother-to-child transmission, that is, transmission directly from the mother to an embryo, fetus, or baby during pregnancy or childbirth. It can occur when the mother gets an infection as an intercurrent disease in pregnancy. Nutritional deficiencies may exacerbate the risks of perinatal infection.

Classification

A vertically transmitted infection can be called a perinatal infection if it is transmitted in the perinatal period, which is the period starting at a gestational age of 22 weeks^[1] to 28^[2] (with regional variations in the definition) and ending seven completed days after birth.^[1]

The term congenital infection can be used if the vertically transmitted infection persists after childbirth.

Examples

Bacteria, viruses, and other organisms are able to be passed from mother to child. Several vertically transmitted infections are included in the TORCH complex, which stands for:

T – Toxoplasmosis / Toxoplasma gondii
O – Other infections (see below)
R – Rubella
C – Cytomegalovirus
H – Herpes simplex virus-2 or neonatal herpes simplex

The "other agents" under O include:

Coxsackievirus
Chickenpox (caused by varicella zoster virus)
Chlamydia^[3]
HIV^[4]^[5]

Human T-lymphotropic virus^[6]
Syphilis^[7]
Zika fever, caused by Zika virus, can cause microcephaly and other brain defects in the child.^[8]

Hepatitis B may also be classified as a vertically transmitted infection, but the hepatitis B virus is a large virus and does not cross the placenta, hence it cannot infect the fetus unless breaks in the maternal-fetal barrier have occurred, such as can occur in bleeding during childbirth or amniocentesis.^[9]

The TORCH complex was originally considered to consist of the four conditions mentioned above,^[10] with the "TO" referring to Toxoplasma. The four-term form is still used in many modern references,^[11] and the capitalization "ToRCH" is sometimes used in these contexts.^[12] The acronym has also been listed as TORCHES, for TOxoplasmosis, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, HErpes simplex, and Syphilis.

A further expansion of this acronym, CHEAPTORCHES, was proposed by Ford-Jones and Kellner in 1995:^[13]

C – Chickenpox and shingles
H – Hepatitis, C^[14] (D), E
E – Enteroviruses
A – AIDS (HIV infection)
P – Parvovirus B19 (produces Hydrops faetalis secondary to aplastic anemia)
T – Toxoplasmosis
O – Other (Group B Streptococcus, Listeria, Candida, Lyme disease)
R – Rubella
C – Cytomegalovirus
H – Herpes simplex
E – Everything else sexually transmitted (gonorrhea, Chlamydia infection, Ureaplasma urealyticum, human papillomavirus)
S – Syphilis

Signs and symptoms

The signs and symptoms of a vertically transmitted infection depend on the individual pathogen. It may cause subtle signs such as a influenza-like illness and may not even be noticed by the mother during the pregnancy. In such cases, the effects may be seen first at birth.

Symptoms of a vertically transmitted infection may include fever and flu like symptoms. The newborn is often small for gestational age. A petechial rash on the skin may be present, with small reddish or purplish spots due to bleeding from capillaries under the skin. An enlarged liver and spleen (hepatosplenomegaly) is common, as is jaundice. However, jaundice is less common in hepatitis B because a newborn's immune system is not developed well enough to mount a response against liver cells, as would normally be the cause of jaundice in an older child or adult. Hearing impairment, eye problems, mental retardation, autism, and death can be caused by vertically transmitted infections. The mother often has a mild infection with few or no symptoms.

The genetic conditions of Aicardi-Goutieres syndrome are possibly present in a similar manner.^[15]^[16]

Routes

The main routes of transmission of vertically transmitted infections are across the placenta (transplacental) and across the female reproductive tract during childbirth.

Transplacental

The embryo and fetus have little or no immune function. They depend on the immune function of their mother. Several pathogens can cross the placenta and cause (perinatal) infection. Often, microorganisms that produce minor illness in the mother are very dangerous for the developing embryo or fetus. This can result in spontaneous abortion or major developmental disorders. For many infections, the baby is more at risk at particular stages of pregnancy. Problems related to perinatal infection are not always directly noticeable.

During childbirth

Babies can also become infected by their mothers during birth. Some infectious agents may be transmitted to the embryo or fetus in the uterus, while passing through the birth canal, or even shortly after birth. The distinction is important because when transmission is primarily during or after birth, medical intervention can help prevent infections in the infant.

During birth, babies are exposed to maternal blood, body fluids, and to the maternal genital tract without the placental barrier intervening. Because of this, blood-borne microorganisms (hepatitis B, HIV), organisms associated with sexually transmitted disease (e.g., Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis), and normal fauna of the genitourinary tract (e.g., Candida albicans) are among those commonly seen in infection of newborns.

Pathophysiology

Virulence versus symbiosis

In the spectrum of optimal virulence, vertical transmission tends to evolve benign symbiosis. It is, therefore, a critical concept for evolutionary medicine. Because a pathogen's ability to pass from parent to child depends significantly on the hosts' ability to reproduce, pathogens' transmissibility tends to be inversely related with their virulence. In other words, as pathogens become more harmful to, and thus decrease the reproduction rate of, their host organism, they are less likely to be passed on to the hosts' offspring, since they will have fewer offspring.^[17]

Although AIDS is sometimes transmitted through perinatal transmission, its virulence can be accounted for because its primary mode of transmission is not vertical. Moreover, medicine has further decreased the frequency of vertical transmission of AIDS. The incidence of perinatal AIDS cases in the United States has declined as a result of the implementation of recommendations on HIV counselling and voluntary testing practices and the use of zidovudine therapy by providers to reduce perinatal HIV transmission.^[18]

The price paid in the evolution of symbiosis is, however, great: for many generations, almost all cases of vertical transmission will continue to be pathological—in particular if any other routes of transmission exist. Many generations of random mutation and selection are needed to evolve symbiosis. During this time, the vast majority of vertical transmission cases exhibit the initial virulence.^{[citation needed]}

In dual inheritance theory, vertical transmission refers to the passing of cultural traits from parents to children.^[19]

Diagnosis

When physical examination of the newborn shows signs of a vertically transmitted infection, the examiner may test blood, urine, and spinal fluid for evidence of the infections listed above. Diagnosis can be confirmed by culture of one of the specific pathogens or by increased levels of IgM against the pathogen.^{[citation needed]}

CMV placentitis
CMV placentitis

Treatment and prevention

Micrograph of a pap test showing changes (upper-right of image) associated with herpes simplex virus, a vertically transmitted infection

Some vertically transmitted infections, such as toxoplasmosis and syphilis, can be effectively treated with antibiotics if the mother is diagnosed early in her pregnancy. Many viral vertically transmitted infections have no effective treatment, but some, notably rubella and varicella-zoster, can be prevented by vaccinating the mother prior to pregnancy.

If the mother has active herpes simplex (as may be suggested by a pap test), delivery by Caesarean section can prevent the newborn from contact, and consequent infection, with this virus.

IgG₂ antibody may play crucial role in prevention of intrauterine infections and extensive research is going on for developing IgG₂-based therapies for treatment and vaccination.^[20]

Prognosis

Each type of vertically transmitted infection has a different prognosis. The stage of the pregnancy at the time of infection also can change the effect on the newborn.

References

^ ^a ^b Definitions and Indicators in Family Planning. Maternal & Child Health and Reproductive Health. By European Regional Office, World Health Organization. Revised March 1999 & January 2001. In turn citing: WHO Geneva, WHA20.19, WHA43.27, Article 23
^ Singh, Meharban (2010). Care of the Newborn. p. 7. Edition 7. ISBN 9788170820536
^ Yu, Jialin; Wu, Shixiao; Li, Fang; Hu, Linyan (2009). "Vertical Transmission of Chlamydia trachomatis in Chongqing China". Current Microbiology. 58 (4): 315–320. doi:10.1007/s00284-008-9331-5. ISSN 0343-8651. PMID 19123031.
^ Ugen, K E; Goedert, J J; Boyer, J; et al. (June 1992). "Vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Reactivity of maternal sera with glycoprotein 120 and 41 peptides from HIV type 1.". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 89 (6): 1923–1930. doi:10.1172/JCI115798. ISSN 0021-9738. PMC 295892. PMID 1601999.
^ Fawzi, Wafaie W.; Msamanga, Gernard; Hunter, David; et al. (2000). "Randomized Trial of Vitamin Supplements in Relation to Vertical Transmission of HIV-1 in Tanzania". Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 23 (3): 246–254. doi:10.1097/00042560-200003010-00006. ISSN 1525-4135. PMID 10839660.
^ Hisada, Michie; Maloney, Elizabeth M.; Sawada, Takashi; et al. (2002). "Virus Markers Associated with Vertical Transmission of Human T Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 in Jamaica". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 34 (12): 1551–1557. doi:10.1086/340537. ISSN 1058-4838. PMID 12032888.
^ Lee, M.-J.; Hallmark, R.J.; Frenkel, L.M.; Del Priore, G. (1998). "Maternal syphilis and vertical perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection". International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics. 63 (3): 247–252. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(98)00165-9. ISSN 0020-7292. PMID 9989893.
^ "CDC Concludes Zika Causes Microcephaly and Other Birth Defects". CDC Newsroom Releases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 13 April 2016.
^ "Hepatitis B". Emergencies preparedness, response. World Health Organization. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
^ Kinney, JS; Kumar, ML (December 1988). "Should we expand the TORCH complex? A description of clinical and diagnostic aspects of selected old and new agents". Clinics in perinatology. 15 (4): 727–44. ISSN 0095-5108. PMID 2850128.
^ Abdel-Fattah, Sherif A.; Bhat, Abha; Illanes, Sebastian; et al. (November 2005). "TORCH test for fetal medicine indications: only CMV is necessary in the United Kingdom". Prenatal Diagnosis. 25 (11): 1028–1031. doi:10.1002/pd.1242. ISSN 0197-3851. PMID 16231309.
^ Li, Ding; Yang, Hao; Zhang, Wen-Hong; et al. (2006). "A Simple Parallel Analytical Method of Prenatal Screening". Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation. 62 (4): 220–225. doi:10.1159/000094092. ISSN 1423-002X. PMID 16791006.
^ Ford-Jones, E. L.; Kellner, J. D. (1995). ""Cheap torches": An acronym for congenital and perinatal infections". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 14 (7): 638–640. doi:10.1097/00006454-199507000-00028. PMID 7567307.
^ Tosone, G.; Maraolo, A.E.; Mascolo, S.; et al. (2014). "Vertical hepatitis C virus transmission: Main questions and answers". World Journal of Hepatology. 6 (8): 538–548. doi:10.4254/wjh.v6.i8.538. PMC 4163737. PMID 25232447.
^ Knoblauch, Hans; Tennstedt, Cornelia; Brueck, Wolfgang; Hammer, Hannes; Vulliamy, Tom; Dokal, Inderjeet; Lehmann, Rüdiger; Hanefeld, Folker; Tinschert, Sigrid (2003). "Two brothers with findings resembling congenital intrauterine infection-like syndrome (pseudo-TORCH syndrome)". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 120A (2): 261–265. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.20138. ISSN 0148-7299. PMID 12833411.
^ Vivarelli, Rossella; Grosso, Salvatore; Cioni, Maddalena; Galluzzi, Paolo; Monti, Lucia; Morgese, Guido; Balestri, Paolo (March 2001). "Pseudo-TORCH syndrome or Baraitser–Reardon syndrome: diagnostic criteria". Brain and Development. 23 (1): 18–23. doi:10.1016/S0387-7604(00)00188-1. ISSN 0387-7604. PMID 11226724.
^ Stewart, Andrew D.; Logsdon, John M.; Kelley, Steven E. (April 2005). "An empirical study of the evolution of virulence under both horizontal and vertical transmission". Evolution. 59 (4): 730–739. doi:10.1554/03-330. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 15926685.
^ Joo, Esther; Carmack, Anne; Garcia-Buñuel, Elizabeth; Kelly, Chester J. (February 2000). "Implementation of guidelines for HIV counseling and voluntary HIV testing of pregnant women". American Journal of Public Health. 90 (2): 273–276. doi:10.2105/AJPH.90.2.273. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 1446152. PMID 10667191.
^ Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Feldman, Marcus W. (1981). Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach. Monographs in Population Biology. 16. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08283-9. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
^ Syal K and Karande AA. IgG2 Subclass Isotype Antibody and Intrauterine Infections. Current Science Vol. 102, No. 11, 10 June 2012.

UpToDate Contents

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1. TORCH感染の概要 overview of torch infections
2. 資源の限られた状況におけるHIVの母子感染の予防 prevention of mother to child hiv transmission in resource limited settings
3. C型肝炎ウイルスの垂直伝播 vertical transmission of hepatitis c virus
4. B型肝炎と妊娠 hepatitis b and pregnancy
5. B型肝炎ウイルス感染の疫学、伝染、および予防 epidemiology transmission and prevention of hepatitis b virus infection

English Journal

Perinatal Antiretroviral Exposure and Prevented Mother-to-child HIV Infections in the Era of Antiretroviral Prophylaxis in the United States, 1994-2010.

Little KM1, Taylor AW, Borkowf CB, Mendoza MC, Lampe MA, Weidle PJ, Nesheim SR.
The Pediatric infectious disease journal.Pediatr Infect Dis J.2017 Jan;36(1):66-71.
OBJECTIVES: Using published, nationally-representative estimates, we calculated the total number of perinatally HIV-exposed and HIV-infected infants born during 1978-2010, the number of perinatal HIV cases prevented by interventions designed for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT)
PMID 27749662

Population-level effectiveness of PMTCT Option A on early mother-to-child (MTCT) transmission of HIV in South Africa: implications for eliminating MTCT.

Goga AE1, Dinh TH2, Jackson DJ3, Lombard CJ4, Puren A5, Sherman G6, Ramokolo V7, Woldesenbet S7, Doherty T8, Noveve N7, Magasana V7, Singh Y7, Ramraj T7, Bhardwaj S9, Pillay Y10; South Africa PMTCT Evaluation (SAPMCTE) Team.
Journal of global health.J Glob Health.2016 Dec;6(2):020405.
BACKGROUND: Eliminating mother-to-child transmission of HIV (EMTCT), defined as ≤50 infant HIV infections per 100 000 live births, is a global priority. Since 2011 policies to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) shifted from maternal antiretroviral (ARV) treatment or prophylaxis
PMID 27698999

Indications for antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis B in pregnant mothers.

Yoo ER1, Perumpail RB2, Cholankeril G3, Ahmed A2.
BMJ case reports.BMJ Case Rep.2016 Nov 15;2016. pii: bcr2016217232. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2016-217232.
The use of antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in the setting of pregnancy needs to be individualised based on limited data. We report a case of a 34-year-old Korean-American woman with a history of pregnancy with emergent caesarean section due to prolonged labour in the
PMID 27852658

Japanese Journal

Factors Associated with Mother-to-child Transmission of Hepatitis B Virus Despite Immunoprophylaxis

, , , , , ,
Internal Medicine 54(7), 711-716, 2015
… Objective This study aimed to assess risk factors for mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of hepatitis B virus (HBV) after immunoprophylaxis. … Methods Risk factors for MTCT were assessed using a multivariate logistic regression model. …
NAID 130005063218

Role of the Placenta in Adverse Perinatal Outcomes among HIV-1 Seropositive Women

,
Journal of Nippon Medical School 80(2), 90-94, 2013
… Although efforts to reduce mother-to-child transmission of HIV (MTCT) remain a priority in resource-limited countries, HIV testing and treatment have led to steep declines in MTCT in well-resourced countries. …
NAID 130004147221

周産期領域におけるG 型肝炎ウイルスの臨床的意義 : 同じフラビウイルス科に属するC 型肝炎ウイルスと比較して

西川正能,大島教子,林田綾子,林田志峯,石川和明,岡嶋祐子,北澤正文,深澤一雄,渡辺博,高見澤裕吉,稻葉憲之
Dokkyo journal of medical sciences 38(1), 49-57, 2011-03-25
HBV, HCV 同様血清肝炎を惹起する可能性を示唆されているHGV の(1)妊婦における検出率,(2)母子感染の自然史,そのリスクファクター及びキャリア化児の予後,(3)キャリア妊婦及びキャリア化児における肝機能を前方視的に調査し,同ウイルスの周産期における臨床的意義を同じフラビウイルス科に属するHCV と比較検討した.対象は1996〜2004 年に当科を受診した妊婦3,738 名 …
NAID 110008427652

「母子感染」

Vertically transmitted infection
	Micrograph of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection of the placenta (CMV placentitis), a vertically transmitted infection: The characteristic large nucleus of a CMV-infected cell is seen off-centre at the bottom-right of the image, H&E stain.
Classification and external resources
Specialty	pediatrics
ICD-10	P35-P39
ICD-9-CM	771
	[edit on Wikidata]

　　[★]

英: mother-to-child transmission MTCT
関: 垂直感染, vertical disease transmission, vertical transmission、周産期感染症

母子感染において重要なウイルス

資料より(http://www.jsog.or.jp/PDF/56/5609-541.pdf)

RV ：風疹ウイルス：先天性風疹症候群

CMV ：サイトメガロウイルス巨細胞封入体症

HSV ：単純ヘルペスウイルス：新生児ヘルペス

VZV ：水痘・帯状疱疹ウイルス：先天性水痘帯状疱疹症候群

B19V：パルボウイルス：非免疫性胎児水腫

HPV ：ヒトパピローマウイルス：咽頭乳頭症

その他

HBV :B型肝炎ウイルス感染症

HCV :C型肝炎ウイルス感染症

HIV :ヒト免疫不全ウイルス感染

HTLV:ヒトT細胞白血病ウイルス感染症

TORCHS症候群

古典的な母子感染

TO:トキソプラズマ

R :風疹ウイルス

C :サイトメガロウイルス

H :ヘルペスウイルス（単純ヘルペス、水痘・帯状疱疹ウイルス）

S :梅毒

母子感染の経路

資料2

1. 胎内感染

1. 母体が感染した場合，あるいは持続感染した微生物が再活性化した場合に，母体血を介し胎盤から臍帯を通じ児に感染

2. 胎盤に感染した微生物が増殖し児に感染

3. 子宮頸部や腟から上行性に羊膜や羊水を介し感染

2. 分娩時感染

1. 産道感染：

1. 子宮頸部，腟，外陰部などに感染している微生物が分娩時に産道内で児の粘膜などから感染

2. 産道内の母体血中の微生物が児の粘膜などから感染

2. placental leakage : B 型肝炎ウイルスやHIV の胎内感染率が切迫早産既往群に多いことから推定された．母体血の新生児血中への混入量を胎盤性アルカリフォスファターゼを指標として測定した場合，予定帝切群で0.8ml/kg（新生児体重）、経腟分娩群で1.2ml/kg と有意差があるという報告もある

3. 経母乳感染

母乳中の微生物や感染リンパ球が経口的に児に感染。

サイトメガロウイルスは経母乳感染をするが、成熟児はこの感染により自然免疫を得て，成人してから初感染することは防げる。

1,500g 未満の極低出生体重児では経母乳感染により，肝炎などを発症する可能性がある。

母子感染症

G10M.168

		胎内感染		分娩時感染		母乳時感染
		経胎盤感染	上行性感染	経胎盤感染	産道感染	母乳感染
ウイルス	風疹ウイルス	○	×	×	×	×
	サイトメガロウイルス	○	×	×	△	△
	ヒトパルボウイルスB19	○	×	×	×	×
	水痘・帯状疱疹ウイルス	△	×	×	○	×
	単純ヘルペスウイルス	△	△	×	○	×
	B型肝炎ウイルス	△	×	△	○	×
	C型肝炎ウイルス	△	×	△	○	×
	成人T細胞白血病ウイルス1型	△	×	×	×	○
	ヒト免疫不全ウイルス	△	△	△	○	△
細菌	梅毒トレポネーマ	○	×	×	△	×
	淋菌	×	×	×	○	×
	B群連鎖球菌	×	×	×	○	×
真菌	カンジダ・アルビカンス	×	×	×	○	×
原虫	トキソプラズマ	○	×	×	×	×
クラミジア	クラミジア・トラコマチス	×	×	×	○	×

G10M.182改変

病原体		疾患	感染経路	問題となる感染時期	母体	胎児
ウイルス	風疹ウイルス	先天性風疹症候群	経胎盤感染	妊娠12週未満。18週未満は軽微	初感染妊婦
	サイトメガロウイルス	巨細胞封入体症	経胎盤感染	妊娠前半	初感染妊婦。感冒様症状	小頭症、脳内石灰化、精神遅滞、網脈絡膜炎、感音性難聴、貧血、黄疸、出血斑、低体重児、肝脾腫
	ヒトパルボウイルスB19		経胎盤感染	妊娠20週未満	伝染性紅斑	非免疫性胎児水腫、胎児死亡
	水痘・帯状疱疹ウイルス	先天性水痘症候群	産道感染	妊娠20週未満	初感染妊婦	精神遅滞、網脈絡膜炎、皮膚瘢痕、四肢低形成、低出生体重児
	単純ヘルペスウイルス	新生児ヘルペス	産道感染	～		中枢神経：小頭症、眼：脈絡網膜炎、角結膜炎、皮膚：水疱疹
	B型肝炎ウイルス		産道感染	～		無症候キャリアー化
	C型肝炎ウイルス		産道感染	～
	成人T細胞白血病ウイルス1型		母乳感染	～
	ヒト免疫不全ウイルス	HIV感染症	産道感染	～	HIV感染症	HIV感染症
細菌	梅毒トレポネーマ	先天梅毒	経胎盤感染	妊娠14週以降	梅毒	水頭症、難聴、老人様顔貌、鼻炎、粘膜斑(梅毒性天疱瘡)、黄疸、貧血、点状出血、パロー仮性麻痺、肝脾腫、骨軟骨炎晩発性梅毒、ハッチンソン三徴
	淋菌	淋疾	産道感染	～	産科合併症(流産・早産、前期破水、絨毛膜羊膜炎、子宮内膜炎)	化膿性結膜炎(膿漏眼)
	B群連鎖球菌	B群連鎖球菌感染症	産道感染	～	常在菌	髄膜炎
真菌	カンジダ・アルビカンス		産道感染	～	常在菌。カンジダ膣炎	口腔内カンジダ症
原虫	トキソプラズマ	先天性トキソプラズマ症	経胎盤感染	妊娠中後期	初感染妊婦。無症状	脳室拡大、小頭症、脳内石灰化、髄膜炎、精神遅滞、脳性麻痺、けいれん、網脈絡膜炎、黄疸、発疹、貧血、リンパ節腫脹、肝脾腫、低出生体重児
クラミジア	クラミジア・トラコマチス		産道感染	～	無症状。早産・流産	新生児結膜炎、新生児肺炎

感染時期と胎児影響

妊娠初期：早産、先天性胎児奇形：風疹ウイルス、水痘ウイルス、麻疹ウイルス、HHV-6、パルボウイルスB19
妊娠中期～末期：新生児ウイルス感染：単純ヘルペスウイルス、水痘ウイルス、サイトメガロウイルス、梅毒トレポネーマ(妊娠13週までは胎児感染しにくい)

資料

1. 各種感染症の母子感染予防

http://www.jsog.or.jp/PDF/58/5809-416.pdf

2. 母子感染の経路と主な病原微生物

http://www.jsog.or.jp/PDF/56/5609-535.pdf

「vertical disease transmission」

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垂直感染、母子感染

関: maternal-fetal transmission、mother-to-child transmission、MTCT、vertical infection、vertical transmission

「mother-to-child transmission」

　　[★]

母子感染

関: maternal-fetal transmission、MTCT、vertical disease transmission、vertical transmission

「MTC」

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「MT」

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[mchrh-1] Definitions and Indicators in Family Planning. Maternal & Child Health and Reproductive Health. By European Regional Office, World Health Organization. Revised March 1999 & January 2001. In turn citing: WHO Geneva, WHA20.19, WHA43.27, Article 23

[2] Singh, Meharban (2010). Care of the Newborn. p. 7. Edition 7. ISBN 9788170820536

[YuWu2009-3] Yu, Jialin; Wu, Shixiao; Li, Fang; Hu, Linyan (2009). "Vertical Transmission of Chlamydia trachomatis in Chongqing China". Current Microbiology. 58 (4): 315–320. doi:10.1007/s00284-008-9331-5. ISSN 0343-8651. PMID 19123031.

[UgenGoedert1992-4] Ugen, K E; Goedert, J J; Boyer, J; et al. (June 1992). "Vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Reactivity of maternal sera with glycoprotein 120 and 41 peptides from HIV type 1.". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 89 (6): 1923–1930. doi:10.1172/JCI115798. ISSN 0021-9738. PMC 295892. PMID 1601999.

[FawziMsamanga2000-5] Fawzi, Wafaie W.; Msamanga, Gernard; Hunter, David; et al. (2000). "Randomized Trial of Vitamin Supplements in Relation to Vertical Transmission of HIV-1 in Tanzania". Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 23 (3): 246–254. doi:10.1097/00042560-200003010-00006. ISSN 1525-4135. PMID 10839660.

[HisadaMaloney2002-6] Hisada, Michie; Maloney, Elizabeth M.; Sawada, Takashi; et al. (2002). "Virus Markers Associated with Vertical Transmission of Human T Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 in Jamaica". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 34 (12): 1551–1557. doi:10.1086/340537. ISSN 1058-4838. PMID 12032888.

[LeeHallmark1998-7] Lee, M.-J.; Hallmark, R.J.; Frenkel, L.M.; Del Priore, G. (1998). "Maternal syphilis and vertical perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection". International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics. 63 (3): 247–252. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(98)00165-9. ISSN 0020-7292. PMID 9989893.

[CDC2016Zika-8] "CDC Concludes Zika Causes Microcephaly and Other Birth Defects". CDC Newsroom Releases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 13 April 2016.

[WHOHepatitisB-9] "Hepatitis B". Emergencies preparedness, response. World Health Organization. Retrieved 29 April 2016.

[pmid2850128-10] Kinney, JS; Kumar, ML (December 1988). "Should we expand the TORCH complex? A description of clinical and diagnostic aspects of selected old and new agents". Clinics in perinatology. 15 (4): 727–44. ISSN 0095-5108. PMID 2850128.

[Abdel-FattahBhat2005-11] Abdel-Fattah, Sherif A.; Bhat, Abha; Illanes, Sebastian; et al. (November 2005). "TORCH test for fetal medicine indications: only CMV is necessary in the United Kingdom". Prenatal Diagnosis. 25 (11): 1028–1031. doi:10.1002/pd.1242. ISSN 0197-3851. PMID 16231309.

[LiYang2006-12] Li, Ding; Yang, Hao; Zhang, Wen-Hong; et al. (2006). "A Simple Parallel Analytical Method of Prenatal Screening". Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation. 62 (4): 220–225. doi:10.1159/000094092. ISSN 1423-002X. PMID 16791006.

[Ford-JonesKellner1995-13] Ford-Jones, E. L.; Kellner, J. D. (1995). ""Cheap torches": An acronym for congenital and perinatal infections". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 14 (7): 638–640. doi:10.1097/00006454-199507000-00028. PMID 7567307.

[TosoneMaraolo2014-14] Tosone, G.; Maraolo, A.E.; Mascolo, S.; et al. (2014). "Vertical hepatitis C virus transmission: Main questions and answers". World Journal of Hepatology. 6 (8): 538–548. doi:10.4254/wjh.v6.i8.538. PMC 4163737. PMID 25232447.

[KnoblauchTennstedt2003-15] Knoblauch, Hans; Tennstedt, Cornelia; Brueck, Wolfgang; Hammer, Hannes; Vulliamy, Tom; Dokal, Inderjeet; Lehmann, Rüdiger; Hanefeld, Folker; Tinschert, Sigrid (2003). "Two brothers with findings resembling congenital intrauterine infection-like syndrome (pseudo-TORCH syndrome)". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 120A (2): 261–265. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.20138. ISSN 0148-7299. PMID 12833411.

[VivarelliGrosso2001-16] Vivarelli, Rossella; Grosso, Salvatore; Cioni, Maddalena; Galluzzi, Paolo; Monti, Lucia; Morgese, Guido; Balestri, Paolo (March 2001). "Pseudo-TORCH syndrome or Baraitser–Reardon syndrome: diagnostic criteria". Brain and Development. 23 (1): 18–23. doi:10.1016/S0387-7604(00)00188-1. ISSN 0387-7604. PMID 11226724.

[StewartLogsdon2005-17] Stewart, Andrew D.; Logsdon, John M.; Kelley, Steven E. (April 2005). "An empirical study of the evolution of virulence under both horizontal and vertical transmission". Evolution. 59 (4): 730–739. doi:10.1554/03-330. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 15926685.

[JooCarmack2000-18] Joo, Esther; Carmack, Anne; Garcia-Buñuel, Elizabeth; Kelly, Chester J. (February 2000). "Implementation of guidelines for HIV counseling and voluntary HIV testing of pregnant women". American Journal of Public Health. 90 (2): 273–276. doi:10.2105/AJPH.90.2.273. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 1446152. PMID 10667191.

[Cavalli-SforzaFeldman1981-19] Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Feldman, Marcus W. (1981). Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach. Monographs in Population Biology. 16. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08283-9. Retrieved 30 April 2016.

[20] Syal K and Karande AA. IgG2 Subclass Isotype Antibody and Intrauterine Infections. Current Science Vol. 102, No. 11, 10 June 2012.

v t e Vertically transmitted infections (P35–P39, 771)

Gestational	Viruses Congenital rubella syndrome Congenital cytomegalovirus infection Neonatal herpes simplex Hepatitis B Congenital varicella syndrome HIV Fifth disease Bacteria Congenital syphilis Other Toxoplasmosis transplacental TORCH complex

During birth	transcervical Candidiasis Gonorrhea Listeriosis

Late pregnancy	Listeriosis Congenital cytomegalovirus infection

By breastfeeding	Breastfeeding Tuberculosis HIV

リンク元	「母子感染」「vertical disease transmission」「mother-to-child transmission」
関連記事	「MTC」「MT」

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案内

MTCT