WordNet

the 3rd letter of the Roman alphabet (同)c
(music) the keynote of the scale of C major
a general-purpose programing language closely associated with the UNIX operating system
any of a group of organic substances essential in small quantities to normal metabolism

PrepTutorEJDIC

Victoria Cross
carbonの化学記号
『ビタミン』,栄養素(身体の喜常な機能を維持するために少量ながら必要な有機化合物)
cesiumの化学記号
cadmiumの化学記号

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/02/27 00:02:22」(JST)

wiki ja

グルタチオン-アスコルビン酸回路、NADPH、NADP+、GR:グルタチオンレダクターゼ、GSH:グルタチオン、GSSG:グルタチオンジスルフィド、DHAR:デヒドロアスコルビン酸レダクターゼ、DHA:デヒドロアスコルビン酸、MDAR:モノデヒドロアスコルビン酸レダクターゼ (NADH)、MDA:モノデヒドロアスコルビン酸、ASC:アスコルビン酸、APX:アスコルビン酸ペルオキシダーゼ、H2O2、H2O

ビタミンC (vitamin C, VC) は、水溶性ビタミンの1種。化学的には L-アスコルビン酸をさす^[1]。生体の活動においてさまざまな局面で重要な役割を果たしている。食品に含まれるほか、ビタミンCを摂取するための補助食品もよく利用されている。WHO必須医薬品モデル・リスト収録品。

壊血病の予防・治療のほか^[2]、鉄分、カルシウムなどミネラルの吸収促進（摂取しすぎると鉄過剰症の原因になることもあり、注意を要する）、傷の治癒にも利用される。しかし風邪を予防することはできない^[1]^[3]。

1 機能
2 適応
- 2.1 壊血病
- 2.2 風邪
- 2.3 がん予防
3 摂取
- 3.1 推奨量
- 3.2 血中濃度
- 3.3 大量摂取
- 3.4 含有食品
- 3.5 加熱に弱い
- 3.6 サプリメント
4 細胞内への輸送
- 4.1 脳への輸送
- 4.2 ミトコンドリアへの輸送
5 歴史
6 ビタミンC合成能を失った動物種
7 脚注
8 関連項目
9 外部リンク

機能

ビタミンCは、コラーゲンの合成に深く関与している^[1]。プロリン・リジン残基を含めた形でコラーゲンのタンパク質が合成され、タンパク質鎖が形成された後で酸化酵素によりプロリン・リジン残基がそれぞれヒドロキシ化(水酸化)を受けてヒドロキシプロリン・ヒドロキシリジン残基に変化し、これらは水素結合によってタンパク質鎖同士を結び、コラーゲンの3重螺旋構造を保つ働きがある。またこの反応の際にはビタミンCを必要とするため、ビタミンCを欠いた食事を続けていると正常なコラーゲン合成ができなくなり、壊血病を引き起こすものである^[1]。

ビタミンCは、水溶性で強い還元能力を有し、スーパーオキシド（O₂-）、ヒドロキシラジカル（･OH）、過酸化水素（H₂O₂）などの活性酸素類を消去する。ビタミンCの過酸化水素の消去は、グルタチオン-アスコルビン酸回路によって行われる。この回路に代表されるように、ビタミンCがデヒドロアスコルビン酸に酸化されても各種酵素によりビタミンC（アスコルビン酸）に還元・再生されて触媒的に機能する。

ビタミンCは、ビタミンEの再生機能がある。活性酸素等のフリーラジカルはDNAやタンパク質を攻撃し、また、脂質を連鎖的に酸化させる^[4]。ビタミンEは、脂質中のフリーラジカルを消失させることにより自らがビタミンEラジカルとなり、フリーラジカルによる脂質の連鎖的酸化を阻止する。発生したビタミンEラジカルは、ビタミンCによりビタミンEに再生される^[5]。

その他のビタミンCの機能としては、生体異物を代謝するシトクロムP450の活性化、チロシンからノルアドレナリンへの代謝（ドーパミンヒドロキシラーゼ）、消化器官中で鉄イオンを2価に保つことによる鉄の吸収の促進、脂肪酸の分解に関与するカルニチンがリジンから生合成される過程のヒドロキシ酵素の補酵素としての参画、コレステロールをヒドロキシ化し7α-ヒドロキシコレステロールを経た胆汁酸の合成等の様々な反応に関与している^[6]^[7]｡

適応

壊血病

壊血病の予防・治療に用いられる^[2]。ビタミンCを含まない食事を約60 - 90日間続けた場合、体内のビタミンCの蓄積総量が300 mg以下になり、出血性の障害をもたらす壊血病を発症すると言われている^[8]。

動物実験では、壊血病を発症しない程度のビタミンCの欠乏で老化が進行し、これをヒトに換算すると1日に2.5mgのビタミンCしか摂取しない期間が約3年間続くと老化が速く進行し、死亡する人が出てくる可能性があると報告されている^[9]。

風邪

風邪について、予防効果は確認されていない^[1]^[3]。米国家庭医学会（AAFP）の2012年ガイドラインでは、成人の風邪治療にはビタミンCは効果を示さないとしている（Not effective）^[10]。2013年のコクランレビューでは定期的なビタミンC摂取によっては、感染を防ぐことはできないが（no effect）、しかし罹患日数を減らしえる（effect）としている^[11]。一方で罹患してからビタミンCを大量摂取しても、深刻度や罹患日数に違いは見られななかった（no consistent effect）^[11]。

がん予防

癌の治療を補助する目的で大量のビタミンCを点滴する治療法が提唱されている。アメリカ国立がん研究所によると^[12]、大量投与による副作用は少なく、がん患者に投与した場合QOLの向上が見られ、がん治療の副作用を軽減させる効果も見られるという。しかし、癌の治癒率の向上はおろか、縮小効果や生存期間の延長効果等も実証されていない。

摂取

ヒトはアスコルビン酸を体内で合成できないため、必要量をすべて食事などによって外部から摂取する必要があり、ビタミンとして扱われている。一方、多くの動物にとっては、アスコルビン酸は生体内で生合成できる物質であるため、必ずしも外界から摂取する必要は無い。体内でアスコルビン酸を合成できないのは、ヒトを含むサル目の一部やモルモットなどだけである。

推奨量

成人の1日あたり摂取量としての厚生労働省による推奨量（RDA）は100mgである^[13]。この値を下回ると、各種欠乏症状が現れる可能性がある。

血中濃度

ビタミンCの血液検査の参考基準値は以下のとおりである。なお、ヒトの母乳のビタミンC濃度は0.5mg/100gとの報告がある。

項目	被験者のタイプ	標準範囲		単位	最適範囲
項目	被験者のタイプ	下限値	上限値	単位	下限値	上限値
ビタミンC （アスコルビン酸）		0.4^[14]	1.5^[14]	mg/dL	0.9^[15]
ビタミンC （アスコルビン酸）		23^[16]	85^[16]	μmol/L	50^[15]

大量摂取

体内で吸収されなかった余剰のビタミンCは尿中に排出されるが、数グラムレベルで一度に大量摂取し、腸管耐容量を超えると下痢を起こす可能性がある。体内でビタミンCの一部がシュウ酸に代謝されるとして、生成されたシュウ酸塩結晶により腎臓が損傷することで腎不全を発症すると報告^[17]されたことがあるが、ビタミンC摂取と腎不全の因果関係は立証されておらず、現在では否定されている。また、大量摂取は尿路結石の発生につながるとする説もあるが、これについても医学的な根拠は無い。逆にビタミンCの大量摂取によって、結石の発生が抑制されるという説もある。腎臓移植を受けた31歳の女性での続発性シュウ酸症の症例が報告されている^[17]として、高度の腎不全患者のビタミンC大量摂取については、注意が必要であるとする考え方もある。もともと血圧が低い場合はビタミンC大量摂取によってさらに血圧が下がり体調を崩すことがある^[要出典]。

これまでのところ米国FDAはビタミンCの大量点滴を禁止こそしてはいないものの、癌の治療としては認可もしていない。尚、大量経口投与についてはビタミンCが補助食品のカテゴリーに入るため、FDAの許認可の対象外となっている。

含有食品

柑橘類

多くの食品やサプリメントにおいて、「レモン何個分のビタミンC」という表現が用いられるが、このとき「レモン1個分のビタミンC」は 20mg に換算される。この表記は農林水産省によって昭和62年に制定された「ビタミンC含有菓子の品質表示ガイドライン」によるものであるが、ビタミンCが主成分であるビタミン添加菓子を対象とするものであり、それ以外の食品やサプリメントに対して用いることは適当でない。また、このことから「レモンはビタミンCを豊富に含む果物である」と誤解されがちだが、実際には同じ柑橘類であるグレープフルーツやユズよりも含有量は低い。

レモン・ライム・オレンジ・グレープフルーツなどの柑橘類のほか、カムカム、柿、アセロラ、キウイフルーツ、トマトはビタミンCの含有量が非常に多い。その他にビタミンCの多く含まれる食品としては、グァバ、パパイヤ、ブロッコリー、芽キャベツ、ブラックベリー、イチゴ、カリフラワー、ほうれん草、マスクメロン、ブルーベリー、パセリ、ジャガイモ、サツマイモなどがある。

ビタミンCそのものは強い癖のある味であるが、食品に含まれる程度の量では食品の味にはあまり影響しない。しかしながら柑橘類でもすっぱい物のほうが含有量は多い傾向にあるため「酸味の強い果物ほどビタミンCが豊富だ」と思われがちだが、実際にはそれらの酸味の多くはクエン酸によるものである。上に挙げたように酸味がまったくないにも関わらず豊富なビタミンCを有している食品が多いのはこのためである。

乳酸菌は発酵の際、ビタミンCも生成し、発酵前の生乳等のビタミンCよりも濃度が高くなる^[18]。牛乳にはビタミンCがほとんど含まれていない。その理由は、子牛が自らビタミンCを合成できるので牛乳から摂取する必要がないためである。牛乳を発酵して作ったヨーグルトでは若干ながらビタミンCが含まれている。牛乳のみならず肉にもビタミンCは含まれていないので、野菜や果物を摂取できないモンゴル遊牧民は、大人のみならず子供を含め馬乳を乳酸発酵させ微量のビタミンCを生成した馬乳酒を大量に飲むことでビタミンCを補っている^[18]。アフリカの遊牧民族であるマサイ族も日常的に発酵乳を飲む。

加熱に弱い

ビタミンCは、加熱すると空気中の酸素や水分との反応が促進され、酸化されてデヒドロアスコルビン酸となり、さらに加水分解されたジゲトグロン酸へ分解しやすくなる^[19]。デヒドロアスコルビン酸は人体内でアスコルビン酸に還元され利用されるが、ジゲトグロン酸にはビタミンCのような生理活性はないとされる。ジャガイモに含まれるビタミンCのように、デンプンに保護されて酸素に接触しない場合には、加熱してもビタミンCは壊れにくいとの指摘もある^[20]が、ジャガイモの加熱時間に従いビタミンC残存量が顕著に減少し、ゆで加熱では28%程度のビタミンC残存量となる^[21]。酸素と接する加熱過程を有する、果汁100%の加熱型濃縮還元ジュースでは、ビタミンCの大半は壊れてしまうことになる。但し現在では、加熱型濃縮還元は探すことが困難なほどでほぼ絶えており、超音波による果汁濃縮が主流となっている（超音波加湿器の原理で、果汁液の水分のみを飛ばすことによって果汁を濃縮するシステム（超音波霧化分離装置）。加熱式にくらべ、エネルギー効率が良く、工場の冷房費用もかからないため主流となった）。しかし、この方式でも加熱殺菌は行われるため、やはりビタミンCは壊れてしまう。そのため高栄養価を謳う野菜ジュースは別途ビタミン類が添加されている。

サプリメント

風邪やインフルエンザ、その他の感染症に対してアスコルビン酸粉末などとして医薬品と併用される。その理由としては、これらのストレスや治癒に際してはアスコルビン酸の要求量が増大するからというものである。喫煙等のストレスによってもアスコルビン酸の要求量が増大する^[22]。

ビタミンC錠剤を飲むよりビタミンC入りのガムを噛んだ場合、血中のビタミンCの上昇が速やかに起こり、また吸収量が多いことが分かった^[23]。サプリメントや野菜ジュースは、野菜サラダを直接摂取した場合と比較して、排出速度が非常に速い^[24]。

細胞内への輸送

ビタミンCのナトリウム依存性輸送体が存在するが、そのナトリウム依存性輸送体は、グルコース輸送体、特に、アスコルビン酸に戻るリサイクルにおいて必要な酵素補因子と細胞内抗酸化物質を生成する体のほとんどの細胞でビタミンC（その酸化型であるデヒドロアスコルビン酸）^[25]の輸送を担当するものがGLUT1で、特殊化した細胞内に主に存在する。

脳への輸送

脳は、ビタミンCの最大濃度を有する器官の一つであるが、ビタミンCは血流から脳への関門を通過しない。このためアスコルビン酸に代わって、デヒドロアスコルビン酸がGLUT1トランスポーターを介して血液脳関門を通過して輸送され、その後にアスコルビン酸に変換される^[26]。

ミトコンドリアへの輸送

ビタミンCは、グルコーストランスポーターGLUT1を介してデヒドロアスコルビン酸が輸送され、還元され、フリーラジカルの大部分が生成される場所であるミトコンドリアに蓄積される。アスコルビン酸は、ミトコンドリアのゲノムと膜を保護する^[27]。

歴史

壊血病の報告（1841年）

16世紀から18世紀の大航海時代には、壊血病の原因が分からなかったため、海賊以上に恐れられた。ヴァスコ・ダ・ガマのインド航路発見の航海においては、180人の船員のうち100人がこの病気にかかって死亡している。

1753年にイギリス海軍省のジェームズ・リンドは、食事環境が比較的良好な高級船員の発症者が少ないことに着目し、新鮮な野菜や果物、特にミカンやレモンを摂ることによってこの病気の予防が出来ることを見出した。その成果を受けて、キャプテン・クックの南太平洋探検の第一回航海（1768年 - 1771年）で、ザワークラウトや果物の摂取に努めたことにより、史上初めて壊血病による死者を出さずに世界周航が成し遂げられた。

しかし、当時の航海では新鮮な柑橘類を常に入手することが困難だったことから、イギリス海軍省の傷病委員会は、抗壊血病薬として麦汁、ポータブルスープ、濃縮オレンジジュースなどをクックに支給していた。これらのほとんどは、今日ではまったく効果がないことが明らかになっている（濃縮オレンジジュースは加熱されていて、ビタミンCは失われている）。結局、おもにザワークラウトのおかげだったことは当時は不明で、あげく帰還後にクックは麦汁を推薦したりしたもので、長期航海における壊血病の根絶はその後もなかなか進まなかった。

1920年、ドラモンドがオレンジ果汁から還元性のある抗壊血病因子を抽出し、これをビタミンCと呼ぶことを提案した。 1927年にはセント-ジェルジがウシの副腎から強い還元力のある物質を単離し、「ヘキスロ酸」として発表したが、1932年にこれがビタミンCであることが判明した。1933年にハースによってビタミンCの構造式が決定されてアスコルビン酸と命名され、1933年にはライヒシュタインが有機合成によるビタミンCの合成に成功した。

ビタミンC合成能を失った動物種

L-グロノラクトンオキシダーゼ（ビタミンC合成酵素）遺伝子の活性は、いくつかの種の進化史のなかでそれぞれ独立に失われている。哺乳類ではテンジクネズミや直鼻猿亜目の霊長類がこの遺伝子の活性を失っており、そのためにビタミンCを合成できないが、その原因となった突然変異は別のものである。どちらの系統でも、活性を失った遺伝子は多数の変異を蓄積しつつ、偽遺伝子として残っている^[28]。スズメ目の鳥類では、活性の喪失が何度か起こっており、またおそらくは再獲得も起こったために、種によってビタミンC合成能力が異なる。他に、コウモリ類もこの遺伝子の活性を失っている^[29]。これらの動物が遺伝子変異によるビタミンC合成能力を失ったにもかかわらず継続的に生存し得た最大の理由は、これらの動物が果物、野菜等のビタミンCを豊富に含む食餌を日常的に得られる環境にあったためである。なお、鳥類のビタミンC合成能力について、原始的な鳥類は腎臓でビタミンCを合成しており、さらに進化した高等な鳥類(スズメ目)では、肝臓で合成するようになった。これは、酸素消費量の増大に伴う過酸化物質産生から身を守るため、より多くのビタミンC合成を行う必要があり、ビタミンC合成部位が腎臓よりも大きな肝臓に移行したと推測されることを示す文献もある^[30]。

霊長目でこの酵素の活性が失われたのは約6300万年前であり、直鼻猿亜目（酵素活性なし）と曲鼻猿亜目（酵素活性あり）の分岐が起こったのとほぼ同時である。ビタミンC合成能力を失った直鼻猿亜目にはメガネザル下目や真猿下目（サル、類人猿、ヒト）を含んでいる。ビタミンC合成能力を有する曲鼻猿亜目には、キツネザルなどが含まれる^[31]。

霊長類の狭鼻下目であるヒト上科がオナガザル上科から分岐したのは、2800万年から2400万年前頃であると推定されている^[32]^[33]。ヒト上科の共通の祖先が旧世界のサルから分枝した際に、尿酸オキシダーゼ活性が消失したものと推定されている^[34]。尿酸オキシダーゼ活性の消失の意味付けは、尿酸が抗酸化物質として部分的にビタミンCの代用となるためである^[35]。

脚注

[ヘルプ]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Office of Dietary Supplements - Vitamin C (Report). アメリカ国立衛生研究所. (2016-02-11).
^ ^a ^b “Ascorbic Acid”. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 2016年12月8日閲覧。
^ ^a ^b WHO Model Formulary 2008. World Health Organization. (2009). p. 496. ISBN 9789241547659 2016年12月8日閲覧。.
^ 大橋英雄「クェルセチンを中心とするフラボノイドのラジカル補捉反応とその反応機構-平成13年度-平成14年度年度科学研究費補助金 (基盤研究(C)(2) 課題番号13660160) 研究成果報告書」2002年。
^ ビタミンEと抗酸化性国立健康・栄養研究所平原文子、栄養学雑誌 Vol.52 No.4 205 - 206(1994)
^ 重岡成、武田徹、村上恵ビタミンC－多様な働きから所要量まで第４回「日本人の水溶性ビタミン必要量に関する基礎的研究」講演会元気なカラダとビタミン摂取―水溶性ビタミンの必要量について―（近畿大学農学部食品栄養学科）
^ http://www.biochem.osakafu-u.ac.jp/NC/NutrChem1.pdf ^{[リンク切れ]}
^ ビタミンCの真実｜バーチャルラボラトリ ^{[リンク切れ]}
^ ビタミンCの真実｜バーチャルラボラトリ ^{[リンク切れ]}
^ Fashner J, Ericson K, Werner S (2012). “Treatment of the common cold in children and adults”. Am Fam Physician 86 (2): 153–9. PMID 22962927.
^ ^a ^b Hemilä, Harri; Chalker, Elizabeth; Hemilä, Harri (2013). Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000980.pub4.
^ Questions and Answers About High-Dose Vitamin C
^ 厚生労働省「日本人の食事摂取基準について」厚生労働省の第6次改定「日本人の栄養所要量」によると、血漿中ビタミンC濃度基準値を0.7mg/100ml以上に設定して、ビタミンCの1日あたり適正摂取量は成人で100mg（妊婦は＋10mg、授乳婦は＋40mg ）である。メルクマニュアル（merckmanua）によると、血漿中ビタミンC濃度の正常範囲は0.6 – 1.4mg/dL（34 – 79μmol/L）である。血漿中ビタミンC濃度基準値0.7mgは正常範囲の下限近くに設定されている。
^ ^a ^b Blood Test Results - Normal Ranges Bloodbook.Com
^ ^a ^b Adëeva Nutritionals Canada > Optimal blood test values Retrieved on July 9, 2009
^ ^a ^b Derived from mass values using molar mass of 176 grams per mol
^ ^a ^b 香港衛生署がビタミンサプリメントの過剰摂取に注意喚起 (2008/04/25)独立行政法人国立健康・栄養研究所
^ ^a ^b 石井智美「内陸アジアの遊牧民の製造する乳酒に関する微生物学的研究」『国立民族学博物館地域研』JCAS連携研究成果報告4、2002、pp103-123　
^ げのむトーク(11-20)
^ ジャガイモ KNU ﾀﾞｲｴｯﾄ　食材百科事典
^ 大羽和子「貯蔵,切断および加熱調理に伴うジャガイモのビタミンC含量の変化」」、『日本家政学会誌』第10号、1988年、 1051-1057頁、 doi:10.11428/jhej1987.39.1051。
^ “US Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) (PDF)”. 2008年5月29日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2007年2月19日閲覧。
^ 安田和人、平岡真美、横溝和宏「チューインガム中のビタミンCの吸収」『医療と検査機器・試薬』27 (2), 2004, pp71-74
^ 【薬学部生化学教室・石神昭人准教授】食の健康学　ビタミンC　サプリよりサラダ｜東邦大学キャンパスポータル
^ KC, S.; Carcamo, J. M.; Golde, D. W. (2005). “Vitamin C enters mitochondria via facilitative glucose transporter 1 (Glut1) and confers mitochondrial protection against oxidative injury”. FASEB J. 19 (12): 1657–67. doi:10.1096/fj.05-4107com. PMID 16195374.
^ Huang, J.; Agus, D. B.; Winfree, C. J.; Kiss, S.; Mack, W. J.; McTaggart, R. A.; Choudhri, T. F.; Kim, L. J.; Mocco, J.; Pinsky, D. J.; Fox, W. D.; Israel, R. J.; Boyd, T. A.; Golde, D. W.; Connolly, E. S., Jr. (2001). “Dehydroascorbic acid, a blood-brain barrier transportable form of vitamin C, mediates potent cerebroprotection in experimental stroke”. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98 (20): 11720–11724. doi:10.1073/pnas.171325998. PMC 58796. PMID 11573006.
^ KC S, Carcamo JM, Golde DW (2005). “Vitamin C enters mitochondria via facilitative glucose transporter 1 (Glut1) and confers mitochondrial protection against oxidative injury”. FASEB J 19 (12): 1657–67. doi:10.1096/fj.05-4107com. PMID 16195374.
^ Nishikimi M, Kawai T, Yagi K (October 1992). “Guinea pigs possess a highly mutated gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the key enzyme for L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis missing in this species”. J. Biol. Chem. 267 (30): 21967–72. PMID 1400507.
^ Martinez del Rio C (1997). “Can Passerines Synthesize Vitamin C?”. The Auk 114 (3): 513-516.
^ “5章動物の栄養”. 京都大学OCW. 2015年3月26日閲覧。
^ Pollock JI, Mullin RJ (May 1987). “Vitamin C biosynthesis in prosimians: evidence for the anthropoid affinity of Tarsius”. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 73 (1): 65–70. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330730106. PMID 3113259.
^ サルとヒトとの進化の分岐、定説より最近かミシガン大 AFPBB News 2010年7月16日
^ Nature2010年7月15日号
^ Friedman TB, Polanco GE, Appold JC, Mayle JE (1985). “On the loss of uricolytic activity during primate evolution--I. Silencing of urate oxidase in a hominoid ancestor”. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., B 81 (3): 653?9. PMID 3928241.
^ Peter Proctor Similar Functions of Uric Acid and Ascorbate in ManSimilar Functions of Uric Acid and Ascorbate in Man Nature vol 228, 1970, p868.

外部リンク

ビタミンC解説 -「健康食品」の安全性・有効性情報 - 国立健康・栄養研究所
ビタミンC（アスコルビン酸） -「健康食品」の安全性・有効性情報 - 国立健康・栄養研究所

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and L-ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat and prevent scurvy.^[1] Evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold.^[2]^[3] It may be taken by mouth or by injection.^[1]

It is generally well tolerated.^[1] Large doses may cause gastrointestinal upset, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin.^[3]^[1] Normal doses are safe during pregnancy.^[4] Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue.^[1] Foods that contain vitamin C include citrus fruit, tomatoes, and potatoes.^[2]

Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and first made in 1933.^[5] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system.^[6] Vitamin C is available as a generic medication and over the counter.^[1] The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 0.19 to 0.54 USD per month.^[7] In some countries ascorbic acid may be added to foods such as breakfast cereal.^[2]

1 Medical uses
- 1.1 Scurvy
- 1.2 Cancer prevention
- 1.3 Cardiovascular disease
- 1.4 Chronic diseases
- 1.5 Common cold
2 Side effects
- 2.1 Common
- 2.2 Possible
- 2.3 Overdose
3 Biological significance
- 3.1 Deficiency
- 3.2 Biosynthesis
- 3.3 Evolution
- 3.4 Absorption, transport, and excretion
- 3.5 Enzymatic cofactor
- 3.6 Immune system
- 3.7 Role in plants
4 Daily requirements
- 4.1 Recommended intake
- 4.2 Testing for levels
5 Dietary sources
- 5.1 Plant sources
- 5.2 Animal sources
- 5.3 Food preparation
- 5.4 Supplements
- 5.5 Industrial synthesis
6 Chemistry
7 History
- 7.1 Discovery
8 Society and culture
- 8.1 Food fortification
- 8.2 Measurement in foods
- 8.3 Compendial status
9 References
10 External links

Medical uses

Vitamin C supplements at a drug store.

A 2012 Cochrane review found no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality.^[8]

Scurvy

Although rare in modern times, scurvy and its associated destabilization of collagen, connective tissue, and bone can be prevented by adequate vitamin C intake.^[1]

Cancer prevention

A 2014 review found that, "Currently, the use of high-dose IV vitamin C [as an anticancer agent] cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial."^[9]

A 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy or high risk (smokers and asbestos-exposed) people.^[10] A 2014 meta-analysis found weak evidence that vitamin C intake might protect against lung cancer risk.^[11] A second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer.^[12]

Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer. One found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect of supplementation.^[13]^[14]

A 2011 meta-analysis failed to find support for the prevention of breast cancer with vitamin C supplementation,^[15] but a second study concluded that vitamin C may be associated with increased survival in those already diagnosed.^[16]

Cardiovascular disease

A 2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, or all-cause mortality.^[17] However, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke.^[18]

A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, with stronger effects in those at higher cardiovascular disease risk.^[19]

Chronic diseases

A 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.^[20]

Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimer's disease have reached conflicting conclusions.^[21]^[22] Maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably more important than supplementation for achieving any potential benefit.^[23]

Vitamin C supplementation above the RDA has been used in trials to study a potential effect on preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract. However, no significant effects were found from the research.^[24]

Common cold

Vitamin C's effect on the common cold has been extensively researched. It has not been shown effective in prevention or treatment of the common cold, except in limited circumstances (specifically, individuals exercising vigorously in cold environments).^[25]^{[needs update]}^[26] Routine vitamin C supplementation does not reduce the incidence or severity of the common cold in the general population, though it may reduce the duration of illness.^[25]^[27]

Side effects

Common

Relatively large doses of ascorbic acid may cause indigestion, particularly when taken on an empty stomach. However, taking vitamin C in the form of sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate may minimize this effect.^[28] When taken in large doses, ascorbic acid causes diarrhea in healthy subjects. In one trial in 1936, doses of up to 6 grams of ascorbic acid were given to 29 infants, 93 children of preschool and school age, and 20 adults for more than 1400 days. With the higher doses, toxic manifestations were observed in five adults and four infants. The signs and symptoms in adults were nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flushing of the face, headache, fatigue and disturbed sleep. The main toxic reactions in the infants were skin rashes.^[29]

Possible

As vitamin C enhances iron absorption,^[30]^[31] iron poisoning can become an issue to people with rare iron overload disorders, such as haemochromatosis. A genetic condition that results in inadequate levels of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) can cause sufferers to develop hemolytic anemia after ingesting specific oxidizing substances, such as very large dosages of vitamin C.^{[citation needed]}

There is a longstanding belief among the mainstream medical community that vitamin C causes kidney stones, which is based on little science.^[32] Although recent studies have found a relationship,^[33]^[34] a clear link between excess ascorbic acid intake and kidney stone formation has not been generally established.^[35] Some case reports exist for a link between patients with oxalate deposits and a history of high-dose vitamin C usage.^[36]

In a study conducted on rats, during the first month of pregnancy, high doses of vitamin C may suppress the production of progesterone from the corpus luteum.^[37] Progesterone, necessary for the maintenance of a pregnancy, is produced by the corpus luteum for the first few weeks, until the placenta is developed enough to produce its own source. By blocking this function of the corpus luteum, high doses of vitamin C (1000+ mg) are theorized to induce an early miscarriage. In a group of spontaneously aborting women at the end of the first trimester, the mean values of vitamin C were significantly higher in the aborting group. However, the authors do state: 'This could not be interpreted as an evidence of causal association.'^[38] However, in a previous study of 79 women with threatened, previous spontaneous, or habitual abortion, Javert and Stander (1943) had 91% success with 33 patients who received vitamin C together with bioflavonoids and vitamin K (only three abortions), whereas all of the 46 patients who did not receive the vitamins aborted.^[39]

A study in rats and humans suggested that adding Vitamin C supplements to an exercise training program lowered the expected effect of training on VO2 Max. Although the results in humans were not statistically significant, this study is often cited as evidence that high doses of Vitamin C have an adverse effect on exercise performance. In rats, it was shown that the additional Vitamin C resulted in lowered mitochondria production.^[40] Since rats are able to produce all of their needed Vitamin C, however, it is questionable whether they offer a relevant model of human physiological processes in this regard.

A cancer-causing mechanism of hexavalent chromium may be triggered by vitamin C.^[41]

Overdose

Vitamin C is water-soluble,^[42] with dietary excesses not absorbed, and excesses in the blood rapidly excreted in the urine. It exhibits remarkably low toxicity. The LD₅₀ (the dose that will kill 50% of a population) in rats is generally accepted to be 11.9 grams per kilogram of body weight when given by forced gavage (orally). The mechanism of death from such doses (1.2% of body weight, or 0.84 kg for a 70 kg human) is unknown, but may be more mechanical than chemical.^[43] The LD₅₀ in humans remains unknown, given lack of any accidental or intentional poisoning death data. However, as with all substances tested in this way, the rat LD₅₀ is taken as a guide to its toxicity in humans.^{[citation needed]}

In 2000 the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences set a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 2,000 mg/day. The amount was chosen because human trials had reported diarrhea and other gastrointestinal disturbances at intakes of greater than 3,000 mg/day. This was the Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL), meaning that other adverse effects were observed at higher intakes.^[44]

Biological significance

Vitamin C is an essential nutrient for certain animals including humans. Vitamin C describes several vitamers that have vitamin C activity in animals, including ascorbic acid and its salts, and some oxidized forms of the molecule like dehydroascorbic acid. Ascorbate and ascorbic acid are both naturally present in the body when either of these is introduced into cells, since the forms interconvert according to pH. Vitamin C is a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions, including several collagen synthesis reactions that, when dysfunctional, cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy.^[45] In animals, these reactions are especially important in wound-healing and in preventing bleeding from capillaries. Ascorbate also acts as an antioxidant, protecting against oxidative stress.^[46]

The biological role of ascorbate is to act as a reducing agent, donating electrons to various enzymatic and a few non-enzymatic reactions. The one- and two-electron oxidized forms of vitamin C, semidehydroascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid, respectively, can be reduced in the body by glutathione and NADPH-dependent enzymatic mechanisms.^[47]^[48] The presence of glutathione in cells and extracellular fluids helps maintain ascorbate in a reduced state.^[49]

In humans, vitamin C is essential to a healthy diet as well as being a highly effective antioxidant, acting to lessen oxidative stress; a substrate for ascorbate peroxidase in plants (APX is plant specific enzyme);^[50] and an enzyme cofactor for the biosynthesis of many important biochemicals. Vitamin C acts as an electron donor for important enzymes:^[51]

Ascorbate is required for a range of essential metabolic reactions in all animals and plants. It is made internally by almost all organisms; the main exceptions are most bats, all guinea pigs, capybaras, and the Haplorrhini (one of the two major primate suborders, consisting of tarsiers, monkeys, and humans and other apes). Ascorbate is also not synthesized by many species of birds and fish. All species that do not synthesize ascorbate require it in the diet.

Deficiency

Scurvy is an avitaminosis resulting from lack of vitamin C, since without this vitamin, the synthesized collagen is too unstable to perform its function.^[45]^[52]^[50] Scurvy leads to the formation of brown spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from all mucous membranes. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, suppurating wounds and loss of teeth and, eventually, death. The human body can store only a certain amount of vitamin C,^[53] and so the body stores are depleted if fresh supplies are not consumed. The time frame for onset of symptoms of scurvy in unstressed adults on a completely vitamin C free diet, however, may range from one month to more than six months, depending on previous loading of vitamin C.

Western societies generally consume far more than sufficient vitamin C to prevent scurvy. In 2004, a Canadian Community health survey reported that Canadians of 19 years and above have intakes of vitamin C from food of 133 mg/d for males and 120 mg/d for females;^[54] these are higher than the RDA recommendations.

Notable human dietary studies of experimentally induced scurvy have been conducted on conscientious objectors during WWII in Britain and on Iowa state prisoners in the late 1960s to the 1980s. These studies both found that all obvious symptoms of scurvy previously induced by an experimental scorbutic diet with extremely low vitamin C content could be completely reversed by additional vitamin C supplementation of only 10 mg a day. In these experiments, there was no clinical difference noted between men given 70 mg vitamin C per day (which produced blood level of vitamin C of about 0.55 mg/dl, about 1/3 of tissue saturation levels) and those given 10 mg per day. Men in the prison study developed the first signs of scurvy about 4 weeks after starting the vitamin C-free diet, whereas in the British study, six to eight months were required, possibly due to the pre-loading of this group with a 70 mg/day supplement for six weeks before the scorbutic diet was fed.^[55]

Men in both studies on a diet devoid, or nearly devoid, of vitamin C had blood levels of vitamin C too low to be accurately measured when they developed signs of scurvy, and in the Iowa study, at this time were estimated (by labeled vitamin C dilution) to have a body pool of less than 300 mg, with daily turnover of only 2.5 mg/day, implying an instantaneous half-life of 83 days by this time (elimination constant of 4 months).^[56]

Biosynthesis

Model of a vitamin C molecule. Black is carbon, red is oxygen, and white is hydrogen

The vast majority of animals and plants are able to synthesize vitamin C, through a sequence of enzyme-driven steps, which convert monosaccharides to vitamin C. In plants, this is accomplished through the conversion of mannose or galactose to ascorbic acid.^[57] In some animals, glucose needed to produce ascorbate in the liver (in mammals and perching birds) is extracted from glycogen; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process.^[58]

Among the mammals that have lost the ability to synthesize vitamin C are simians and tarsiers, which together make up one of two major primate suborders, Haplorrhini. This group includes humans. The other more primitive primates (Strepsirrhini) have the ability to make vitamin C. Synthesis does not occur in a number of species (perhaps all species) in the small rodent family Caviidae that includes guinea pigs and capybaras, but occurs in other rodents (rats and mice do not need vitamin C in their diet, for example).^[59]

In reptiles and birds the biosynthesis is carried out in the kidneys. A number of species of passerine birds also do not synthesize, but not all of them, and those that do not are not clearly related; there is a theory that the ability was lost separately a number of times in birds.^[60] In particular, the ability to synthesize vitamin C is presumed to have been lost and then later re-acquired in at least two cases.^[61]

All tested families of bats (Order Chiroptera), including major insect and fruit-eating bat families, cannot synthesize vitamin C. A trace of gulonolactone oxidase (GULO) was detected in only 1 of 34 bat species tested, across the range of 6 families of bats tested.^[62] However, recent results show that there are at least two species of bats, frugivorous bat (Rousettus leschenaultii) and insectivorous bat (Hipposideros armiger), that retain their ability of vitamin C production.^[63]^[64]

The ability to synthesize vitamin C has also been lost in about 96% of fish (the teleosts).^[60]

These animals all lack the L-gulonolactone oxidase (GULO) enzyme, which is required in the last step of vitamin C synthesis, because they have a differing non-synthesizing gene for the enzyme (Pseudogene ΨGULO).^[65] A similar non-functional gene is present in the genome of the guinea pigs and in primates, including humans.^[66]^[67] Some of these species (including humans) are able to make do with the lower levels available from their diets by recycling oxidised vitamin C.^[68]

Most simians consume the vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than that recommended by governments for humans.^[69] This discrepancy constitutes much of the basis of the controversy on current recommended dietary allowances. It is countered by arguments that humans are very good at conserving dietary vitamin C, and are able to maintain blood levels of vitamin C comparable with other simians, on a far smaller dietary intake.^[70]

Like plants and animals, some microorganisms such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been shown to be able to synthesize vitamin C from simple sugars.^[71]^[72]

Evolution

Ascorbic acid or vitamin C is a common enzymatic cofactor in mammals used in the synthesis of collagen. Ascorbate is a powerful reducing agent capable of rapidly scavenging a number of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Freshwater teleost fishes also require dietary vitamin C in their diet or they will get scurvy. The most widely recognized symptoms of vitamin C deficiency in fishes are scoliosis, lordosis and dark skin coloration. Freshwater salmonids also show impaired collagen formation, internal/fin hemorrhage, spinal curvature and increased mortality. If these fishes are housed in seawater with algae and phytoplankton, then vitamin supplementation seems to be less important, it is presumed because of the availability of other, more ancient, antioxidants in natural marine environment.^[73]

Some scientists have suggested that loss of the vitamin C biosynthesis pathway may have played a role in rapid evolutionary changes, leading to hominids and the emergence of human beings.^[74]^[75]^[76] However, another theory is that the loss of ability to make vitamin C in simians may have occurred much farther back in evolutionary history than the emergence of humans or even apes, since it evidently occurred soon after the appearance of the first primates, yet sometime after the split of early primates into the two major suborders Haplorrhini (which cannot make vitamin C) and its sister suborder of non-tarsier prosimians, the Strepsirrhini ("wet-nosed" primates), which retained the ability to make vitamin C.^[77] According to molecular clock dating, these two suborder primate branches parted ways about 63 to 60 million years ago.^[78] Approximately three to five million years later (58 million years ago), only a short time afterward from an evolutionary perspective, the infraorder Tarsiiformes, whose only remaining family is that of the tarsier (Tarsiidae), branched off from the other haplorrhines.^[79]^[80] Since tarsiers also cannot make vitamin C, this implies the mutation had already occurred, and thus must have occurred between these two marker points (63 to 58 million years ago).

It has been noted that the loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the inability to break down uric acid, also a characteristic of primates. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong reducing agents. This has led to the suggestion that, in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate.^[81]

Absorption, transport, and excretion

Ascorbic acid is absorbed in the body by both active transport and simple diffusion. Sodium-Dependent Active Transport—Sodium-Ascorbate Co-Transporters (SVCTs) and Hexose transporters (GLUTs)—are the two transporters required for absorption. SVCT1 and SVCT2 import the reduced form of ascorbate across plasma membrane.^[82] GLUT1 and GLUT3 are the two glucose transporters, and transfer only the dehydroascorbic acid form of Vitamin C.^[83] Although dehydroascorbic acid is absorbed in higher rate than ascorbate, the amount of dehydroascorbic acid found in plasma and tissues under normal conditions is low, as cells rapidly reduce dehydroascorbic acid to ascorbate.^[84]^[85] Thus, SVCTs appear to be the predominant system for vitamin C transport in the body.

SVCT2 is involved in vitamin C transport in almost every tissue,^[82] the notable exception being red blood cells, which lose SVCT proteins during maturation.^[86] "SVCT2 knockout" animals genetically engineered to lack this functional gene, die shortly after birth,^[87] suggesting that SVCT2-mediated vitamin C transport is necessary for life.

With regular intake the absorption rate varies between 70 and 95%. However, the degree of absorption decreases as intake increases. At high intake (1.25 g), fractional human absorption of ascorbic acid may be as low as 33%; at low intake (<200 mg) the absorption rate can reach up to 98%.^[88]

Ascorbate concentrations over the renal re-absorption threshold pass freely into the urine and are excreted. At high dietary doses (corresponding to several hundred mg/day in humans) ascorbate is accumulated in the body until the plasma levels reach the renal resorption threshold, which is about 1.5 mg/dL in men and 1.3 mg/dL in women. Concentrations in the plasma larger than this value (thought to represent body saturation) are rapidly excreted in the urine with a half-life of about 30 minutes. Concentrations less than this threshold amount are actively retained by the kidneys, and the excretion half-life for the remainder of the vitamin C store in the body thus increases greatly, with the half-life lengthening as the body stores are depleted. This half-life rises until it is as long as 83 days by the onset of the first symptoms of scurvy.^[89]

Although the body's maximal store of vitamin C is largely determined by the renal threshold for blood, there are many tissues that maintain vitamin C concentrations far higher than in blood. Biological tissues that accumulate over 100 times the level in blood plasma of vitamin C are the adrenal glands, pituitary, thymus, corpus luteum, and retina.^[90] Those with 10 to 50 times the concentration present in blood plasma include the brain, spleen, lung, testicle, lymph nodes, liver, thyroid, small intestinal mucosa, leukocytes, pancreas, kidney, and salivary glands.

Ascorbic acid can be oxidized (broken down) in the human body by the enzyme L-ascorbate oxidase. Ascorbate that is not directly excreted in the urine as a result of body saturation or destroyed in other body metabolism is oxidized by this enzyme and removed.

Enzymatic cofactor

Ascorbic acid performs numerous physiological functions in the human body. These functions include the synthesis of collagen, carnitine, and neurotransmitters; the synthesis and catabolism of tyrosine; and the metabolism of microsome.^[49] During biosynthesis ascorbate acts as a reducing agent, donating electrons and preventing oxidation to keep iron and copper atoms in their reduced states.

Vitamin C acts as an electron donor for eight different enzymes:^[51]

Three enzymes (prolyl-3-hydroxylase, prolyl-4-hydroxylase, and lysyl hydroxylase) that are required for the hydroxylation of proline and lysine in the synthesis of collagen.^[91]^[92]^[93] These reactions add hydroxyl groups to the amino acids proline or lysine in the collagen molecule via prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase, both requiring vitamin C as a cofactor. Hydroxylation allows the collagen molecule to assume its triple helix structure, and thus vitamin C is essential to the development and maintenance of scar tissue, blood vessels, and cartilage.^[53]
Two enzymes (ε-N-trimethyl-L-lysine hydroxylase and γ-butyrobetaine hydroxylase) that are necessary for synthesis of carnitine.^[94]^[95] Carnitine is essential for the transport of fatty acids into mitochondria for ATP generation.
The remaining three enzymes have the following functions in common, but have other functions as well:
- dopamine beta hydroxylase participates in the biosynthesis of norepinephrine from dopamine.^[96]^[97]
- Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase amidates peptide hormones by removing the glyoxylate residue from their c-terminal glycine residues. This increases peptide hormone stability and activity.^[98]^[99]
- 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase modulates tyrosine metabolism.^[100]^[101]

Immune system

Vitamin C is found in high concentrations in immune cells, and is consumed quickly during infections. It is not certain how vitamin C interacts with the immune system; it has been hypothesized to modulate the activities of phagocytes, the production of cytokines and lymphocytes, and the number of cell adhesion molecules in monocytes.^[102]

Role in plants

Ascorbic acid is associated with chloroplasts and apparently plays a role in ameliorating the oxidative stress of photosynthesis. In addition, it has a number of other roles in cell division and protein modification. Plants appear to be able to make ascorbate by at least one other biochemical route that is different from the major route in animals, although precise details remain unknown.^[103]

Daily requirements

The North American Dietary Reference Intake recommends 90 milligrams per day for adult men, 75 mg/day for adult women, and no more than 2 grams (2,000 milligrams) per day.^[104] There is continuing debate within the scientific community over the best dose schedule (the amount and frequency of intake) of vitamin C for maintaining optimal health in humans. A 2008 review recommended 1,000 mg/day as a supplement, in addition to what is consumed from food.^[105] A balanced diet without supplementation usually contains enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy in an average healthy adult, while those who smoke tobacco or are under stress require slightly more.^[104]

United States vitamin C recommendations^[104]
Recommended Dietary Allowance (adult male)	90 mg per day
Recommended Dietary Allowance (adult female)	75 mg per day
Recommended Dietary Allowance (pregnancy)	85 mg per day
Recommended Dietary Allowance (lactation)	120 mg per day
Tolerable Upper Intake Level (adult male)	2,000 mg per day
Tolerable Upper Intake Level (adult female)	2,000 mg per day

Recommended intake

Recommendations for vitamin C intake have been set by various national agencies:

40 milligrams per day or 280 milligrams per week taken all at once: the United Kingdom's Food Standards Agency^[45]
40 milligrams per day as per the recommendations of India's National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad^[106]
45 milligrams per day 300 milligrams per week: the World Health Organization^[107]
80 milligrams per day: the European Commission's Council on nutrition labeling^[108]
90 mg/day (males) and 75 mg/day (females): Health Canada 2007^[109]
90 mg/day (males) and 75 mg/day (females): United States' National Academy of Sciences.^[104]
100 milligrams per day: Japan's National Institute of Health and Nutrition.^[110]

For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For vitamin C labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 60 mg, but as of May 2016 it has been revised to 90 mg. A table of the pre-change adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. Food and supplement companies have until July 28, 2018 to comply with the change.

Testing for levels

Simple tests use dichlorophenolindophenol, a redox indicator, to measure the levels of vitamin C in the urine and in serum or blood plasma. However these reflect recent dietary intake rather than the level of vitamin C in body stores.^[45] Reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography is used for determining the storage levels of vitamin C within lymphocytes and tissue. It has been observed that while serum or blood plasma levels follow the circadian rhythm or short term dietary changes, those within tissues themselves are more stable and give a better view of the availability of ascorbate within the organism. However, very few hospital laboratories are adequately equipped and trained to carry out such detailed analyses, and require samples to be analyzed in specialized laboratories.^[111]^[112]

Dietary sources

Rose hips are a particularly rich source of vitamin C

The richest natural sources are fruits and vegetables, and of those, the Kakadu plum and the camu camu fruit contain the highest concentration of the vitamin. It is also present in some cuts of meat, especially liver. Vitamin C is the most widely taken nutritional supplement and is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, drink mixes, crystals in capsules or naked crystals.

Vitamin C is absorbed by the intestines using a sodium-ion dependent channel. It is transported through the intestine via both glucose-sensitive and glucose-insensitive mechanisms. The presence of large quantities of sugar either in the intestines or in the blood can slow absorption.^[113]

Plant sources

While plants are generally a good source of vitamin C, the amount in foods of plant origin depends on the precise variety of the plant, soil condition, climate where it grew, length of time since it was picked, storage conditions, and method of preparation.^[114]

The following table is approximate and shows the relative abundance in different raw plant sources.^[115]^[116] As some plants were analyzed fresh while others were dried (thus, artifactually increasing concentration of individual constituents like vitamin C), the data are subject to potential variation and difficulties for comparison. The amount is given in milligrams per 100 grams of fruit or vegetable and is a rounded average from multiple authoritative sources:

Plant source	Amount (mg / 100g)
Kakadu plum	1000–5300^[117]^[118]^[119]
Camu Camu	2800^[116]^[120]
Acerola	1677^[121]
Seabuckthorn	695
Indian gooseberry	445
Rose hip	426^[122]
Baobab	400
Chili pepper (green)	244
Guava (common, raw)	228.3^[123]
Blackcurrant	200
Red pepper	190
Chili pepper (red)	144
Parsley	130
Kiwifruit	90
Broccoli	90
Loganberry	80
Redcurrant	80
Brussels sprouts	80
Wolfberry (Goji)	73 †
Lychee	70
Persimmon (native, raw)	66.0^[124]
Cloudberry	60
Elderberry	60

† average of 3 sources; dried

Plant source	Amount (mg / 100g)
Papaya	60
Strawberry	60
Orange	53
Lemon	53
Pineapple	48
Cauliflower	48
Kale	41
Melon, cantaloupe	40
Garlic	31
Grapefruit	30
Raspberry	30
Tangerine	30
Mandarin orange	30
Passion fruit	30
Spinach	30
Cabbage raw green	30
Lime	30
Mango	28
Rutabaga	25
Blackberry	21
Potato	20
Melon, honeydew	20
Tomato, red	13.7^[125]
Cranberry	13
Tomato	10
Blueberry	10
Pawpaw	10

Plant source	Amount (mg / 100g)
Grape	10
Apricot	10
Plum	10
Watermelon	10
Banana	9
Avocado	8.8^[126]
Crabapple	8
Onion	7.4^[127]
Cherry	7
Peach	7
Carrot	6
Apple	6
Asparagus	6
Horned melon	5.3^[128]
Beetroot	5
Chokecherry	5
Pear	4
Lettuce	4
Cucumber	3
Eggplant	2
Raisin	2
Fig	2
Bilberry	1
Medlar	0.3

Source:^[129]

Animal sources

Goats, like almost all animals, make their own vitamin C. An adult goat, weighing approx. 70 kg, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health, and levels manyfold higher when faced with stress.^[130]^[131]

The overwhelming majority of species of animals (but not humans, guinea pigs or fruit bats) and plants synthesize their own vitamin C.^[132] Therefore, some animal products can be used as sources of dietary vitamin C.

Vitamin C is most present in the liver and least present in the muscle. Since muscle provides the majority of meat consumed in the western human diet, animal products are not a reliable source of the vitamin. Vitamin C is present in human breast milk, but only in limited quantity in raw cow's milk.^[133] All excess vitamin C is disposed of through the urinary system.

The following table shows the relative abundance of vitamin C in various foods of animal origin, given in milligrams of vitamin C per 100 grams of food:

Animal Source	Amount (mg / 100g)
Calf liver (raw)	36
Beef liver (raw)	31
Oysters (raw)	30
Cod roe (fried)	26
Pork liver (raw)	23
Lamb brain (boiled)	17
Chicken liver (fried)	13

Animal Source	Amount (mg / 100g)
Lamb liver (fried)	12
Calf adrenals (raw)	11^[134]
Lamb heart (roast)	11
Lamb tongue (stewed)	6
Camel milk (fresh)	5^[135]
Human milk (fresh)	4
Goat milk (fresh)	2
Cow milk (fresh)	2

Food preparation

Vitamin C chemically decomposes under certain conditions, many of which may occur during the cooking of food. Vitamin C concentrations in various food substances decrease with time in proportion to the temperature they are stored at^[136] and cooking can reduce the Vitamin C content of vegetables by around 60% possibly partly due to increased enzymatic destruction as it may be more significant at sub-boiling temperatures.^[137] Longer cooking times also add to this effect, as will copper food vessels, which catalyse the decomposition.^[43]

Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is leaching, where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C does not leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows broccoli seems to retain more than any other.^[138] Research has also shown that freshly cut fruits do not lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.^[139]

Supplements

Vitamin C is available in caplets, tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin formulations, in multiple antioxidant formulations, and as crystalline powder. Timed release versions are available, as are formulations containing bioflavonoids such as quercetin, hesperidin, and rutin. Tablet and capsule sizes range from 25 mg to 1500 mg. Vitamin C (as ascorbic acid) crystals are typically available in bottles containing 300 g to 1 kg of powder (a 5 ml teaspoon of vitamin C crystals equals 5,000 mg). The bottles are usually airtight and brown or opaque in order to prevent oxidation.

Commercial supplements of liposomal vitamin C are marketed,^[140] but the bioavailability of such products is not sufficiently studied to determine any difference from other forms of vitamin C.^[141]

Industrial synthesis

Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process, developed in the 1930s, uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The modern two-step fermentation process, originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.^[142]

Research is underway at the Scottish Crop Research Institute in the interest of creating a strain of yeast that can synthesize vitamin C in a single fermentation step from galactose, a technology expected to reduce manufacturing costs considerably.^[71]

World production of synthesized vitamin C is currently estimated at approximately 110,000 tonnes annually. The main producers have been BASF/Takeda, DSM, Merck and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd. of the People's Republic of China. By 2008 only the DSM plant in Scotland remained operational outside the strong price competition from China.^[143] The world price of vitamin C rose sharply in 2008 partly as a result of rises in basic food prices but also in anticipation of a stoppage of the two Chinese plants, situated at Shijiazhuang near Beijing, as part of a general shutdown of polluting industry in China over the period of the Olympic games.^[144] Five Chinese manufacturers met in 2010, among them Northeast Pharmaceutical Group and North China Pharmaceutical Group, and agreed to temporarily stop production in order to maintain prices.^[145] In 2011 an American suit was filed against four Chinese companies that allegedly colluded to limit production and fix prices of vitamin C in the United States. According to the plaintiffs, after the agreement was made spot prices for vitamin C shot to as high as $7 per kilogram in December 2002 from $2.50 per kilogram in December 2001. The companies did not deny the accusation but say in their defense that the Chinese government compelled them to act in this way.^[146] In January 2012 a US judge ruled that the Chinese companies can be sued in the U.S. by buyers acting as a group.^[147]

Chemistry

ascorbic acid
(reduced form)

dehydroascorbic acid
(oxidized form)

The name "vitamin C" always refers to the L-enantiomer of ascorbic acid and its oxidized forms. The opposite D-enantiomer called D-ascorbate has equal antioxidant power, but is not found in nature and has no physiological significance. When D-ascorbate is synthesized and given to animals that require vitamin C in their diets, it has been found to have far less vitamin activity than the L-enantiomer.^[148] Therefore, unless written otherwise, "ascorbate" and "ascorbic acid" refer in the nutritional literature to L-ascorbate and L-ascorbic acid respectively. This notation will be followed in this article. Similarly, their oxidized derivatives (dehydroascorbate, etc., see below) are all L-enantiomers and also need not be written with full stereochemical notation here.

Ascorbic acid is a weak sugar acid structurally related to glucose. In biological systems, ascorbic acid can be found only at low pH, but in neutral solutions above pH 5 is predominantly found in the ionized form, ascorbate. All of these molecules have vitamin C activity and thus are used synonymously with vitamin C, unless otherwise specified. Numerous analytical methods have been developed for ascorbic acid detection.^[149]^[150]

History

James Lind, a British Royal Navy surgeon who, in 1747, identified that a quality in fruit prevented the disease of scurvy in what was the first recorded controlled experiment.

The need to include fresh plant food or raw animal flesh in the diet to prevent disease was known from ancient times. Native people living in marginal areas incorporated this into their medicinal lore. For example, spruce needles were used in temperate zones in infusions, or the leaves from species of drought-resistant trees in desert areas. In 1536, the French explorers Jacques Cartier and Daniel Knezevic, exploring the St. Lawrence River, used the local natives' knowledge to save his men who were dying of scurvy. He boiled the needles of the arbor vitae tree to make a tea that was later shown to contain 50 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams.^[151]^[152]

In the 1497 expedition of Vasco de Gama, the curative effects of citrus fruit were known.^[153]^[154] The Portuguese planted fruit trees and vegetables in Saint Helena, a stopping point for homebound voyages from Asia, and left their sick, suffering from scurvy and other ailments to be taken home, if they recovered, by the next ship.^[155]

Authorities occasionally recommended the benefit of plant food to promote health and prevent scurvy during long sea voyages. John Woodall, the first appointed surgeon to the British East India Company, recommended the preventive and curative use of lemon juice in his book, The Surgeon's Mate, in 1617.^[156] In 1734, the Dutch writer Johann Bachstrom gave the firm opinion that "scurvy is solely owing to a total abstinence from fresh vegetable food, and greens, which is alone the primary cause of the disease."^[157]^[158]

Scurvy had long been a principal killer of sailors during the long sea voyages.^[159] According to Jonathan Lamb, "In 1499, Vasco da Gama lost 116 of his crew of 170; In 1520, Magellan lost 208 out of 230;...all mainly to scurvy."^[160]

While the earliest documented case of scurvy was described by Hippocrates around 400 BC, the first attempt to give scientific basis for the cause of this disease was by a ship's surgeon in the British Royal Navy, James Lind. Scurvy was common among those with poor access to fresh fruit and vegetables, such as remote, isolated sailors and soldiers. While at sea in May 1747, Lind provided some crew members with two oranges and one lemon per day, in addition to normal rations, while others continued on cider, vinegar, sulfuric acid or seawater, along with their normal rations. In the history of science, this is considered to be the first occurrence of a controlled experiment. The results conclusively showed that citrus fruits prevented the disease. Lind published his work in 1753 in his Treatise on the Scurvy.^[161]

Citrus fruits were one of the first sources of vitamin C available to ships' surgeons.

Lind's work was slow to be noticed, partly because his Treatise was not published until six years after his study, and also because he recommended a lemon juice extract known as rob.^[162] Fresh fruit was very expensive to keep on board, whereas boiling it down to juice allowed easy storage but destroyed the vitamin (especially if boiled in copper kettles).^[43] Ship captains concluded wrongly that Lind's other suggestions were ineffective because those juices failed to prevent or cure scurvy.

It was 1795 before the British navy adopted lemons or lime as standard issue at sea. Limes were more popular, as they could be found in British West Indian Colonies, unlike lemons, which were not found in British Dominions, and were therefore more expensive. This practice led to the American use of the nickname "limey" to refer to the British. Captain James Cook had previously demonstrated and proven the principle of the advantages of carrying "Sour krout" on board, by taking his crews to the Hawaiian Islands and beyond without losing any of his men to scurvy.^[163] For this otherwise unheard of feat, the British Admiralty awarded him a medal.

The name antiscorbutic was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as general term for those foods known to prevent scurvy, even though there was no understanding of the reason for this. These foods included but were not limited to lemons, limes, oranges, sauerkraut, cabbage, malt, and portable soup.^[164]

Even before the antiscorbutic substance was identified, there were indications that it was present in amounts sufficient to prevent scurvy in nearly all fresh (uncooked and uncured) foods, including raw animal-derived foods. In 1928, the Arctic anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson attempted to prove his theory of how the Inuit are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet despite the disease's striking European Arctic explorers living on similar high cooked-meat diets. Stefansson theorised that the natives get their vitamin C from fresh meat that is minimally cooked. Starting in February 1928, for one year, he and a colleague lived on an exclusively minimally cooked meat diet while under medical supervision; they remained healthy. Later studies done after vitamin C could be quantified in mostly raw traditional food diets of the Yukon First Nations, Dene, Inuit, and Métis of Northern Canada showed that their daily intake of vitamin C averaged between 52 and 62 mg/day, an amount of approximately the dietary reference intake (DRI), even at times of the year when little plant-based food was eaten.^[165]

Discovery

Albert Szent-Györgyi, pictured here in 1948, was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Medicine "for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid".^[166]

In 1907 a laboratory animal model which would help to isolate and identify the antiscorbutic factor was discovered: Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich, two Norwegian physicians studying shipboard beriberi in the Norwegian fishing fleet, wanted a small test mammal to substitute for the pigeons then used in beriberi research. They fed guinea pigs their test diet of grains and flour, which had earlier produced beriberi in their pigeons, and were surprised when classic scurvy resulted instead. This was a serendipitous choice of animal, as mice and rats make their own vitamin C. Until that time, scurvy had not been observed in any organism apart from humans, and had been considered an exclusively human disease. (Some birds cannot make vitamin C, but pigeons and other seed-eating birds DO make their own vitamin C.) Holst and Frølich found they could cure the disease in guinea pigs with the addition of various fresh foods and extracts. This discovery of an animal experimental model for scurvy, made even before the essential idea of vitamins in foods had even been put forward, has been called the single most important piece of vitamin C research.^[167]

In 1912, the Polish biochemist Casimir Funk, while researching beriberi in pigeons, developed the concept of vitamins to refer to the non-mineral micronutrients that are essential to health. The name is a blend of "vital", due to the vital biochemical role they play, and "amines" because Funk thought that all these materials were chemical amines. Although the "e" was dropped after skepticism that all these compounds were amines, the word vitamin remained as a generic name for them. One of the vitamins was thought to be the hypothesised anti-scorbutic factor in certain foods, such as those tested by Holst and Frølich. In 1928, this vitamin was referred to as "water-soluble C," although its chemical structure had still not been determined.^[168]

From 1928 to 1932, the Hungarian research team of Albert Szent-Györgyi and Joseph L. Svirbely, as well as the American team led by Charles Glen King in Pittsburgh, first identified the anti-scorbutic factor. Szent-Györgyi had isolated the chemical hexuronic acid (actually, L-hexuronic acid, althogh he did not know the stereochemistry at that time) from animal adrenal glands at the Mayo clinic, and suspected it to be the antiscorbutic factor, but could not prove this without a biological assay. At the same time, for five years King's laboratory at the University of Pittsburgh had been trying to isolate the antiscorbutic factor in lemon juice using the original 1907 model of scorbutic guinea pigs which developed scurvy when not fed fresh foods, but were cured by lemon juice. They had also considered hexuronic acid as being the vitamin, but had been put off the trail when a coworker made the explicit (and mistaken) experimental claim that this substance was not the antiscorbutic substance.^[169]

Finally, in late 1931, Szent-Györgyi gave Svirbely, formerly of King's lab, the last of his adrenal-derived hexuronic acid with the suggestion that it might be the anti-scorbutic factor. By the spring of 1932, King's laboratory had proven this, but published the result without giving Szent-Györgyi credit for it, leading to a bitter dispute over priority claims (in reality it had taken a team effort by both groups, since Szent-Györgyi was unwilling to do the difficult and messy animal studies).^[169]

Meanwhile, by 1932, Szent-Györgyi had moved to Hungary. By now he knew that hexanuric acid was present in large amounts in citrus, where it prevented oxidation of polyphenols, but it was difficult to extract because of the other sugars naturally present there. After being fed a meal of paprika peppers, a common spice and food in the Hungarian diet, Szent-Györgyi was inspired to assay it for hexuronic acid and found it present in large amounts without the contaminating sugars from sweeter plants. With a plentiful source of the pure vitamin, Szent-Györgyi now sent a large sample to noted British sugar chemist Walter Norman Haworth, who chemically identified it as L-hexuronic acid and then proved the identification by total synthesis in 1933.^[170]^[171]^[172] Haworth and Szent-Györgyi now proposed that the substance L-hexuronic acid be called a-scorbic acid, and chemically L-ascorbic acid, in honor of its activity against scurvy.^[173] Ascorbic acid turned out not to be an amine, nor even to contain any nitrogen.

In part, in recognition of his accomplishment with vitamin C, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the unshared 1937 Nobel Prize in Medicine.^[174] Haworth also shared that year's Nobel Prize in Chemistry, in part for his vitamin C synthetic work.^[166]

Between 1933 and 1934 not only Haworth and Edmund Hirst had synthesized vitamin C, but also, independently, Tadeus Reichstein succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin in bulk, making it the first vitamin to be artificially produced.^[175] The latter process made possible the cheap mass-production of semi-synthetic vitamin C, which was quickly marketed. Only Haworth was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Chemistry in part for this work, but the Reichstein process, a combined chemical and bacterial fermentation sequence still used today to produce vitamin C, retained Reichstein's name.^[176]^[177] In 1934 Hoffmann–La Roche, which bought the Reichstein process patent, became the first pharmaceutical company to mass-produce and market synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of Redoxon.^[178]

In 1957, J.J. Burns showed that the reason some mammals are susceptible to scurvy is the inability of their liver to produce the active enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase, which is the last of the chain of four enzymes that synthesize vitamin C.^[179]^[180] American biochemist Irwin Stone was the first to exploit vitamin C for its food preservative properties. He later developed the theory that humans possess a mutated form of the L-gulonolactone oxidase coding gene.^[181]

In 2008, researchers at the University of Montpellier discovered that in humans and other primates the red blood cells have evolved a mechanism to more efficiently utilize the vitamin C present in the body by recycling oxidized L-dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) back into ascorbic acid which can be reused by the body. The mechanism was not found to be present in mammals that synthesize their own vitamin C.^[68]

Society and culture

In February 2011, the Swiss Post issued a postage stamp bearing a depiction of a model of a molecule of vitamin C to mark the International Year of Chemistry. Tadeus Reichstein synthesized the vitamin for the first time in 1933.^[182]

Food fortification

In 2005, Health Canada evaluated the effect of fortification of foods with ascorbate in the guidance document, Addition of Vitamins and Minerals to Food.^[183] Ascorbate was categorized as a 'Risk Category A nutrient', meaning it is a nutrient for which an upper limit for intake is set but allows a wide margin of intake that has a narrow margin of safety but non-serious critical adverse effects.^[183]

Measurement in foods

Vitamin C content of a food sample such as fruit juice can be calculated by measuring the volume of the sample required to decolorize a solution of dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) and then calibrating the results by comparison with a known concentration of vitamin C.^[184]^[185]

Compendial status

British Pharmacopoeia ^[186]
Japanese Pharmacopoeia ^[187]

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^ Johann Friedrich Bachstrom, Observationes circa scorbutum [Observations on scurvy] (Leiden ("Lugdunum Batavorum"), Netherlands: Conrad Wishof, 1734) p. 16. From page 16: " … sed ex nostra causa optime explicatur, quae est absentia, carentia & abstinentia a vegetabilibus recentibus, … " ( … but [this misfortune] is explained very well by our [supposed] cause, which is the absence of, lack of, and abstinence from fresh vegetables, … )
^ Lamb J (February 17, 2011). "Captain Cook and the Scourge of Scurvy". British History in depth. BBC.
^ Lamb J (2001). Preserving the self in the south seas, 1680–1840. University of Chicago Press. p. 117. ISBN 0-226-46849-6.
^ Lind J (1753). A Treatise of the Scurvy. London: A. Millar. In the 1757 edition of his work, Lind discusses his experiment starting on page 149.
^ Singh S; Edzard Ernst (2008). Trick of Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine. WW Norton & Company. pp. 15–18. ISBN 978-0-393-06661-6.
^ Beaglehole JH, Cook JD, Edwards PR (1999). The journals of Captain Cook. Harmondsworth [Eng.]: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-043647-2.
^ Reeve J, Stevens DA (2006). "Cook's Voyages 1768–1780". Navy and the Nation: The Influence of the Navy on Modern Australia. Allen & Unwin Academic. p. 74. ISBN 1-74114-200-8.
^ Kuhnlein HV, Receveur O, Soueida R, Egeland GM (June 2004). "Arctic indigenous peoples experience the nutrition transition with changing dietary patterns and obesity". J. Nutr. 134 (6): 1447–53. PMID 15173410.
^ ^a ^b Zetterström R (May 2009). "Nobel Prize 1937 to Albert von Szent-Györgyi: identification of vitamin C as the anti-scorbutic factor". Acta Paediatr. 98 (5): 915–9. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01239.x. PMID 19239412.
^ Norum KR, Grav HJ (June 2002). "[Axel Holst and Theodor Frolich--pioneers in the combat of scurvy]". Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. (in Norwegian). 122 (17): 1686–7. PMID 12555613.
^ Rosenfeld L (April 1997). "Vitamine--vitamin. The early years of discovery". Clin. Chem. 43 (4): 680–5. PMID 9105273.
^ ^a ^b Svirbely JL, Szent-Györgyi A (1932). "The chemical nature of vitamin C". Biochem. J. 26 (3): 865–70. Bibcode:1932Sci....75..357K. doi:10.1126/science.75.1944.357-a. PMC 1260981. PMID 16744896.
^ Juhász-Nagy S (March 2002). "[Albert Szent-Györgyi--biography of a free genius]". Orv Hetil (in Hungarian). 143 (12): 611–4. PMID 11963399.
^ Kenéz J (December 1973). "[Eventful life of a scientist. 80th birthday of Nobel prize winner Albert Szent-Györgyi]". Munch Med Wochenschr (in German). 115 (51): 2324–6. PMID 4589872.
^ Szállási A (December 1974). "[2 interesting early articles by Albert Szent-Györgyi]". Orv Hetil (in Hungarian). 115 (52): 3118–9. PMID 4612454.
^ "The Albert Szent-Gyorgyi Papers: Szeged, 1931-1947: Vitamin C, Muscles, and WWII". Profiles in Science. United States National Library of Medicine.
^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1937". Nobel Media AB. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
^ Stacey M, Manners DJ (1978). "Edmund Langley Hirst. 1898-1975". Adv Carbohydr Chem Biochem. Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry. 35: 1–29. doi:10.1016/S0065-2318(08)60217-6. ISBN 9780120072354. PMID 356548.
^ Boudrant J (May 1990). "Microbial processes for ascorbic acid biosynthesis: a review". Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 12 (5): 322–9. doi:10.1016/0141-0229(90)90159-N. PMID 1366548.
^ Bremus C, Herrmann U, Bringer-Meyer S, Sahm H (June 2006). "The use of microorganisms in L-ascorbic acid production". J. Biotechnol. 124 (1): 196–205. doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2006.01.010. PMID 16516325.
^ Bächi B (2008). "[Natural or synthetic vitamin C? A new substance's precarious status behind the scenes of World War II]". NTM (in German). 16 (4): 445–70. doi:10.1007/s00048-008-0309-y. PMID 19579835.
^ Burns JJ, Evans C (December 1956). "The synthesis of L-ascorbic acid in the rat from D-glucuronolactone and L-gulonolactone". J. Biol. Chem. 223 (2): 897–905. PMID 13385237.
^ Burns JJ, Moltz A, Peyser P (December 1956). "Missing step in guinea pigs required for the biosynthesis of L-ascorbic acid". Science. 124 (3232): 1148–9. Bibcode:1956Sci...124.1148B. doi:10.1126/science.124.3232.1148-a. PMID 13380431.
^ Henson DE, Block G, Levine M (April 1991). "Ascorbic acid: biologic functions and relation to cancer". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 83 (8): 547–50. doi:10.1093/jnci/83.8.547. PMID 1672383.
^ Stephens T (February 17, 2011). "Let the chemical games begin!". Swiss Info. Swiss Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved February 23, 2011.
^ ^a ^b "Addition of Vitamins and Minerals to Food, 2005". Health Canada. Archived from the original on February 17, 2010. Retrieved February 25, 2010.
^ http://www.foodafactoflife.org.uk/attachments/ff2caf4a-75e5-4aa129132873.pdf
^ http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-biology/measuring-vitamin-c-content-foods-and-fruit-juices
^ British Pharmacopoeia Commission Secretariat (2009). "Index, BP 2009" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 11, 2009. Retrieved February 4, 2010.
^ "Japanese Pharmacopoeia, Fifteenth Edition" (PDF). 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2011. Retrieved February 4, 2010.

External links

Vitamin C Fact Sheet from the U.S. National Institutes of Health
Vitamin C bound to proteins in the PDB
National Nutrient Database at USDA Website

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. 水溶性ビタミンの概要 overview of water soluble vitamins
2. 疾患予防におけるビタミン補給 vitamin supplementation in disease prevention
3. 小児の栄養障害と関連した微量栄養素欠乏 micronutrient deficiencies associated with malnutrition in children
4. 成人における感冒：治療および予防 the common cold in adults treatment and prevention
5. 癌に対する補完代替療法 complementary and alternative therapies for cancer

English Journal

Optimisation of phenolic extraction from Averrhoa carambola pomace by response surface methodology and its microencapsulation by spray and freeze drying.

Saikia S1, Mahnot NK1, Mahanta CL2.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2015 Mar 15;171:144-52. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.08.064. Epub 2014 Sep 6.
Optimised of the extraction of polyphenol from star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) pomace using response surface methodology was carried out. Two variables viz. temperature (°C) and ethanol concentration (%) with 5 levels (-1.414, -1, 0, +1 and +1.414) were used to design the optimisation model using c
PMID 25308654

Analysis and characterisation of phytochemicals in mulberry (Morus alba L.) fruits grown in Vojvodina, North Serbia.

Natić MM1, Dabić DČ2, Papetti A3, Fotirić Akšić MM4, Ognjanov V5, Ljubojević M5, Tešić ZLj6.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2015 Mar 15;171:128-36. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.08.101. Epub 2014 Sep 6.
In this study, the polyphenolic profile of 11 Morus alba fruits grown in the Vojvodina region was investigated. Ultra high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled with Linear Trap Quadrupole and OrbiTrap mass analyzer, and UHPLC coupled with a diode array detector and a triple-quadrupole m
PMID 25308652

Winter jujube (Zizyphus jujuba Mill.) quality forecasting method based on electronic nose.

Hui G1, Jin J2, Deng S3, Ye X2, Zhao M2, Wang M2, Ye D2.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2015 Mar 1;170:484-91. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.08.009. Epub 2014 Aug 19.
Winter jujube (Zizyphus jujuba Mill.) quality forecasting method utilising electronic nose (EN) and double-layered cascaded series stochastic resonance (DCSSR) was investigated. EN responses to jujubes stored at room temperature were continuously measured for 8days. Jujubes' physical/chemical indexe
PMID 25306374

Japanese Journal

高校中長距離陸上選手における栄養状態の実態調査と栄養教育方法の検討

広島女学院大学人間生活学部紀要 (5), 17-25, 2018-4447-00
NAID 120006407567

Quantitative Analysis of the Accumulation of Marine-derived Tocopherol in the Tissue of Mice Fed with Salmon Roe Oil Using HPLC-fluorescence

Journal of Oleo Science 67(3), 283-288, 2018-03
NAID 40021473839

臨床研究・症例報告抗てんかん薬服用中のてんかん患者におけるビタミンD欠乏に関する検討

小児科臨床 71(3), 349-357, 2018-03
NAID 40021466689

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「ビタミンC」「ferrous ascorbate」「L-ascorbic acid」「VC」「ascorbic acid」
関連記事	「C」「Cs」「Cd」「c」

「ビタミンC」

Vitamin C
Clinical data
AHFS/Drugs.com	Monograph
MedlinePlus	a682583
Pregnancy; category	A (to RDA), C (above RDA);
Routes of; administration	by mouth, IM, IV, subQ
ATC code	A11G (WHO);
Legal status
Legal status	AU: Unscheduled; US: OTC; general public availability;
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	rapid & complete
Protein binding	negligible
Biological half-life	varies according to plasma concentration
Excretion	kidney
Identifiers
	IUPAC name 2-oxo-L-threo-hexono-1,4-lactone-2,3-enediol; or; (R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-((S)- 1,2-dihydroxyethyl)furan-2(5H)-one;
Synonyms	L-ascorbic acid, ascorbic acid, ascorbate
CAS Number	50-81-7 ;
PubChem CID	5785;
IUPHAR/BPS	4781;
DrugBank	DB00126 ;
ChemSpider	10189562 ;
UNII	PQ6CK8PD0R;
KEGG	D00018 ;
ChEBI	CHEBI:29073 ;
ChEMBL	CHEMBL196 ;
NIAID ChemDB	002072;
E number	E300 (antioxidants, ...)
ECHA InfoCard	100.000.061
Chemical and physical data
Formula	C6H8O6
Molar mass	176.12 g/mol
3D model (Jmol)	Interactive image;
Density	1.694 g/cm3
Melting point	190 °C (374 °F)
Boiling point	553 °C (1,027 °F)
	SMILES C([C@@H]([C@@H]1C(=C(C(=O)O1)O)O)O)O ;
	InChI InChI=1S/C6H8O6/c7-1-2(8)5-3(9)4(10)6(11)12-5/h2,5,7-10H,1H2/t2-,5+/m0/s1 ; Key:CIWBSHSKHKDKBQ-JLAZNSOCSA-N ;
(verify)

ビタミンC
IUPAC命名法による物質名
	IUPAC名 2-Oxo-L-threo-hexono-1,4-lactone-2,3-enediol; or; (R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-((S)- 1,2-dihydroxyethyl)furan-2(5H)-one
臨床データ
Drugs.com	Multum Consumer Information
胎児危険度分類	A;
法的規制	US: OTC; general public availability;
投与方法	oral
薬物動態データ
生物学的利用能	rapid & complete
血漿タンパク結合	negligible
半減期	varies according to plasma concentration
排泄	renal
識別
CAS番号; (MeSH)	50-81-7
ATCコード	A11G (WHO)
PubChem	CID: 5785
DrugBank	DB00126
ChemSpider	10189562
UNII	PQ6CK8PD0R
KEGG	D00018
ChEBI	CHEBI:29073
ChEMBL	CHEMBL196
NIAID ChemDB	002072
別名	L-ascorbic acid
化学的データ
化学式	C6H8O6
分子量	176.12 g/mol
	SMILES C([C@@H]([C@@H]1C(=C(C(=O)O1)O)O)O)O ;
	InChI InChI=1S/C6H8O6/c7-1-2(8)5-3(9)4(10)6(11)12-5/h2,5,7-10H,1H2/t2-,5+/m0/s1 ; Key:CIWBSHSKHKDKBQ-JLAZNSOCSA-N ;
物理的データ
密度	1.694 g/cm3
融点	190 °C (374 °F)
沸点	553 °C (1,027 °F)

　　[★]

英: vitamin C
ラ: acidum ascorbicum、セビタミン酸 cevitamic acid
同: アスコルビン酸, ascorbic acid AsA, ascorbate, L-アスコルビン酸
商: ハイシー、アスコルチン、ビタシミン、アスコルビン酸、オフタルムK配合、シーピー配合、デラキシー配合、デルモランF、ビタミンC
関: ビタミン

first aid step1 2006 p.85,112,114,427

水溶性ビタミン

生理機能

コラーゲンのプロリン、リジンのヒドロキシル化 (HIM.445)
チロシン代謝 (HIM.445)
カテコールアミン生合成：necessary as a cofactor for dopamine → NE (HIM.445)
カルニチン生合成 (HIM.445)
多くのペプチドホルモンの合成 (HIM.445)
コレステロール代謝
鉄吸収の促進：鉄イオンをFe2+(還元状態)に保持することで吸収されやすくする。 (HIM.445)
抗酸化作用

スーパーオキシド(O2.-)、ヒドロキシルラジカル(OH.)、一重項酸素(1O2)などを消去

還元型ビタミンC + ラジカル → モノデヒドロアスコルビン酸　→
(２分子の不均化反応)モノデヒドロアスコルビン酸 → 還元型アスコルビン酸 + 酸化型アスコルビン酸
酸化型アスコルビン酸　+ GSH → 還元型アスコルビン酸

多くの薬物代謝酵素系のcomponent。特に、混合機能酸素添加酵素(mixed-function oxidase)系(チトクロムP450とか)。 (HIM.445)

臨床関連

壊血病 scurvy
尿糖偽陰性：ビタミンCの服用による

「ferrous ascorbate」

　　[★]

アスコルビン酸第一鉄

関: ascorbic acid、L-ascorbic acid、vitamin C

「L-ascorbic acid」

　　[★]

L-アスコルビン酸

関: ascorbic acid、ferrous ascorbate、vitamin C

「VC」

　　[★]

「ascorbic acid」

　　[★]

関: アスコルビン酸、vitamin C

「C」

　　[★]

炭素 carbon
シトシン cytosine
システイン cysteine
シチジン
セルシウス度摂氏 degrees Celsius degree C
産婦人科領域で「子宮外頚子宮外頚部 exocervix」を表現するための略語

「Cs」

　　[★] セシウム, caesium, cesium 　

「Cd」

　　[★] カドミウム

関: cadmium

「c」

　　[★]

光速, speed of light

[NIH2016-1] Office of Dietary Supplements - Vitamin C (Report). アメリカ国立衛生研究所. (2016-02-11).

[AHFS2016-2] “Ascorbic Acid”. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 2016年12月8日閲覧。

[WHO2008-3] WHO Model Formulary 2008. World Health Organization. (2009). p. 496. ISBN 9789241547659 2016年12月8日閲覧。.

[4] 大橋英雄「クェルセチンを中心とするフラボノイドのラジカル補捉反応とその反応機構-平成13年度-平成14年度年度科学研究費補助金 (基盤研究(C)(2) 課題番号13660160) 研究成果報告書」2002年。

[5] ビタミンEと抗酸化性国立健康・栄養研究所平原文子、栄養学雑誌 Vol.52 No.4 205 - 206(1994)

[s5-16-5-6] 重岡成、武田徹、村上恵ビタミンC－多様な働きから所要量まで第４回「日本人の水溶性ビタミン必要量に関する基礎的研究」講演会元気なカラダとビタミン摂取―水溶性ビタミンの必要量について―（近畿大学農学部食品栄養学科）

[7] ttp://www.biochem.osakafu-u.ac.jp/NC/NutrChem1.pdf ^{[リンク切れ]}

[8] ビタミンCの真実｜バーチャルラボラトリ ^{[リンク切れ]}

[9] ビタミンCの真実｜バーチャルラボラトリ ^{[リンク切れ]}

[AAFP-10] Fashner J, Ericson K, Werner S (2012). “Treatment of the common cold in children and adults”. Am Fam Physician 86 (2): 153–9. PMID 22962927.

[Hemil.C3.A4Chalker2013-11] Hemilä, Harri; Chalker, Elizabeth; Hemilä, Harri (2013). Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000980.pub4.

[12] Questions and Answers About High-Dose Vitamin C

[13] 厚生労働省「日本人の食事摂取基準について」厚生労働省の第6次改定「日本人の栄養所要量」によると、血漿中ビタミンC濃度基準値を0.7mg/100ml以上に設定して、ビタミンCの1日あたり適正摂取量は成人で100mg（妊婦は＋10mg、授乳婦は＋40mg ）である。メルクマニュアル（merckmanua）によると、血漿中ビタミンC濃度の正常範囲は0.6 – 1.4mg/dL（34 – 79μmol/L）である。血漿中ビタミンC濃度基準値0.7mgは正常範囲の下限近くに設定されている。

[bloodbook-14] Blood Test Results - Normal Ranges Bloodbook.Com

[adeeva-15] Adëeva Nutritionals Canada > Optimal blood test values Retrieved on July 9, 2009

[c-mass-16] Derived from mass values using molar mass of 176 grams per mol

[hfnet1037-17] 香港衛生署がビタミンサプリメントの過剰摂取に注意喚起 (2008/04/25)独立行政法人国立健康・栄養研究所

[kyoto-18] 石井智美「内陸アジアの遊牧民の製造する乳酒に関する微生物学的研究」『国立民族学博物館地域研』JCAS連携研究成果報告4、2002、pp103-123　

[19] げのむトーク(11-20)

[20] ジャガイモ KNU ﾀﾞｲｴｯﾄ　食材百科事典

[21] 大羽和子「貯蔵,切断および加熱調理に伴うジャガイモのビタミンC含量の変化」」、『日本家政学会誌』第10号、1988年、 1051-1057頁、 doi:10.11428/jhej1987.39.1051。

[US_RDA-22] “US Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) (PDF)”. 2008年5月29日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2007年2月19日閲覧。

[23] 安田和人、平岡真美、横溝和宏「チューインガム中のビタミンCの吸収」『医療と検査機器・試薬』27 (2), 2004, pp71-74

[24] 【薬学部生化学教室・石神昭人准教授】食の健康学　ビタミンC　サプリよりサラダ｜東邦大学キャンパスポータル

[25] KC, S.; Carcamo, J. M.; Golde, D. W. (2005). “Vitamin C enters mitochondria via facilitative glucose transporter 1 (Glut1) and confers mitochondrial protection against oxidative injury”. FASEB J. 19 (12): 1657–67. doi:10.1096/fj.05-4107com. PMID 16195374.

[ascorBBB-26] Huang, J.; Agus, D. B.; Winfree, C. J.; Kiss, S.; Mack, W. J.; McTaggart, R. A.; Choudhri, T. F.; Kim, L. J.; Mocco, J.; Pinsky, D. J.; Fox, W. D.; Israel, R. J.; Boyd, T. A.; Golde, D. W.; Connolly, E. S., Jr. (2001). “Dehydroascorbic acid, a blood-brain barrier transportable form of vitamin C, mediates potent cerebroprotection in experimental stroke”. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98 (20): 11720–11724. doi:10.1073/pnas.171325998. PMC 58796. PMID 11573006.

[MitoGolde-27] KC S, Carcamo JM, Golde DW (2005). “Vitamin C enters mitochondria via facilitative glucose transporter 1 (Glut1) and confers mitochondrial protection against oxidative injury”. FASEB J 19 (12): 1657–67. doi:10.1096/fj.05-4107com. PMID 16195374.

[pmid1400507-28] Nishikimi M, Kawai T, Yagi K (October 1992). “Guinea pigs possess a highly mutated gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the key enzyme for L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis missing in this species”. J. Biol. Chem. 267 (30): 21967–72. PMID 1400507.

[29] Martinez del Rio C (1997). “Can Passerines Synthesize Vitamin C?”. The Auk 114 (3): 513-516.

[30] “5章動物の栄養”. 京都大学OCW. 2015年3月26日閲覧。

[pmid3113259-31] Pollock JI, Mullin RJ (May 1987). “Vitamin C biosynthesis in prosimians: evidence for the anthropoid affinity of Tarsius”. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 73 (1): 65–70. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330730106. PMID 3113259.

[32] サルとヒトとの進化の分岐、定説より最近かミシガン大 AFPBB News 2010年7月16日

[33] Nature2010年7月15日号

[34] Friedman TB, Polanco GE, Appold JC, Mayle JE (1985). “On the loss of uricolytic activity during primate evolution--I. Silencing of urate oxidase in a hominoid ancestor”. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., B 81 (3): 653?9. PMID 3928241.

[proctor1970-35] Peter Proctor Similar Functions of Uric Acid and Ascorbate in ManSimilar Functions of Uric Acid and Ascorbate in Man Nature vol 228, 1970, p868.

[AHFS2016-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Ascorbic Acid". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Retrieved 8 December 2016.

[NIH2016-2] "Office of Dietary Supplements - Vitamin C". ods.od.nih.gov. 11 February 2016.

[WHO2008-3] WHO Model Formulary 2008 (PDF). World Health Organization. 2009. p. 496. ISBN 9789241547659. Retrieved 8 December 2016.

[4] "Ascorbic acid Use During Pregnancy | Drugs.com". www.drugs.com. Retrieved 30 December 2016.

[5] Squires, Victor R. (2011). The Role of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in Human Nutrition - Volume IV. EOLSS Publications. p. 121. ISBN 9781848261952.

[WHO19th-6] "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (19th List)" (PDF). World Health Organization. April 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2016.

[ERC2014-7] [X "X"] Check |url= value (help). International Drug Price Indicator Guide.

[8] Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C (2012). "Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 3: CD007176. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007176.pub2. PMID 22419320.

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IUPAC命名法による物質名


IUPAC名 2-Oxo-L-threo-hexono-1,4-lactone-2,3-enediol or (R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-((S)- 1,2-dihydroxyethyl)furan-2(5H)-one
臨床データ
Drugs.com	Multum Consumer Information
胎児危険度分類	A
法的規制	US: OTC general public availability
投与方法	oral
薬物動態データ
生物学的利用能	rapid & complete
血漿タンパク結合	negligible
半減期	varies according to plasma concentration
排泄	renal
識別
CAS番号 (MeSH)	50-81-7
ATCコード	A11G (WHO)
PubChem	CID: 5785
DrugBank	DB00126
ChemSpider	10189562
UNII	PQ6CK8PD0R
KEGG	D00018
ChEBI	CHEBI:29073
ChEMBL	CHEMBL196
NIAID ChemDB	002072
別名	L-ascorbic acid
化学的データ
化学式	C₆H₈O₆
分子量	176.12 g/mol
SMILES C([C@@H]([C@@H]1C(=C(C(=O)O1)O)O)O)O
InChI InChI=1S/C6H8O6/c7-1-2(8)5-3(9)4(10)6(11)12-5/h2,5,7-10H,1H2/t2-,5+/m0/s1 Key:CIWBSHSKHKDKBQ-JLAZNSOCSA-N
物理的データ
密度	1.694 g/cm³
融点	190 °C (374 °F)
沸点	553 °C (1,027 °F)

匿名

検索

案内

vitamin C