関: C、carbonic

WordNet

an abundant nonmetallic tetravalent element occurring in three allotropic forms: amorphous carbon and graphite and diamond; occurs in all organic compounds (同)C, atomic number 6
a copy made with carbon paper (同)carbon_copy
the 3rd letter of the Roman alphabet (同)c
(music) the keynote of the scale of C major
a general-purpose programing language closely associated with the UNIX operating system
a powerful greenhouse gas emitted during the production of aluminum (同)PFC

PrepTutorEJDIC

『炭素』(化学記号は『C』) / 〈C〉炭素棒 / 〈C〉《時に〈U〉》=carbon paper
carbonの化学記号
炭酸水

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/07/07 15:14:13」(JST)

wiki ja

[Wiki ja表示]

この項目では、APIについて説明しています。元素の一つであるカーボン（炭素）については「炭素」をご覧ください。

Carbon（カーボン）は、旧来のMac OSのToolbox API(Application Programming Interface)をMac OS X用に整理・移植したAPIであり、従来のMac OS用アプリケーションをMac OS X向けに移植しやすくするために開発された。

概要

QuickTimeチームがAPIをMac OS Xに移植するために互換レイヤーを作成したものが元型となっている。それがスティーブ・ジョブズの目に留まり、汎用の互換フレームワークのアイディアとして採用された。Toolbox APIの中で明らかにレガシーなもの、あまり使われていないものを廃し、また内部構造が32ビットを前提として再設計されている（Toolboxは16ビットコードで、PowerPCの性能の足枷となっていた）。

Carbon APIを利用したアプリケーションのことをCarbonアプリケーションと呼ぶ。Cocoaは同じ Mac OS Xに搭載されているほぼ等価な機能をもつ API であるが、Cocoa APIを使うためにはObjective-Cのコードを書かなければならないのに対して、Carbon API は旧来のインターフェイスを持っておりC/C++からも使うことができる。基本的にToolboxとソースコード互換を目指しており、単に移植を行なうだけであれば、それほど大きな設計変更は必要ない。

Carbonアプリケーションには、

一つのバイナリでMac OS Xでも旧来のMac OSでも実行できる『PEF Carbon』
Mac OS X専用の『Mach-O Carbon』

の2種類が存在する。 PEFとはPreferred Executable Formatのこと。CFM（Code Fragment Manager） Carbonともいう。PEFは従来から使用されてきたフォーマットであるため、新旧両方のオペレーティングシステムで動かせる。

Mach-O CarbonはMac OS X用に最適化されているのでCFM Carbonより幾分高速に動作する。また、QuartzをはじめとするMac OS X特有のAPIを利用するためには、Mach-O形式が最も適する。このフォーマットはdyldとも呼ばれる。 Mac OS Xが普及してしばらくはCFM Carbonが大半だったが、開発環境が最適化されていくにつれてMach-O Carbonがほとんどとなってきた。(Xcodeの利用による)Mach-O化はUniversal Binary化には必須である。

※CFMやMach-OはABI (Application Binary Interface) のことで、API (Application Programming Interface) とは無関係。

Carbonにより、旧来のMac OSのアプリケーションのMac OS Xへの移植が容易になり、新旧両方のオペレーティングシステムでアプリケーションの実行が出来るため、最も普及している。CarbonアプリケーションはMac OS Xにもネイティブになり、その多大なる恩恵を受けることが出来る。ただし、CFM Carbonのアプリケーションでも、実行にはCarbonLibと呼ばれる機能拡張書類が必要であり、これがなければ旧来のMac OSでは動作しない。逆に言えば、CarbonLibがあればMac OS 8.6から最新のMac OS X上で実行できるようになる。

CFM Carbonでは一つのプログラムで新旧両方のOSで実行できるが、CarbonLibが欠かせない。Mach-O Carbonは、一つのプログラムだけの場合、Mac OS X以外では実行できない。これらの欠点を補うため、Mac OS 9から導入されたアプリケーションパッケージを利用して一つのフォルダの中に CarbonアプリケーションとClassicアプリケーション（Mac OS 9まででしか動作しないアプリケーション）の両方を入れ、一つのアプリケーションのように見せかけ、新旧両方のOSで確実に実行できるようにすることがある。

なお、NeXTSTEP由来のCocoaは旧Mac OSのToolbox API由来のCarbonと必ずしも対立するものではない。Mac OS Xでは、CarbonベースのライブラリをラップしてCocoaアプリケーションとして実装したもの、Cocoaベースのコンポーネントが組み込まれたCarbonアプリケーションなど、様々な実装形態のソフトウェアが存在し、両APIは密接な相互依存関係にある。

現状と将来

当初のAppleの説明では、Carbonに対応したアプリケーションは、CarbonLibをインストールしたMac OS 9とMac OS Xで（それぞれのOSに特有の機能を除けば）同じように動作可能というものであった。しかし実際には、CarbonLibには問題も多く、デベロッパはMac OS 9とMac OS X用にコードを書き分けねばならない場面も多かった。そのため、Mac OS Xへの移行も完了した今日では、Mac OS 9とMac OS Xの両方で動作可能な実行環境としてのCarbonは役目を終えたとも言える。

Mac OS X v10.2からMac OS X v10.4にかけて、CarbonはCocoaを模したHIObject(カスタムコントロールを作成するための機能セット)の導入や、Mac OS X全体の共有基盤といえるCore Foundationとの互換性強化など、Cocoa同等の開発基盤として、徐々に構造の近代化が計られた。

しかしながらMac OS X v10.5での64ビット対応はUI部分が見送られ^[1]、64ビット完全対応にはCocoaへの移行が必須となるなど、アップルはGUIフロントエンドとしてのCarbonを徐々にフェードアウトさせ、Cocoaをメインとする姿勢を強めている。Mac OS X v10.6では従来CarbonベースだったQuickTimeとFinderがCocoaで作り直されている。将来的にはMac OS XにおけるCarbon APIはクロスプラットフォームの共有基盤を担う低レベルレイヤーとして位置づけられていくことになるとみられる。

なおMac OS XはPowerPC CPUのみならず、Intel CPU上へも移植された。Intel版Mac OS XではCFM Carbonのアプリケーションはネイティブには動作せず、Rosettaと呼ばれる環境の上で動作することになる。CocoaアプリケーションとMach-O Carbonアプリケーションは再コンパイルすることでネイティブに動作する。

脚注

^ Choosing a Development Path for Your Carbon User Interface

この項目は、コンピュータに関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています（PJ:コンピュータ/P:コンピュータ）。

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

Carbon (from Latin: carbo "coal") is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. On the periodic table, it is the first (row 2) of six elements in column (group) 14, which have in common the composition of their outer electron shell. It is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. Three isotopes occur naturally, ¹²C and ¹³C being stable while ¹⁴C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years.^[14] Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity.^[15]

Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon's abundance, its unique diversity of organic compounds, and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life. It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen.^[16]

The atoms of carbon can be bonded together in different ways, termed allotropes of carbon. The best known are graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon.^[17] The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent. Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek verb "γράφειν" which means "to write"), while diamond is the hardest naturally-occurring material known. Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity. Under normal conditions, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials. All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions, with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form. They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen.

The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal, peat, oil, and methane clathrates. Carbon forms a vast number of compounds, more than any other element, with almost ten million compounds described to date,^[18] and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions.

1 Characteristics
- 1.1 Allotropes
- 1.2 Occurrence
- 1.3 Isotopes
- 1.4 Formation in stars
- 1.5 Carbon cycle
2 Compounds
- 2.1 Organic compounds
- 2.2 Inorganic compounds
- 2.3 Organometallic compounds
3 History and etymology
4 Production
- 4.1 Graphite
- 4.2 Diamond
5 Applications
- 5.1 Diamonds
6 Precautions
7 Bonding to carbon
8 See also
9 References
10 External links

Characteristics

Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon

The allotropes of carbon (see below) includes graphite, one of the softest known substances, and diamond, the hardest naturally occurring substance. It bonds readily with other small atoms including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent bonds with such atoms. Carbon is known to form almost ten million different compounds, a large majority of all chemical compounds.^[18] Carbon also has the highest sublimation point of all elements. At atmospheric pressure it has no melting point as its triple point is at 10.8 ± 0.2 MPa and 4,600 ± 300 K (~4,330 °C or 7,820 °F),^[4]^[5] so it sublimes at about 3,900 K.^[19]^[20]

Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5,800 K (5,530 °C; 9,980 °F). Thus, irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals such as tungsten or rhenium. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature.

Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth, and the carbon-nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars. Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any alkalis. At elevated temperatures, carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon oxides, and will rob oxygen from metal oxides to leave the elemental metal. This exothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to smelt iron and to control the carbon content of steel:

Fe
3O
4 + 4 C_(s) → 3 Fe_(s) + 4 CO_(g)

with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal-gas reaction:

C_(s) + H₂O_(g) → CO_(g) + H_2(g).

Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the iron carbide cementite in steel, and tungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools.

As of 2009, graphene appears to be the strongest material ever tested.^[21] The process of separating it from graphite will require some further technological development before it is economical for industrial processes.^[22]

The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes:

Graphite is one of the softest materials known.	Synthetic nanocrystalline diamond is the hardest material known.^[23]
Graphite is a very good lubricant, displaying superlubricity.^[24]	Diamond is the ultimate abrasive.
Graphite is a conductor of electricity.^[25]	Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator,^[26] and has the highest breakdown electric field of any known material.
Some forms of graphite are used for thermal insulation (i.e. firebreaks and heat shields), but some other forms are good thermal conductors.	Diamond is the best known naturally occurring thermal conductor
Graphite is opaque.	Diamond is highly transparent.
Graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system.^[27]	Diamond crystallizes in the cubic system.
Amorphous carbon is completely isotropic.	Carbon nanotubes are among the most anisotropic materials known.

Allotropes

Atomic carbon is a very short-lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-atomic structures with different molecular configurations called allotropes. The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond. Once considered exotic, fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they include buckyballs,^[28]^[29] carbon nanotubes,^[30] carbon nanobuds^[31] and nanofibers.^[32]^[33] Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such as lonsdaleite (questionable),^[34] glassy carbon,^[35] carbon nanofoam^[36] and linear acetylenic carbon (carbyne).^[37]

A large sample of glassy carbon.

The amorphous form is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non-crystalline, irregular, glassy state, which is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is present as a powder, and is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal, lampblack (soot) and activated carbon. At normal pressures, carbon takes the form of graphite, in which each atom is bonded trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings, just like those in aromatic hydrocarbons.^[38] The resulting network is 2-dimensional, and the resulting flat sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak van der Waals forces. This gives graphite its softness and its cleaving properties (the sheets slip easily past one another). Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a π-cloud, graphite conducts electricity, but only in the plane of each covalently bonded sheet. This results in a lower bulk electrical conductivity for carbon than for most metals. The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature.

Some allotropes of carbon: a) diamond; b) graphite; c) lonsdaleite; d–f) fullerenes (C₆₀, C₅₄₀, C₇₀); g) amorphous carbon; h) carbon nanotube.

At very high pressures, carbon forms the more compact allotrope, diamond, having nearly twice the density of graphite. Here, each atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others, forming a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Diamond has the same cubic structure as silicon and germanium, and because of the strength of the carbon-carbon bonds, it is the hardest naturally occurring substance measured by resistance to scratching. Contrary to the popular belief that "diamonds are forever", they are thermodynamically unstable under normal conditions and transform into graphite.^[17] Due to a high activation energy barrier, the transition into graphite is so slow at normal temperature that it is unnoticeable. Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as lonsdaleite, a hexagonal crystal lattice with all atoms covalently bonded and properties similar to those of diamond.^[34]

Fullerenes are a synthetic^{[citation needed]} crystalline formation with a graphite-like structure, but in place of hexagons, fullerenes are formed of pentagons (or even heptagons) of carbon atoms. The missing (or additional) atoms warp the sheets into spheres, ellipses, or cylinders. The properties of fullerenes (split into buckyballs, buckytubes, and nanobuds) have not yet been fully analyzed and represent an intense area of research in nanomaterials. The names "fullerene" and "buckyball" are given after Richard Buckminster Fuller, popularizer of geodesic domes, which resemble the structure of fullerenes. The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally, forming spheroids (the best-known and simplest is the soccerball-shaped C₆₀ buckminsterfullerene).^[28] Carbon nanotubes are structurally similar to buckyballs, except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow cylinder.^[29]^[30] Nanobuds were first reported in 2007 and are hybrid bucky tube/buckyball materials (buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall of a nanotube) that combine the properties of both in a single structure.^[31]

Of the other discovered allotropes, carbon nanofoam is a ferromagnetic allotrope discovered in 1997. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings. It is among the lightest known solids, with a density of about 2 kg/m³.^[39] Similarly, glassy carbon contains a high proportion of closed porosity,^[35] but contrary to normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement. Linear acetylenic carbon^[37] has the chemical structure^[37] -(C:::C)_n-. Carbon in this modification is linear with sp orbital hybridization, and is a polymer with alternating single and triple bonds. This carbyne is of considerable interest to nanotechnology as its Young's modulus is forty times that of the hardest known material – diamond.^[40]

In 2015, a team at the North Carolina State University announced the development of another allotrope they have dubbed Q-carbon, created by a high energy low duration laser pulse on amorphous carbon dust. Q-carbon is reported to exhibit ferromagetism, fluorescence, and a hardness superior to diamonds.^[41]

Occurrence

Graphite ore. Penny is included for scale.

Raw diamond crystal.

"Present day" (1990s) sea surface dissolved inorganic carbon concentration (from the GLODAP climatology)

Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon is abundant in the Sun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres of most planets.^[42] Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk.^{[citation needed]} Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts.^[43]

In 2014 NASA announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, complex compounds of carbon and hydrogen without oxygen.^[44] These compounds figure in the PAH world hypothesis where they are hypothesized to have a role in abiogenesis and formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed "a couple of billion years" after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.^[42]

It has been estimated that the solid earth as a whole contains 730 ppm of carbon, with 2000 ppm in the core and 120 ppm in the combined mantle and crust.^[45] Since the mass of the earth is 7024597200000000000♠5.972×10²⁴ kg, this would imply 4360 million gigatonnes of carbon. This is much more than the amount of carbon in the oceans or atmosphere (below).

In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide, carbon is found in the Earth's atmosphere (approximately 810 gigatonnes of carbon) and dissolved in all water bodies (approximately 36,000 gigatonnes of carbon). Around 1,900 gigatonnes of carbon are present in the biosphere. Hydrocarbons (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas) contain carbon as well. Coal "reserves" (not "resources") amount to around 900 gigatonnes with perhaps 18 000 Gt of resources.^[46] Oil reserves are around 150 gigatonnes. Proven sources of natural gas are about 175 10¹² cubic metres (containing about 105 gigatonnes of carbon), but studies estimate another 900 10¹² cubic metres of "unconventional" deposits such as shale gas, representing about 540 gigatonnes of carbon.^[47]

Carbon is also found in methane hydrates in polar regions and under the seas. Various estimates put this carbon between 500, 2500 Gt,^[48] or 3000 Gt.^[49]

In the past, quantities of hydrocarbons were greater. According to one source, in the period from 1751 to 2008 about 347 gigatonnes of carbon were released as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels.^[50] Another source puts the amount added to the atmosphere for the period since 1750 at 879 Gt, and the total going to the atmosphere, sea, and land (such as peat bogs) at almost 2000 Gt.^[51]

Carbon is a constituent (about 12% by mass) of the very large masses of carbonate rock (limestone, dolomite, marble and so on). Coal is very rich in carbon (anthracite contains 92–98%)^[52] and is the largest commercial source of mineral carbon, accounting for 4,000 gigatonnes or 80% of fossil fuel.^[53]

As for individual carbon allotropes, graphite is found in large quantities in the United States (mostly in New York and Texas), Russia, Mexico, Greenland, and India. Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite, found in ancient volcanic "necks", or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. Diamond deposits have also been found in Arkansas, Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. Diamonds are found naturally, but about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now manufactured.

Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere at altitudes of 9–15 km by a reaction that is precipitated by cosmic rays.^[54] Thermal neutrons are produced that collide with the nuclei of nitrogen-14, forming carbon-14 and a proton.

Carbon-rich asteroids are relatively preponderant in the outer parts of the asteroid belt in our solar system. These asteroids have not yet been directly sampled by scientists. The asteroids can be used in hypothetical space-based carbon mining, which may be possible in the future, but is currently technologically impossible.^[55]

Isotopes

Isotopes of carbon are atomic nuclei that contain six protons plus a number of neutrons (varying from 2 to 16). Carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes.^[14] The isotope carbon-12 (¹²C) forms 98.93% of the carbon on Earth, while carbon-13 (¹³C) forms the remaining 1.07%.^[14] The concentration of ¹²C is further increased in biological materials because biochemical reactions discriminate against ¹³C.^[56] In 1961, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for atomic weights.^[57] Identification of carbon in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments is done with the isotope ¹³C.

Carbon-14 (¹⁴C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope, created in the upper atmosphere (lower stratosphere and upper troposphere) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays.^[58] It is found in trace amounts on Earth of up to 1 part per trillion (0.0000000001%), mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits, particularly of peat and other organic materials.^[59] This isotope decays by 0.158 MeV β⁻ emission. Because of its relatively short half-life of 5730 years, ¹⁴C is virtually absent in ancient rocks. The amount of ¹⁴C in the atmosphere and in living organisms is almost constant, but decreases predictably in their bodies after death. This principle is used in radiocarbon dating, invented in 1949, which has been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40,000 years.^[60]^[61]

There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is ⁸C which decays through proton emission and alpha decay and has a half-life of 1.98739x10⁻²¹ s.^[62] The exotic ¹⁹C exhibits a nuclear halo, which means its radius is appreciably larger than would be expected if the nucleus were a sphere of constant density.^[63]

Formation in stars

Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a nearly simultaneous triple collision of alpha particles (helium nuclei) within the core of a giant or supergiant star which is known as the triple-alpha process, as the products of further nuclear fusion reactions of helium with hydrogen or another helium nucleus produce lithium-5 and beryllium-8 respectively, both of which are highly unstable and decay almost instantly back into smaller nuclei.^[64] This happens in conditions of temperatures over 100 megakelvin and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling of the early universe prohibited, and therefore no significant carbon was created during the Big Bang.

According to current physical cosmology theory, carbon is formed in the interiors of stars in the horizontal branch by the collision and transformation of three helium nuclei.^[65] When those stars die as supernova, the carbon is scattered into space as dust. This dust becomes component material for the formation of second or third-generation star systems with accreted planets.^[42]^[66] The Solar System is one such star system with an abundance of carbon, enabling the existence of life as we know it.

The CNO cycle is an additional fusion mechanisms that powers stars, wherein carbon operates as a catalyst.

Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide (for example, ¹²CO, ¹³CO, and ¹⁸CO) are detectable in the submillimeter wavelength range, and are used in the study of newly forming stars in molecular clouds.^[67]

Carbon cycle

Diagram of the carbon cycle. The black numbers indicate how much carbon is stored in various reservoirs, in billions tonnes ("GtC" stands for gigatonnes of carbon; figures are circa 2004). The purple numbers indicate how much carbon moves between reservoirs each year. The sediments, as defined in this diagram, do not include the ~70 million GtC of carbonate rock and kerogen.

Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else. The paths of carbon in the environment form the carbon cycle. For example, photosynthetic plants draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or seawater) and build it into biomass, as in the Calvin cycle, a process of carbon fixation. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, while some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; if bacteria do not consume it, dead plant or animal matter may become petroleum or coal, which releases carbon when burned.^[68]^[69]

Compounds

Organic compounds

Structural formula of methane, the simplest possible organic compound.

Correlation between the carbon cycle and formation of organic compounds. In plants, carbon dioxide formed by carbon fixation can join with water in photosynthesis (green) to form organic compounds, which can be used and further converted by both plants and animals.

Carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting C-C bonds, a property that is called catenation. Carbon-carbon bonds are strong and stable. Through catenation, carbon forms a countless number of compounds. A tally of unique compounds shows that more contain carbon that those that do not.^{[citation needed]} A similar claim can be made for hydrogen because most organic compounds also contain hydrogen.^{[citation needed]}

The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon—a large family of organic molecules that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. Chain length, side chains and functional groups all affect the properties of organic molecules.

Carbon occurs in all known organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. When united with hydrogen, it forms various hydrocarbons that are important to industry as refrigerants, lubricants, solvents, as chemical feedstock for the manufacture of plastics and petrochemicals, and as fossil fuels.

When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including sugars, lignans, chitins, alcohols, fats, and aromatic esters, carotenoids and terpenes. With nitrogen it forms alkaloids, and with the addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics, amino acids, and rubber products. With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements, it forms DNA and RNA, the chemical-code carriers of life, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecule in all living cells.

Inorganic compounds

Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain hydrogen or fluorine, are treated separately from classical organic compounds; the definition is not rigid (see reference articles above). Among these are the simple oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is carbon dioxide (CO₂). This was once the principal constituent of the paleoatmosphere, but is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere today.^[70] Dissolved in water, it forms carbonic acid (H
2CO
3), but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable.^[71] Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably calcite. Carbon disulfide (CS
2) is similar.

The other common oxide is carbon monoxide (CO). It is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar, resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, displacing oxygen, which has a lower binding affinity.^[72]^[73] Cyanide (CN⁻), has a similar structure, but behaves much like a halide ion (pseudohalogen). For example, it can form the nitride cyanogen molecule ((CN)₂), similar to diatomic halides. Other uncommon oxides are carbon suboxide (C
3O
2),^[74] the unstable dicarbon monoxide (C₂O),^[75]^[76] carbon trioxide (CO₃),^[77]^[78] cyclopentanepentone (C₅O₅)^[79] cyclohexanehexone (C₆O₆),^[79] and mellitic anhydride (C₁₂O₉).

With reactive metals, such as tungsten, carbon forms either carbides (C⁴⁻), or acetylides (C2−
2) to form alloys with high melting points. These anions are also associated with methane and acetylene, both very weak acids. With an electronegativity of 2.5,^[80] carbon prefers to form covalent bonds. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like carborundum (SiC), which resembles diamond.

Organometallic compounds

Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon-metal bond. A wide range of such compounds exist; major classes include simple alkyl-metal compounds (for example, tetraethyllead), η²-alkene compounds (for example, Zeise's salt), and η³-allyl compounds (for example, allylpalladium chloride dimer); metallocenes containing cyclopentadienyl ligands (for example, ferrocene); and transition metal carbene complexes. Many metal carbonyls exist (for example, tetracarbonylnickel); some workers consider the carbon monoxide ligand to be purely inorganic, and not organometallic.

While carbon is understood to exclusively form four bonds, an interesting compound containing an octahedral hexacoordinated carbon atom has been reported. The cation of the compound is [(Ph₃PAu)₆C]²⁺. This phenomenon has been attributed to the aurophilicity of the gold ligands.^[81]

History and etymology

Antoine Lavoisier in his youth

The English name carbon comes from the Latin carbo for coal and charcoal,^[82] whence also comes the French charbon, meaning charcoal. In German, Dutch and Danish, the names for carbon are Kohlenstoff, koolstof and kulstof respectively, all literally meaning coal-substance.

Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of soot and charcoal to the earliest human civilizations. Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China, while carbon in the form of charcoal was made around Roman times by the same chemistry as it is today, by heating wood in a pyramid covered with clay to exclude air.^[83]^[84]

Carl Wilhelm Scheele

In 1722, René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur demonstrated that iron was transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance, now known to be carbon.^[85] In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier showed that diamonds are a form of carbon; when he burned samples of charcoal and diamond and found that neither produced any water and that both released the same amount of carbon dioxide per gram. In 1779,^[86] Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite, which had been thought of as a form of lead, was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron, and that it gave "aerial acid" (his name for carbon dioxide) when oxidized with nitric acid.^[87] In 1786, the French scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, Gaspard Monge and C. A. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygen in much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond.^[88] Some iron again was left, which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure. In their publication they proposed the name carbone (Latin carbonum) for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite. Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an element in his 1789 textbook.^[89]

A new allotrope of carbon, fullerene, that was discovered in 1985^[90] includes nanostructured forms such as buckyballs and nanotubes.^[28] Their discoverers – Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley – received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996.^[91] The resulting renewed interest in new forms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes, including glassy carbon, and the realization that "amorphous carbon" is not strictly amorphous.^[35]

Production

Graphite

Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil and North Korea. Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water.^[92]

There are three types of natural graphite—amorphous, flake or crystalline flake, and vein or lump. Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant. Contrary to science, in industry "amorphous" refers to very small crystal size rather than complete lack of crystal structure. Amorphous is used for lower value graphite products and is the lowest priced graphite. Large amorphous graphite deposits are found in China, Europe, Mexico and the United States. Flake graphite is less common and of higher quality than amorphous; it occurs as separate plates that crystallized in metamorphic rock. Flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous. Good quality flakes can be processed into expandable graphite for many uses, such as flame retardants. The foremost deposits are found in Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany and Madagascar. Vein or lump graphite is the rarest, most valuable, and highest quality type of natural graphite. It occurs in veins along intrusive contacts in solid lumps, and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka.^[92]

According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite was 1.1 million tonnes in 2010, to which China contributed 800,000 t, India 130,000 t, Brazil 76,000 t, North Korea 30,000 t and Canada 25,000 t. No natural graphite was reported mined in the United States, but 118,000 t of synthetic graphite with an estimated value of $998 million was produced in 2009.^[92]

Diamond

Diamond output in 2005

The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (see figure).

Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care has to be taken in order to prevent larger diamonds from being destroyed in this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.^[93]

Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India.^[94] India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BCE^[95] to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.^[96]

Diamond production of primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) only started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that date.^[97] About 20% of that amount has been mined in the last 5 years alone, and during the last ten years 9 new mines have started production while 4 more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia.^[97]

In the United States, diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado and Montana.^[98]^[99] In 2004, a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States^[100] led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.^[101]

Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia, Botswana, Australia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.^[102] In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia has the richest diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons (41 long tons; 46 short tons) per year in the 1990s.^[98] There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada, Siberia (mostly in Yakutia territory; for example, Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia.

Applications

Pencil leads for mechanical pencils are made of graphite (often mixed with a clay or synthetic binder).

Sticks of vine and compressed charcoal.

A cloth of woven carbon fibres

Silicon carbide single crystal

The C₆₀ fullerene in crystalline form

Tungsten carbide endmills

Carbon is essential to all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (see alternative biochemistry). The major economic use of carbon other than food and wood is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuel methane gas and crude oil (petroleum). Crude oil is distilled in refineries by the petrochemical industry to produce gasoline, kerosene, and other products. Cellulose is a natural, carbon-containing polymer produced by plants in the form of wood, cotton, linen, and hemp. Cellulose is used primarily for maintaining structure in plants. Commercially valuable carbon polymers of animal origin include wool, cashmere and silk. Plastics are made from synthetic carbon polymers, often with oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at regular intervals in the main polymer chain. The raw materials for many of these synthetic substances come from crude oil.

The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied. It can form alloys with iron, of which the most common is carbon steel. Graphite is combined with clays to form the 'lead' used in pencils used for writing and drawing. It is also used as a lubricant and a pigment, as a molding material in glass manufacture, in electrodes for dry batteries and in electroplating and electroforming, in brushes for electric motors and as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors.

Charcoal is used as a drawing material in artwork, barbecue grilling, iron smelting, and in many other applications. Wood, coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy and heating. Gem quality diamond is used in jewelry, and industrial diamonds are used in drilling, cutting and polishing tools for machining metals and stone. Plastics are made from fossil hydrocarbons, and carbon fiber, made by pyrolysis of synthetic polyester fibers is used to reinforce plastics to form advanced, lightweight composite materials.

Carbon fiber is made by pyrolysis of extruded and stretched filaments of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and other organic substances. The crystallographic structure and mechanical properties of the fiber depend on the type of starting material, and on the subsequent processing. Carbon fibers made from PAN have structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite, but thermal processing may re-order the structure into a continuous rolled sheet. The result is fibers with higher specific tensile strength than steel.^[103]

Carbon black is used as the black pigment in printing ink, artist's oil paint and water colours, carbon paper, automotive finishes, India ink and laser printer toner. Carbon black is also used as a filler in rubber products such as tyres and in plastic compounds. Activated charcoal is used as an absorbent and adsorbent in filter material in applications as diverse as gas masks, water purification, and kitchen extractor hoods, and in medicine to absorb toxins, poisons, or gases from the digestive system. Carbon is used in chemical reduction at high temperatures. Coke is used to reduce iron ore into iron (smelting). Case hardening of steel is achieved by heating finished steel components in carbon powder. Carbides of silicon, tungsten, boron and titanium, are among the hardest known materials, and are used as abrasives in cutting and grinding tools. Carbon compounds make up most of the materials used in clothing, such as natural and synthetic textiles and leather, and almost all of the interior surfaces in the built environment other than glass, stone and metal.

Diamonds

The diamond industry falls into two categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and the other, with industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.

Unlike precious metals such as gold or platinum, gem diamonds do not trade as a commodity: there is a substantial mark-up in the sale of diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds.

Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, with the gemological qualities of clarity and color being mostly irrelevant. About 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20 tonnes annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones are relegated for industrial use (known as bort).^[104] synthetic diamonds, invented in the 1950s, found almost immediate industrial applications; 3 billion carats (600 tonnes) of synthetic diamond is produced annually.^[105]

The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Most of these applications do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds of gem-quality except for their small size can be used industrially. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications.^[106] Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.^[107]^[108] With the continuing advances in the production of synthetic diamonds, new applications are becoming feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable for microchips, and because of its exceptional heat conductance property, as a heat sink in electronics.^[109]

Precautions

Worker at carbon black plant in Sunray, Texas (photo by John Vachon, 1942)

Pure carbon has extremely low toxicity to humans and can be handled and even ingested safely in the form of graphite or charcoal. It is resistant to dissolution or chemical attack, even in the acidic contents of the digestive tract. Consequently, once it enters into the body's tissues it is likely to remain there indefinitely. Carbon black was probably one of the first pigments to be used for tattooing, and Ötzi the Iceman was found to have carbon tattoos that survived during his life and for 5200 years after his death.^[110] Inhalation of coal dust or soot (carbon black) in large quantities can be dangerous, irritating lung tissues and causing the congestive lung disease, coalworker's pneumoconiosis. Diamond dust used as an abrasive can harmful if ingested or inhaled. Microparticles of carbon are produced in diesel engine exhaust fumes, and may accumulate in the lungs.^[111] In these examples, the harm may result from contaminants (e.g., organic chemicals, heavy metals) rather than from the carbon itself.

Carbon generally has low toxicity to life on Earth; but carbon nanoparticles are deadly to Drosophila.^[112]

Carbon may burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures. Large accumulations of coal, which have remained inert for hundreds of millions of years in the absence of oxygen, may spontaneously combust when exposed to air in coal mine waste tips, ship cargo holds and coal bunkers,^[113]^[114] and storage dumps.

In nuclear applications where graphite is used as a neutron moderator, accumulation of Wigner energy followed by a sudden, spontaneous release may occur. Annealing to at least 250 °C can release the energy safely, although in the Windscale fire the procedure went wrong, causing other reactor materials to combust.

The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as tetrodotoxin, the lectin ricin from seeds of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, cyanide (CN⁻), and carbon monoxide; and such essentials to life as glucose and protein.

Bonding to carbon

CH																	He
CLi	CBe											CB	CC	CN	CO	CF	Ne
CNa	CMg											CAl	CSi	CP	CS	CCl	CAr
CK	CCa	CSc	CTi	CV	CCr	CMn	CFe	CCo	CNi	CCu	CZn	CGa	CGe	CAs	CSe	CBr	CKr
CRb	CSr	CY	CZr	CNb	CMo	CTc	CRu	CRh	CPd	CAg	CCd	CIn	CSn	CSb	CTe	CI	CXe
CCs	CBa		CHf	CTa	CW	CRe	COs	CIr	CPt	CAu	CHg	CTl	CPb	CBi	CPo	CAt	Rn
Fr	CRa		Rf	Db	CSg	Bh	Hs	Mt	Ds	Rg	Cn	Uut	Fl	Uup	Lv	Uus	Uuo
		↓
		CLa	CCe	CPr	CNd	CPm	CSm	CEu	CGd	CTb	CDy	CHo	CEr	CTm	CYb	CLu
		Ac	CTh	CPa	CU	CNp	CPu	CAm	CCm	CBk	CCf	CEs	Fm	Md	No	Lr

Chemical bonds to **carbon**
Core organic chemistry	Many uses in chemistry
Academic research, but no widespread use	Bond unknown

References

^ Conventional Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights
^ Standard Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights
^ Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
^ ^a ^b Haaland, D (1976). "Graphite-liquid-vapor triple point pressure and the density of liquid carbon". Carbon 14 (6): 357. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(76)90010-5.
^ ^a ^b Savvatimskiy, A (2005). "Measurements of the melting point of graphite and the properties of liquid carbon (a review for 1963–2003)". Carbon 43 (6): 1115. doi:10.1016/j.carbon.2004.12.027.
^ "Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the System of CP" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-06.
^ "Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the Electronic Transition of the Jet-Cooled CCI Free Radical" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-06.
^ "Carbon: Binary compounds". Retrieved 2007-12-06.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Properties of diamond, Ioffe Institute Database
^ https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/MaterialProperties/ET/ET_matlprop_Misc_Matls.htm
^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
^ "History of Carbon and Carbon Materials - Center for Applied Energy Research - University of Kentucky". Caer.uky.edu. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
^ Senese, Fred (2000-09-09). "Who discovered carbon?". Frostburg State University. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Carbon – Naturally occurring isotopes". WebElements Periodic Table. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
^ "History of Carbon". Retrieved 2013-01-10.
^ "Biological Abundance of Elements". The Internet Encyclopedia of Science. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
^ ^a ^b "World of Carbon – Interactive Nano-visulisation in Science & Engineering Education (IN-VSEE)". Retrieved 2008-10-09.
^ ^a ^b Chemistry Operations (December 15, 2003). "Carbon". Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2008-09-13. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
^ Greenville Whittaker, A. (1978). "The controversial carbon solid−liquid−vapour triple point". Nature 276 (5689): 695–696. Bibcode:1978Natur.276..695W. doi:10.1038/276695a0.
^ Zazula, J. M. (1997). "On Graphite Transformations at High Temperature and Pressure Induced by Absorption of the LHC Beam" (PDF). CERN. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
^ Lee, C.; Wei, X.; Kysar, J. W.; Hone, J. (2008). "Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene". Science 321 (5887): 385–8. Bibcode:2008Sci...321..385L. doi:10.1126/science.1157996. PMID 18635798. Lay summary.
^ Sanderson, Bill (2008-08-25). "Toughest Stuff Known to Man : Discovery Opens Door to Space Elevator". nypost.com. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
^ Irifune, Tetsuo; Kurio, Ayako; Sakamoto, Shizue; Inoue, Toru; Sumiya, Hitoshi (2003). "Materials: Ultrahard polycrystalline diamond from graphite". Nature 421 (6923): 599–600. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..599I. doi:10.1038/421599b. PMID 12571587.
^ Dienwiebel, Martin; Verhoeven, Gertjan; Pradeep, Namboodiri; Frenken, Joost; Heimberg, Jennifer; Zandbergen, Henny (2004). "Superlubricity of Graphite" (PDF). Physical Review Letters 92 (12). Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92l6101D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.126101.
^ Deprez, N.; McLachan, D. S. (1988). "The analysis of the electrical conductivity of graphite conductivity of graphite powders during compaction". Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics (Institute of Physics) 21 (1): 101–107. Bibcode:1988JPhD...21..101D. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/21/1/015.
^ Collins, A.T. (1993). "The Optical and Electronic Properties of Semiconducting Diamond". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 342 (1664): 233–244. Bibcode:1993RSPTA.342..233C. doi:10.1098/rsta.1993.0017.
^ Delhaes, P. (2001). Graphite and Precursors. CRC Press. ISBN 90-5699-228-7.
^ ^a ^b ^c Unwin, Peter. "Fullerenes(An Overview)". Retrieved 2007-12-08.
^ ^a ^b Ebbesen, T. W., ed. (1997). Carbon nanotubes—preparation and properties. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-9602-6.
^ ^a ^b Dresselhaus, M. S.; Dresselhaus, G.; Avouris, Ph., eds. (2001). "Carbon nanotubes: synthesis, structures, properties and applications". Topics in Applied Physics (Berlin: Springer) 80. ISBN 3-540-41086-4.
^ ^a ^b Nasibulin, Albert G.; Pikhitsa, P.V.; Jiang, H.; Brown, D. P.; Krasheninnikov, A.V.; Anisimov, A. S.; Queipo, P.; Moisala, A.; et al. (2007). "A novel hybrid carbon material". Nature Nanotechnology 2 (3): 156–161. Bibcode:2007NatNa...2..156N. doi:10.1038/nnano.2007.37. PMID 18654245.
^ Nasibulin, A; Anisimov, Anton S.; Pikhitsa, Peter V.; Jiang, Hua; Brown, David P.; Choi, Mansoo; Kauppinen, Esko I. (2007). "Investigations of NanoBud formation". Chemical Physics Letters 446: 109–114. Bibcode:2007CPL...446..109N. doi:10.1016/j.cplett.2007.08.050.
^ Vieira, R; Ledoux, Marc-Jacques; Pham-Huu, Cuong (2004). "Synthesis and characterisation of carbon nanofibers with macroscopic shaping formed by catalytic decomposition of C₂H₆/H₂ over nickel catalyst". Applied Catalysis A: General 274: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.apcata.2004.04.008.
^ ^a ^b Clifford, Frondel; Marvin, Ursula B. (1967). "Lonsdaleite, a new hexagonal polymorph of diamond". Nature 214 (5088): 587–589. Bibcode:1967Natur.214..587F. doi:10.1038/214587a0.
^ ^a ^b ^c Harris, PJF (2004). "Fullerene-related structure of commercial glassy carbons" (PDF). Philosophical Magazine 84 (29): 3159–3167. Bibcode:2004PMag...84.3159H. doi:10.1080/14786430410001720363.
^ Rode, A. V.; Hyde, S. T.; Gamaly, E. G.; Elliman, R. G.; McKenzie, D. R.; Bulcock, S. (1999). "Structural analysis of a carbon foam formed by high pulse-rate laser ablation". Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing 69 (7): S755–S758. doi:10.1007/s003390051522.
^ ^a ^b ^c Heimann, Robert Bertram; Evsyukov, Sergey E. & Kavan, Ladislav (28 February 1999). Carbyne and carbynoid structures. Springer. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-7923-5323-2. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
^ Jenkins, Edgar (1973). The polymorphism of elements and compounds. Taylor & Francis. p. 30. ISBN 0-423-87500-0. Retrieved 2011-05-01.
^ Schewe, Phil & Stein, Ben (March 26, 2004). "Carbon Nanofoam is the World's First Pure Carbon Magnet". Physics News Update 678 (1).
^ Itzhaki, Lior; Altus, Eli; Basch, Harold; Hoz, Shmaryahu (2005). "Harder than Diamond: Determining the Cross-Sectional Area and Young's Modulus of Molecular Rods". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44 (45): 7432–5. doi:10.1002/anie.200502448. PMID 16240306.
^ "Researchers Find New Phase of Carbon, Make Diamond at Room Temperature". news.ncsu.edu. Retrieved 2016-04-06.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hoover, Rachel (21 February 2014). "Need to Track Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe? NASA's Got an App for That". NASA. Retrieved 2014-02-22.
^ Mark, Kathleen (1987). Meteorite Craters. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-0902-6.
^ "Online Database Tracks Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe". Sci Tech Daily. February 24, 2014. Retrieved 2015-03-10.
^ William F McDonough The composition of the Earth in Earthquake Thermodynamics and Phase Transformation in the Earth's Interior. 2000. ISBN 978-0126851854.
^ Fred Pearce (2014-02-15). "Fire in the hole: After fracking comes coal". New Scientist: 36–41.
^ "Wonderfuel: Welcome to the age of unconventional gas" by Helen Knight, New Scientist, 12 June 2010, pp. 44–7.
^ Ocean methane stocks 'overstated', BBC, 17 Feb. 2004.
^ "Ice on fire: The next fossil fuel" by Fred Pearce, New Scientist, 27 June 2009, pp. 30-33.
^ Calculated from file global.1751_2008.csv in [1] from the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center.
^ Rachel Gross (Sep 21, 2013). "Deep, and dank mysterious". New Scientist: 40–43.
^ Stefanenko, R. (1983). Coal Mining Technology: Theory and Practice. Society for Mining Metallurgy. ISBN 0-89520-404-5.
^ Kasting, James (1998). "The Carbon Cycle, Climate, and the Long-Term Effects of Fossil Fuel Burning". Consequences: the Nature and Implication of Environmental Change 4 (1).
^ "Carbon-14 formation". Retrieved 13 October 2014.
^ http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/ResourcesNearEarthSpace/resources21.pdf
^ Gannes, Leonard Z.; Del Rio, Carlos Martı́nez; Koch, Paul (1998). "Natural Abundance Variations in Stable Isotopes and their Potential Uses in Animal Physiological Ecology". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology – Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 119 (3): 725–737. doi:10.1016/S1095-6433(98)01016-2.
^ "Official SI Unit definitions". Retrieved 2007-12-21.
^ Bowman, S. (1990). Interpreting the past: Radiocarbon dating. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2047-2.
^ Brown, Tom (March 1, 2006). "Carbon Goes Full Circle in the Amazon". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
^ Libby, W. F. (1952). Radiocarbon dating. Chicago University Press and references therein.
^ Westgren, A. (1960). "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1960". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
^ "Use query for carbon-8". barwinski.net. Retrieved 2007-12-21.
^ Watson, A. (1999). "Beaming Into the Dark Corners of the Nuclear Kitchen". Science 286 (5437): 28–31. doi:10.1126/science.286.5437.28.
^ Audi, G; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A.H. (1997). "The Nubase evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (PDF). Nuclear Physics A 624: 1–124. Bibcode:1997NuPhA.624....1A. doi:10.1016/S0375-9474(97)00482-X.
^ Ostlie, D.A. & Carroll, B.W. (2007). An Introduction to Modern Stellar Astrophysics. Addison Wesley, San Francisco. ISBN 0-8053-0348-0.
^ Whittet, D. C. B. (2003). Dust in the Galactic Environment. CRC Press. pp. 45–46. ISBN 0-7503-0624-6.
^ Pikelʹner, Solomon Borisovich (1977). Star formation. Springer. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-90-277-0796-3. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
^ Falkowski, P; Scholes, RJ; Boyle, E; Canadell, J; Canfield, D; Elser, J; Gruber, N; Hibbard, K; et al. (2000). "The Global Carbon Cycle: A Test of Our Knowledge of Earth as a System". Science 290 (5490): 291–296. Bibcode:2000Sci...290..291F. doi:10.1126/science.290.5490.291. PMID 11030643.
^ Smith, T. M.; Cramer, W. P.; Dixon, R. K.; Leemans, R.; Neilson, R. P.; Solomon, A. M. (1993). "The global terrestrial carbon cycle". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 70: 19–37. doi:10.1007/BF01104986.
^ Levine, Joel S.; Augustsson, Tommy R.; Natarajan, Murali (1982). "The prebiological paleoatmosphere: stability and composition". Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres 12 (3): 245–259. Bibcode:1982OrLi...12..245L. doi:10.1007/BF00926894.
^ Loerting, T.; et al. (2001). "On the Surprising Kinetic Stability of Carbonic Acid". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 39 (5): 891–895. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000303)39:5<891::AID-ANIE891>3.0.CO;2-E. PMID 10760883.
^ Haldane J. (1895). "The action of carbonic oxide on man". Journal of Physiology 18 (5–6): 430–462. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1895.sp000578. PMC 1514663. PMID 16992272.
^ Gorman, D.; Drewry, A.; Huang, Y. L.; Sames, C. (2003). "The clinical toxicology of carbon monoxide". Toxicology 187 (1): 25–38. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(03)00005-2. PMID 12679050.
^ "Compounds of carbon: carbon suboxide". Retrieved 2007-12-03.
^ Bayes, K. (1961). "Photolysis of Carbon Suboxide". Journal of the American Chemical Society 83 (17): 3712–3713. doi:10.1021/ja01478a033.
^ Anderson D. J.; Rosenfeld, R. N. (1991). "Photodissociation of Carbon Suboxide". Journal of Chemical Physics 94 (12): 7852–7867. Bibcode:1991JChPh..94.7857A. doi:10.1063/1.460121.
^ Sabin, J. R.; Kim, H. (1971). "A theoretical study of the structure and properties of carbon trioxide". Chemical Physics Letters 11 (5): 593–597. Bibcode:1971CPL....11..593S. doi:10.1016/0009-2614(71)87010-0.
^ Moll N. G.; Clutter D. R.; Thompson W. E. (1966). "Carbon Trioxide: Its Production, Infrared Spectrum, and Structure Studied in a Matrix of Solid CO₂". Journal of Chemical Physics 45 (12): 4469–4481. Bibcode:1966JChPh..45.4469M. doi:10.1063/1.1727526.
^ ^a ^b Fatiadi, Alexander J; Isbell, Horace S.; Sager, William F. (1963). "Cyclic Polyhydroxy Ketones. I. Oxidation Products of Hexahydroxybenzene (Benzenehexol)" (PDF). Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards Section A 67A: 153–162. doi:10.6028/jres.067A.015.
^ Pauling, L. (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond (3rd ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-8014-0333-2.
^ Scherbaum, Franz; et al. (1988). ""Aurophilicity" as a consequence of Relativistic Effects: The Hexakis(triphenylphosphaneaurio)methane Dication [(Ph₃PAu)₆C]²⁺". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 27 (11): 1544–1546. doi:10.1002/anie.198815441.
^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press
^ "Chinese made first use of diamond". BBC News. 17 May 2005. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
^ van der Krogt, Peter. "Carbonium/Carbon at Elementymology & Elements Multidict". Retrieved 2010-01-06.
^ Ferchault de Réaumur, R-A (1722). L'art de convertir le fer forgé en acier, et l'art d'adoucir le fer fondu, ou de faire des ouvrages de fer fondu aussi finis que le fer forgé (English translation from 1956). Paris, Chicago.
^ "Carbon". Canada Connects. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
^ Senese, Fred. "Who discovered carbon?". Frostburg State University. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
^ Giolitti, Federico (1914). The Cementation of Iron and Steel. McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc.
^ Senese, Fred (2000-09-09). "Who discovered carbon". Frostburg State University. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
^ Kroto, H. W.; Heath, J. R.; O'Brien, S. C.; Curl, R. F.; Smalley, R. E. (1985). "C₆₀: Buckminsterfullerene". Nature 318 (6042): 162–163. Bibcode:1985Natur.318..162K. doi:10.1038/318162a0.
^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996 "for their discovery of fullerenes"". Retrieved 2007-12-21.
^ ^a ^b ^c USGS Minerals Yearbook: Graphite, 2009 and Graphite: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011
^ Harlow, G. E. (1998). The nature of diamonds. Cambridge University Press. p. 223. ISBN 0-521-62935-7.
^ Catelle, W.R. (1911). The Diamond. John Lane Company. p. 159. discussion on Alluvial diamonds in India and elsewhere as well as earliest finds
^ Ball, V. (1881). Diamonds, Gold and Coal of India. London, Truebner & Co. Ball was a Geologist in British service. Chapter I, Page 1
^ Hershey, J. W. (1940). The Book Of Diamonds: Their Curious Lore, Properties, Tests And Synthetic Manufacture. Kessinger Pub Co. p. 28. ISBN 1-4179-7715-9.
^ ^a ^b Janse, A. J. A. (2007). "Global Rough Diamond Production Since 1870". Gems and Gemology (GIA). XLIII (Summer 2007): 98–119. doi:10.5741/GEMS.43.2.98.
^ ^a ^b Lorenz, V. (2007). "Argyle in Western Australia: The world's richest diamantiferous pipe; its past and future". Gemmologie, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft (DGemG) 56 (1/2): 35–40.
^ "Microscopic diamond found in Montana". The Montana Standard. 2004-10-17. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
^ Cooke, Sarah (2004-10-19). "Microscopic Diamond Found in Montana". Livescience.com. Archived from the original on 2008-07-05. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
^ "Delta News / Press Releases / Publications". Deltamine.com. Archived from the original on 2008-05-26. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
^ Marshall, Stephen; Shore, Josh (2004-10-22). "The Diamond Life". Guerrilla News Network. Archived from the original on 2008-06-09. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
^ Cantwell, W. J.; Morton, J. (1991). "The impact resistance of composite materials – a review". Composites 22 (5): 347–62. doi:10.1016/0010-4361(91)90549-V.
^ Holtzapffel, Ch. (1856). Turning And Mechanical Manipulation. Charles Holtzapffel. Internet Archive
^ "Industrial Diamonds Statistics and Information". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
^ Coelho, R. T.; Yamada, S.; Aspinwall, D.K.; Wise, M.L.H. (1995). "The application of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool materials when drilling and reaming aluminum-based alloys including MMC". International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 35 (5): 761–774. doi:10.1016/0890-6955(95)93044-7.
^ Harris, D. C. (1999). Materials for infrared windows and domes: properties and performance. SPIE Press. pp. 303–334. ISBN 0-8194-3482-5.
^ Nusinovich, G. S. (2004). Introduction to the physics of gyrotrons. JHU Press. p. 229. ISBN 0-8018-7921-3.
^ Sakamoto, M.; Endriz, J. G.; Scifres, D. R. (1992). "120 W CW output power from monolithic AlGaAs (800 nm) laser diode array mounted on diamond heatsink". Electronics Letters 28 (2): 197–199. doi:10.1049/el:19920123.
^ Dorfer, Leopold; Moser, M; Spindler, K; Bahr, F; Egarter-Vigl, E; Dohr, G (1998). "5200-year old acupuncture in Central Europe?". Science 282 (5387): 242–243. Bibcode:1998Sci...282..239D. doi:10.1126/science.282.5387.239f. PMID 9841386.
^ Donaldson, K; Stone, V; Clouter, A; Renwick, L; MacNee, W (2001). "Ultrafine particles". Occupational and Environmental Medicine 58 (3): 211–216. doi:10.1136/oem.58.3.211. PMC 1740105. PMID 11171936.
^ Carbon Nanoparticles Toxic To Adult Fruit Flies But Benign To Young ScienceDaily (Aug. 17, 2009)
^ "Press Release - Titanic Disaster: New Theory Fingers Coal Fire". www.geosociety.org. Retrieved 2016-04-06.
^ McSherry, Patrick. "Coal bunker Fire". www.spanamwar.com. Retrieved 2016-04-06.

External links

Find more about Carbon at Wikipedia's sister projects
	Definitions from Wiktionary
	Media from Commons
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Learning resources from Wikiversity

Carbon on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
Carbon at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Carbon on Britannica
Extensive Carbon page at asu.edu
Electrochemical uses of carbon
Carbon—Super Stuff. Animation with sound and interactive 3D-models.

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. 一酸化炭素中毒 carbon monoxide poisoning
2. 煙の吸入 smoke inhalation
3. 二酸化炭素のモニタリング（カプノグラフィ） carbon dioxide monitoring capnography
4. 静脈血ガスおよび動脈血液ガスの代替 venous blood gases and other alternatives to arterial blood gases
5. 中枢性睡眠時無呼吸症候群：治療 central sleep apnea syndrome treatment

English Journal

Origin assignment by multi-element stable isotopes of lamb tissues.

Sun S1, Guo B2, Wei Y3.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2016 Dec 15;213:675-81. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.013. Epub 2016 Jul 5.
The carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen isotopic compositions in lamb meat and wool samples under two feeding regimes from five different regions of China were determined by IRMS, which is to investigate their potential for assigning the lamb meat according to geographical origins. The δ(13)C, δ(15)N an
PMID 27451234

Electrochemical magnetic beads-based immunosensing platform for the determination of α-lactalbumin in milk.

Ruiz-Valdepeñas Montiel V1, Campuzano S2, Torrente-Rodríguez RM3, Reviejo AJ4, Pingarrón JM5.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2016 Dec 15;213:595-601. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.004. Epub 2016 Jul 5.
Alpha-lactalbumin (α-LA) is one of the whey proteins in cows' milk that has been identified as allergenic. In this work, we present, for the first time, a very sensitive magnetic beads (MBs)-based immunosensor for the determination of α-LA. A sandwich configuration involving selective capture and
PMID 27451223

Functional, textural and sensory properties of dry pasta supplemented with lyophilized tomato matrix or with durum wheat bran extracts produced by supercritical carbon dioxide or ultrasound.

Pasqualone A1, Gambacorta G2, Summo C2, Caponio F2, Di Miceli G3, Flagella Z4, Marrese PP5, Piro G5, Perrotta C5, De Bellis L5, Lenucci MS5.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2016 Dec 15;213:545-53. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.006. Epub 2016 Jul 5.
A study was carried out to produce functional pasta by adding bran aqueous extract (BW) and bran oleoresin (BO) obtained using ultrasound and supercritical CO2, respectively, or a powdery lyophilized tomato matrix (LT). The bioactive compounds, hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant activity (HAA an
PMID 27451216

Determination of total sulfur concentrations in different types of vinegars using high resolution flame molecular absorption spectrometry.

Ozbek N1, Akman S2.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2016 Dec 15;213:529-33. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.007. Epub 2016 Jul 5.
Total sulfur concentrations in vinegars were determined using molecular absorption of carbon monosulfide (CS) determined with a high-resolution continuum source flame atomic absorption spectrometer. The molecular absorption of CS was measured at 258.056nm in an air-acetylene flame. Due to non-spectr
PMID 27451213

Japanese Journal

Facile wet-chemical synthesis of differently shaped cuprous oxide particles and a thin film: Effect of catalyst morphology on the glucose sensing performance

Neetzel Cornelia,Muench Falk,Matsutani Takaomi,Jaud Jean Christophe,Broetz Joachim,Ohgai Takeshi,Ensinger Wolfgang J.
Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 214, 189-196, 2015-07-31
… Furthermore, a novel electroless deposition technique was introduced that does not require sensitization and activation pretreatments, allowing for the direct modification of the glassy carbon. …
NAID 120005606094

A facile solution combustion synthesis of nanosized amorphous iron oxide incorporated in a carbon matrix for use as a high-performance lithium ion battery anode material

Zhu Chunyu,Saito Genki,Akiyama Tomohiro
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 633, 424-429, 2015-06-05
… An amorphous iron oxide-carbon composite has been fabricated through an effective, inexpensive, and scalable method employing solution combustion synthesis. … Amorphous iron oxide nanoparticles with diameters of about 5 nm were synthesized and uniformly embedded in a dense carbon matrix. …
NAID 120005602525

Trends in the management of recurrent respiratory papillomatosis in Japan

Murono Shigeyuki,Nakanishi Yosuke,Tsuji Akira,Endo Kazuhira,Kondo Satoru,Wakisaka Naohiro,Yoshida Hiroshi,Yoshizaki Tomokazu
Auris Nasus Larynx 42(3), 218-220, 2015-06-01
… Among the 50 hospitals frequently performing laser surgery, a carbon dioxide (CO2) laser was most commonly used, followed by a potassium-titanyl-phosphate (KTP) laser. …
NAID 120005516446

単一種類のカーボンナノチューブを生み出す種分子設計

ミラージョアンナ,菅井俊樹 [訳]
パリティ 30(6), 50-53, 2015-06
NAID 40020464748

「C」

Carbon, ₆C
	Graphite (left) and diamond (right), the two most well-known allotropes of carbon
	Spectral lines of carbon
General properties
Name, symbol	carbon, C
Pronunciation	/ˈkɑːrbən/; KAR-bən
Allotropes	graphite, diamond
Appearance	graphite: black; diamond: clear
Carbon in the periodic table
	boron ← carbon → nitrogen
Atomic number (Z)	6
Group, block	group 14 (carbon group), p-block
Period	period 2
Element category	polyatomic nonmetal, sometimes considered a metalloid
Standard atomic weight (Ar)	12.011 (12.0096–12.0116)
Electron configuration	[He] 2s2 2p2
per shell	2, 4
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Sublimation point	3915 K (3642 °C, 6588 °F)
Density near r.t.	amorphous: 1.8–2.1 g/cm3; graphite: 2.267 g/cm3; diamond: 3.515 g/cm3
Triple point	4600 K, 10,800 kPa
Heat of fusion	graphite: 117 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	graphite: 8.517 J/(mol·K); diamond: 6.155 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	+4, +3, +2, +1, 0, −1, −2, −3, −4 (a mildly acidic oxide)
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 2.55
Ionization energies	1st: 1086.5 kJ/mol; 2nd: 2352.6 kJ/mol; 3rd: 4620.5 kJ/mol; (more)
Covalent radius	sp3: 77 pm; sp2: 73 pm; sp: 69 pm
Van der Waals radius	170 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	graphite: simple hexagonal ; (black)
Crystal structure	face-centered diamond-cubic
Speed of sound thin rod	diamond: 18,350 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion	diamond: 0.8 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity	graphite: 119–165 W/(m·K); diamond: 900–2300 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity	graphite: 7.837 µΩ·m
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic
Young's modulus	diamond: 1050 GPa
Shear modulus	diamond: 478 GPa
Bulk modulus	diamond: 442 GPa
Poisson ratio	diamond: 0.1
Mohs hardness	graphite: 1–2; diamond: 10
CAS Number	7440-44-0
History
Discovery	Egyptians and Sumerians (3750 BCE)
Recognized as an element by	Antoine Lavoisier (1789)
Most stable isotopes of carbon
	view; talk; edit; \| references

　　[★]

炭素 carbon
シトシン cytosine
システイン cysteine
シチジン
セルシウス度摂氏 degrees Celsius degree C
産婦人科領域で「子宮外頚子宮外頚部 exocervix」を表現するための略語

「炭素」

　　[★]

英: carbon、C、carbonic
関: カルボニック、クーロン、システイン、シトシン、炭酸、カーボン

「carbonic」

　　[★]

炭素の、炭酸の、カルボニック

関: C、carbon、carbonate、carbonic acid

「カーボン」

　　[★]

英: carbon
関: 炭素

「pregnenolone carbonitrile」

　　[★]

プレグネノロンカルボニトリル

[1] Choosing a Development Path for Your Carbon User Interface

[CIAAW-1] Conventional Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights

[IUPAC-2] Standard Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights

[CRC-3] Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.

[triple2-4] Haaland, D (1976). "Graphite-liquid-vapor triple point pressure and the density of liquid carbon". Carbon 14 (6): 357. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(76)90010-5.

[triple3-5] Savvatimskiy, A (2005). "Measurements of the melting point of graphite and the properties of liquid carbon (a review for 1963–2003)". Carbon 43 (6): 1115. doi:10.1016/j.carbon.2004.12.027.

[6] "Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the System of CP" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-06.

[7] "Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the Electronic Transition of the Jet-Cooled CCI Free Radical" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-06.

[8] "Carbon: Binary compounds". Retrieved 2007-12-06.

[ioffe-9] Properties of diamond, Ioffe Institute Database

[10] ttps://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/MaterialProperties/ET/ET_matlprop_Misc_Matls.htm

[11] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.

[12] "History of Carbon and Carbon Materials - Center for Applied Energy Research - University of Kentucky". Caer.uky.edu. Retrieved 2008-09-12.

[13] Senese, Fred (2000-09-09). "Who discovered carbon?". Frostburg State University. Retrieved 2007-11-24.

[isotopes-14] "Carbon – Naturally occurring isotopes". WebElements Periodic Table. Retrieved 2008-10-09.

[D2-15] "History of Carbon". Retrieved 2013-01-10.

[16] "Biological Abundance of Elements". The Internet Encyclopedia of Science. Retrieved 2008-10-09.

[therm_prop-17] "World of Carbon – Interactive Nano-visulisation in Science & Engineering Education (IN-VSEE)". Retrieved 2008-10-09.

[lanl-18] Chemistry Operations (December 15, 2003). "Carbon". Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2008-09-13. Retrieved 2008-10-09.

[triple-19] Greenville Whittaker, A. (1978). "The controversial carbon solid−liquid−vapour triple point". Nature 276 (5689): 695–696. Bibcode:1978Natur.276..695W. doi:10.1038/276695a0.

[20] Zazula, J. M. (1997). "On Graphite Transformations at High Temperature and Pressure Induced by Absorption of the LHC Beam" (PDF). CERN. Retrieved 2009-06-06.

[lee-21] Lee, C.; Wei, X.; Kysar, J. W.; Hone, J. (2008). "Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene". Science 321 (5887): 385–8. Bibcode:2008Sci...321..385L. doi:10.1126/science.1157996. PMID 18635798. Lay summary.

[nypost-22] Sanderson, Bill (2008-08-25). "Toughest Stuff Known to Man : Discovery Opens Door to Space Elevator". nypost.com. Retrieved 2008-10-09.

[23] Irifune, Tetsuo; Kurio, Ayako; Sakamoto, Shizue; Inoue, Toru; Sumiya, Hitoshi (2003). "Materials: Ultrahard polycrystalline diamond from graphite". Nature 421 (6923): 599–600. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..599I. doi:10.1038/421599b. PMID 12571587.

[24] Dienwiebel, Martin; Verhoeven, Gertjan; Pradeep, Namboodiri; Frenken, Joost; Heimberg, Jennifer; Zandbergen, Henny (2004). "Superlubricity of Graphite" (PDF). Physical Review Letters 92 (12). Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92l6101D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.126101.

[25] Deprez, N.; McLachan, D. S. (1988). "The analysis of the electrical conductivity of graphite conductivity of graphite powders during compaction". Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics (Institute of Physics) 21 (1): 101–107. Bibcode:1988JPhD...21..101D. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/21/1/015.

[26] Collins, A.T. (1993). "The Optical and Electronic Properties of Semiconducting Diamond". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 342 (1664): 233–244. Bibcode:1993RSPTA.342..233C. doi:10.1098/rsta.1993.0017.

[27] Delhaes, P. (2001). Graphite and Precursors. CRC Press. ISBN 90-5699-228-7.

[buckyballs-28] Unwin, Peter. "Fullerenes(An Overview)". Retrieved 2007-12-08.

[nanotubes-29] Ebbesen, T. W., ed. (1997). Carbon nanotubes—preparation and properties. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-9602-6.

[nanotubes2-30] Dresselhaus, M. S.; Dresselhaus, G.; Avouris, Ph., eds. (2001). "Carbon nanotubes: synthesis, structures, properties and applications". Topics in Applied Physics (Berlin: Springer) 80. ISBN 3-540-41086-4.

[nanobuds-31] Nasibulin, Albert G.; Pikhitsa, P.V.; Jiang, H.; Brown, D. P.; Krasheninnikov, A.V.; Anisimov, A. S.; Queipo, P.; Moisala, A.; et al. (2007). "A novel hybrid carbon material". Nature Nanotechnology 2 (3): 156–161. Bibcode:2007NatNa...2..156N. doi:10.1038/nnano.2007.37. PMID 18654245.

[32] Nasibulin, A; Anisimov, Anton S.; Pikhitsa, Peter V.; Jiang, Hua; Brown, David P.; Choi, Mansoo; Kauppinen, Esko I. (2007). "Investigations of NanoBud formation". Chemical Physics Letters 446: 109–114. Bibcode:2007CPL...446..109N. doi:10.1016/j.cplett.2007.08.050.

[33] Vieira, R; Ledoux, Marc-Jacques; Pham-Huu, Cuong (2004). "Synthesis and characterisation of carbon nanofibers with macroscopic shaping formed by catalytic decomposition of C₂H₆/H₂ over nickel catalyst". Applied Catalysis A: General 274: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.apcata.2004.04.008.

[lonsdaletite-34] Clifford, Frondel; Marvin, Ursula B. (1967). "Lonsdaleite, a new hexagonal polymorph of diamond". Nature 214 (5088): 587–589. Bibcode:1967Natur.214..587F. doi:10.1038/214587a0.

[glassy_carbon-35] Harris, PJF (2004). "Fullerene-related structure of commercial glassy carbons" (PDF). Philosophical Magazine 84 (29): 3159–3167. Bibcode:2004PMag...84.3159H. doi:10.1080/14786430410001720363.

[36] Rode, A. V.; Hyde, S. T.; Gamaly, E. G.; Elliman, R. G.; McKenzie, D. R.; Bulcock, S. (1999). "Structural analysis of a carbon foam formed by high pulse-rate laser ablation". Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing 69 (7): S755–S758. doi:10.1007/s003390051522.

[LAC-37] Heimann, Robert Bertram; Evsyukov, Sergey E. & Kavan, Ladislav (28 February 1999). Carbyne and carbynoid structures. Springer. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-7923-5323-2. Retrieved 2011-06-06.

[38] Jenkins, Edgar (1973). The polymorphism of elements and compounds. Taylor & Francis. p. 30. ISBN 0-423-87500-0. Retrieved 2011-05-01.

[39] Schewe, Phil & Stein, Ben (March 26, 2004). "Carbon Nanofoam is the World's First Pure Carbon Magnet". Physics News Update 678 (1).

[40] Itzhaki, Lior; Altus, Eli; Basch, Harold; Hoz, Shmaryahu (2005). "Harder than Diamond: Determining the Cross-Sectional Area and Young's Modulus of Molecular Rods". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44 (45): 7432–5. doi:10.1002/anie.200502448. PMID 16240306.

[41] "Researchers Find New Phase of Carbon, Make Diamond at Room Temperature". news.ncsu.edu. Retrieved 2016-04-06.

[NASA-20140221-42] Hoover, Rachel (21 February 2014). "Need to Track Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe? NASA's Got an App for That". NASA. Retrieved 2014-02-22.

[43] Mark, Kathleen (1987). Meteorite Craters. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-0902-6.

[44] "Online Database Tracks Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe". Sci Tech Daily. February 24, 2014. Retrieved 2015-03-10.

[45] William F McDonough The composition of the Earth in Earthquake Thermodynamics and Phase Transformation in the Earth's Interior. 2000. ISBN 978-0126851854.

[46] Fred Pearce (2014-02-15). "Fire in the hole: After fracking comes coal". New Scientist: 36–41.

[47] "Wonderfuel: Welcome to the age of unconventional gas" by Helen Knight, New Scientist, 12 June 2010, pp. 44–7.

[48] Ocean methane stocks 'overstated', BBC, 17 Feb. 2004.

[49] "Ice on fire: The next fossil fuel" by Fred Pearce, New Scientist, 27 June 2009, pp. 30-33.

[50] Calculated from file global.1751_2008.csv in [1] from the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center.

[51] Rachel Gross (Sep 21, 2013). "Deep, and dank mysterious". New Scientist: 40–43.

[52] Stefanenko, R. (1983). Coal Mining Technology: Theory and Practice. Society for Mining Metallurgy. ISBN 0-89520-404-5.

[53] Kasting, James (1998). "The Carbon Cycle, Climate, and the Long-Term Effects of Fossil Fuel Burning". Consequences: the Nature and Implication of Environmental Change 4 (1).

[54] "Carbon-14 formation". Retrieved 13 October 2014.

[55] ttp://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/ResourcesNearEarthSpace/resources21.pdf

[56] Gannes, Leonard Z.; Del Rio, Carlos Martı́nez; Koch, Paul (1998). "Natural Abundance Variations in Stable Isotopes and their Potential Uses in Animal Physiological Ecology". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology – Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 119 (3): 725–737. doi:10.1016/S1095-6433(98)01016-2.

[57] "Official SI Unit definitions". Retrieved 2007-12-21.

[58] Bowman, S. (1990). Interpreting the past: Radiocarbon dating. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2047-2.

[59] Brown, Tom (March 1, 2006). "Carbon Goes Full Circle in the Amazon". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Retrieved 2007-11-25.

[60] Libby, W. F. (1952). Radiocarbon dating. Chicago University Press and references therein.

[61] Westgren, A. (1960). "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1960". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-11-25.

[62] "Use query for carbon-8". barwinski.net. Retrieved 2007-12-21.

[63] Watson, A. (1999). "Beaming Into the Dark Corners of the Nuclear Kitchen". Science 286 (5437): 28–31. doi:10.1126/science.286.5437.28.

[Audi-64] Audi, G; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A.H. (1997). "The Nubase evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (PDF). Nuclear Physics A 624: 1–124. Bibcode:1997NuPhA.624....1A. doi:10.1016/S0375-9474(97)00482-X.

[Ostlie-65] Ostlie, D.A. & Carroll, B.W. (2007). An Introduction to Modern Stellar Astrophysics. Addison Wesley, San Francisco. ISBN 0-8053-0348-0.

[66] Whittet, D. C. B. (2003). Dust in the Galactic Environment. CRC Press. pp. 45–46. ISBN 0-7503-0624-6.

[67] Pikelʹner, Solomon Borisovich (1977). Star formation. Springer. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-90-277-0796-3. Retrieved 2011-06-06.

[68] Falkowski, P; Scholes, RJ; Boyle, E; Canadell, J; Canfield, D; Elser, J; Gruber, N; Hibbard, K; et al. (2000). "The Global Carbon Cycle: A Test of Our Knowledge of Earth as a System". Science 290 (5490): 291–296. Bibcode:2000Sci...290..291F. doi:10.1126/science.290.5490.291. PMID 11030643.

[69] Smith, T. M.; Cramer, W. P.; Dixon, R. K.; Leemans, R.; Neilson, R. P.; Solomon, A. M. (1993). "The global terrestrial carbon cycle". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 70: 19–37. doi:10.1007/BF01104986.

[70] Levine, Joel S.; Augustsson, Tommy R.; Natarajan, Murali (1982). "The prebiological paleoatmosphere: stability and composition". Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres 12 (3): 245–259. Bibcode:1982OrLi...12..245L. doi:10.1007/BF00926894.

[71] Loerting, T.; et al. (2001). "On the Surprising Kinetic Stability of Carbonic Acid". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 39 (5): 891–895. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000303)39:5<891::AID-ANIE891>3.0.CO;2-E. PMID 10760883.

[72] Haldane J. (1895). "The action of carbonic oxide on man". Journal of Physiology 18 (5–6): 430–462. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1895.sp000578. PMC 1514663. PMID 16992272.

[73] Gorman, D.; Drewry, A.; Huang, Y. L.; Sames, C. (2003). "The clinical toxicology of carbon monoxide". Toxicology 187 (1): 25–38. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(03)00005-2. PMID 12679050.

[74] "Compounds of carbon: carbon suboxide". Retrieved 2007-12-03.

[75] Bayes, K. (1961). "Photolysis of Carbon Suboxide". Journal of the American Chemical Society 83 (17): 3712–3713. doi:10.1021/ja01478a033.

[76] Anderson D. J.; Rosenfeld, R. N. (1991). "Photodissociation of Carbon Suboxide". Journal of Chemical Physics 94 (12): 7852–7867. Bibcode:1991JChPh..94.7857A. doi:10.1063/1.460121.

[77] Sabin, J. R.; Kim, H. (1971). "A theoretical study of the structure and properties of carbon trioxide". Chemical Physics Letters 11 (5): 593–597. Bibcode:1971CPL....11..593S. doi:10.1016/0009-2614(71)87010-0.

[78] Moll N. G.; Clutter D. R.; Thompson W. E. (1966). "Carbon Trioxide: Its Production, Infrared Spectrum, and Structure Studied in a Matrix of Solid CO₂". Journal of Chemical Physics 45 (12): 4469–4481. Bibcode:1966JChPh..45.4469M. doi:10.1063/1.1727526.

[fatiadi-79] Fatiadi, Alexander J; Isbell, Horace S.; Sager, William F. (1963). "Cyclic Polyhydroxy Ketones. I. Oxidation Products of Hexahydroxybenzene (Benzenehexol)" (PDF). Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards Section A 67A: 153–162. doi:10.6028/jres.067A.015.

[80] Pauling, L. (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond (3rd ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-8014-0333-2.

[81] Scherbaum, Franz; et al. (1988). ""Aurophilicity" as a consequence of Relativistic Effects: The Hexakis(triphenylphosphaneaurio)methane Dication [(Ph₃PAu)₆C]²⁺". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 27 (11): 1544–1546. doi:10.1002/anie.198815441.

[82] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press

[ancient_China-83] "Chinese made first use of diamond". BBC News. 17 May 2005. Retrieved 2007-03-21.

[84] van der Krogt, Peter. "Carbonium/Carbon at Elementymology & Elements Multidict". Retrieved 2010-01-06.

[85] Ferchault de Réaumur, R-A (1722). L'art de convertir le fer forgé en acier, et l'art d'adoucir le fer fondu, ou de faire des ouvrages de fer fondu aussi finis que le fer forgé (English translation from 1956). Paris, Chicago.

[86] "Carbon". Canada Connects. Retrieved 2010-12-07.

[87] Senese, Fred. "Who discovered carbon?". Frostburg State University. Retrieved 2007-11-24.

[88] Giolitti, Federico (1914). The Cementation of Iron and Steel. McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc.

[89] Senese, Fred (2000-09-09). "Who discovered carbon". Frostburg State University. Retrieved 2007-11-24.

[90] Kroto, H. W.; Heath, J. R.; O'Brien, S. C.; Curl, R. F.; Smalley, R. E. (1985). "C₆₀: Buckminsterfullerene". Nature 318 (6042): 162–163. Bibcode:1985Natur.318..162K. doi:10.1038/318162a0.

[91] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996 "for their discovery of fullerenes"". Retrieved 2007-12-21.

[USGS-92] USGS Minerals Yearbook: Graphite, 2009 and Graphite: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011

[93] Harlow, G. E. (1998). The nature of diamonds. Cambridge University Press. p. 223. ISBN 0-521-62935-7.

[Catelle1-94] Catelle, W.R. (1911). The Diamond. John Lane Company. p. 159. discussion on Alluvial diamonds in India and elsewhere as well as earliest finds

[Ball-95] Ball, V. (1881). Diamonds, Gold and Coal of India. London, Truebner & Co. Ball was a Geologist in British service. Chapter I, Page 1

[96] Hershey, J. W. (1940). The Book Of Diamonds: Their Curious Lore, Properties, Tests And Synthetic Manufacture. Kessinger Pub Co. p. 28. ISBN 1-4179-7715-9.

[giasummer2007-97] Janse, A. J. A. (2007). "Global Rough Diamond Production Since 1870". Gems and Gemology (GIA). XLIII (Summer 2007): 98–119. doi:10.5741/GEMS.43.2.98.

[DGemGLorenz-98] Lorenz, V. (2007). "Argyle in Western Australia: The world's richest diamantiferous pipe; its past and future". Gemmologie, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft (DGemG) 56 (1/2): 35–40.

[99] "Microscopic diamond found in Montana". The Montana Standard. 2004-10-17. Retrieved 2008-10-10.

[100] Cooke, Sarah (2004-10-19). "Microscopic Diamond Found in Montana". Livescience.com. Archived from the original on 2008-07-05. Retrieved 2008-09-12.

[101] "Delta News / Press Releases / Publications". Deltamine.com. Archived from the original on 2008-05-26. Retrieved 2008-09-12.

[102] Marshall, Stephen; Shore, Josh (2004-10-22). "The Diamond Life". Guerrilla News Network. Archived from the original on 2008-06-09. Retrieved 2008-10-10.

[cantwell-103] Cantwell, W. J.; Morton, J. (1991). "The impact resistance of composite materials – a review". Composites 22 (5): 347–62. doi:10.1016/0010-4361(91)90549-V.

[104] Holtzapffel, Ch. (1856). Turning And Mechanical Manipulation. Charles Holtzapffel. Internet Archive

[usgs-105] "Industrial Diamonds Statistics and Information". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2009-05-05.

[106] Coelho, R. T.; Yamada, S.; Aspinwall, D.K.; Wise, M.L.H. (1995). "The application of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool materials when drilling and reaming aluminum-based alloys including MMC". International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 35 (5): 761–774. doi:10.1016/0890-6955(95)93044-7.

[107] Harris, D. C. (1999). Materials for infrared windows and domes: properties and performance. SPIE Press. pp. 303–334. ISBN 0-8194-3482-5.

[108] Nusinovich, G. S. (2004). Introduction to the physics of gyrotrons. JHU Press. p. 229. ISBN 0-8018-7921-3.

[109] Sakamoto, M.; Endriz, J. G.; Scifres, D. R. (1992). "120 W CW output power from monolithic AlGaAs (800 nm) laser diode array mounted on diamond heatsink". Electronics Letters 28 (2): 197–199. doi:10.1049/el:19920123.

[110] Dorfer, Leopold; Moser, M; Spindler, K; Bahr, F; Egarter-Vigl, E; Dohr, G (1998). "5200-year old acupuncture in Central Europe?". Science 282 (5387): 242–243. Bibcode:1998Sci...282..239D. doi:10.1126/science.282.5387.239f. PMID 9841386.

[111] Donaldson, K; Stone, V; Clouter, A; Renwick, L; MacNee, W (2001). "Ultrafine particles". Occupational and Environmental Medicine 58 (3): 211–216. doi:10.1136/oem.58.3.211. PMC 1740105. PMID 11171936.

[112] Carbon Nanoparticles Toxic To Adult Fruit Flies But Benign To Young ScienceDaily (Aug. 17, 2009)

[113] "Press Release - Titanic Disaster: New Theory Fingers Coal Fire". www.geosociety.org. Retrieved 2016-04-06.

[114] McSherry, Patrick. "Coal bunker Fire". www.spanamwar.com. Retrieved 2016-04-06.

リンク元	「C」「炭素」「carbonic」「カーボン」
拡張検索	「pregnenolone carbonitrile」

CH																	He
CLi	CBe											CB	CC	CN	CO	CF	Ne
CNa	CMg											CAl	CSi	CP	CS	CCl	CAr
CK	CCa	CSc	CTi	CV	CCr	CMn	CFe	CCo	CNi	CCu	CZn	CGa	CGe	CAs	CSe	CBr	CKr
CRb	CSr	CY	CZr	CNb	CMo	CTc	CRu	CRh	CPd	CAg	CCd	CIn	CSn	CSb	CTe	CI	CXe
CCs	CBa		CHf	CTa	CW	CRe	COs	CIr	CPt	CAu	CHg	CTl	CPb	CBi	CPo	CAt	Rn
Fr	CRa		Rf	Db	CSg	Bh	Hs	Mt	Ds	Rg	Cn	Uut	Fl	Uup	Lv	Uus	Uuo
		↓
		CLa	CCe	CPr	CNd	CPm	CSm	CEu	CGd	CTb	CDy	CHo	CEr	CTm	CYb	CLu
		Ac	CTh	CPa	CU	CNp	CPu	CAm	CCm	CBk	CCf	CEs	Fm	Md	No	Lr

CH																	He
CLi	CBe											CB	CC	CN	CO	CF	Ne
CNa	CMg											CAl	CSi	CP	CS	CCl	CAr
CK	CCa	CSc	CTi	CV	CCr	CMn	CFe	CCo	CNi	CCu	CZn	CGa	CGe	CAs	CSe	CBr	CKr
CRb	CSr	CY	CZr	CNb	CMo	CTc	CRu	CRh	CPd	CAg	CCd	CIn	CSn	CSb	CTe	CI	CXe
CCs	CBa		CHf	CTa	CW	CRe	COs	CIr	CPt	CAu	CHg	CTl	CPb	CBi	CPo	CAt	Rn
Fr	CRa		Rf	Db	CSg	Bh	Hs	Mt	Ds	Rg	Cn	Uut	Fl	Uup	Lv	Uus	Uuo
		↓
		CLa	CCe	CPr	CNd	CPm	CSm	CEu	CGd	CTb	CDy	CHo	CEr	CTm	CYb	CLu
		Ac	CTh	CPa	CU	CNp	CPu	CAm	CCm	CBk	CCf	CEs	Fm	Md	No	Lr

匿名

検索

案内

carbon