n.

願望

v.

願望する、要求する、望む

関: ask for、call、claim、demand、hope、long、need、order、request、require、requirement、wish

WordNet

express a desire for
something that is desired
an inclination to want things; "a man of many desires"
the feeling that accompanies an unsatisfied state
feel or have a desire for; want strongly; "I want to go home now"; "I want my own room" (同)want
utter in a loud voice or announce; "He called my name"; "The auctioneer called the bids"
rouse somebody from sleep with a call; "I was called at 5 A.M. this morning"
(sports) the decision made by an umpire or referee; "he was ejected for protesting the call"
a brief social visit; "senior professors wives no longer make afternoon calls on newcomers"; "the characters in Henry James novels are forever paying calls on each other, usually in the parlor of some residence"
a visit in an official or professional capacity; "the pastors calls on his parishioners"; "the salesmans call on a customer"
a demand especially in the phrase "the call of duty" (同)claim
a telephone connection; "she reported several anonymous calls"; "he placed a phone call to London"; "he heard the phone ringing but didnt want to take the call" (同)phone call, telephone call
a demand for a show of hands in a card game; "after two raises there was a call"
a request; "many calls for Christmas stories"; "not many calls for buggywhips"
an instruction that interrupts the program being executed; "Pascal performs calls by simply giving the name of the routine to be executed"
demand payment of (a loan); "Call a loan" (同)call_in
give the calls (to the dancers) for a square dance (同)call off
order, request, or command to come; "She was called into the directors office"; "Call the police!" (同)send for
get or try to get into communication (with someone) by telephone; "I tried to call you all night"; "Take two aspirin and call me in the morning" (同)telephone, call_up, phone, ring
ascribe a quality to or give a name of a common noun that reflects a quality; "He called me a bastard"; "She called her children lazy and ungrateful"
call a meeting; invite or command to meet; "The Wannsee Conference was called to discuss the `Final Solution"; "The new dean calls meetings every week"
challenge (somebody) to make good on a statement; charge with or censure for an offense; "He deserves to be called on that"
challenge the sincerity or truthfulness of; "call the speaker on a question of fact"
consider or regard as being; "I would not call her beautiful"
declare in the capacity of an umpire or referee; "call a runner out"
indicate a decision in regard to; "call balls and strikes behind the plate"
lure by imitating the characteristic call of an animal; "Call ducks"
make a stop in a harbour; "The ship will call in Honolulu tomorrow"
order or request or give a command for; "The unions called a general strike for Sunday"
order, summon, or request for a specific duty or activity, work, role; "He was already called 4 times for jury duty"; "They called him to active military duty"
read aloud to check for omissions or absentees; "Call roll"
require the presentation of for redemption before maturation; "Call a bond"
send a message or attempt to reach someone by radio, phone, etc.; make a signal to in order to transmit a message; "Hawaii is calling!"; "A transmitter in Samoa was heard calling"
stop or postpone because of adverse conditions, such as bad weather; "call a football game"
utter a characteristic note or cry; "bluejays called to one another"
assert or affirm strongly; state to be true or existing; "He claimed that he killed the burglar"
demand for something as rightful or due; "they struck in support of their claim for a shorter work day"
an informal right to something; "his claim on her attentions"; "his title to fame" (同)title
an assertion of a right (as to money or property); "his claim asked for damages"
an assertion that something is true or factual; "his claim that he was innocent"; "evidence contradicted the governments claims"
demand as being ones due or property; assert ones right or title to; "He claimed his suitcases at the airline counter"; "Mr. Smith claims special tax exemptions because he is a foreign resident" (同)lay claim, arrogate
lay claim to; as of an idea; "She took credit for the whole idea" (同)take
take as an undesirable consequence of some event or state of affairs; "the accident claimed three lives"; "The hard work took its toll on her" (同)take, exact
ask for legally or make a legal claim to, as of debts, for example; "They claimed on the maximum allowable amount"
order politely; express a wish for
an expression of some desire or inclination; "I could tell that it was his wish that the guests leave"; "his crying was an indirect request for attention" (同)indirect request
a specific feeling of desire; "he got his wish"; "he was above all wishing and desire" (同)wishing, want
the particular preference that you have; "it was his last wish"; "they should respect the wishes of the people"
invoke upon; "wish you a nice evening"; "bid farewell" (同)bid
prefer or wish to do something; "Do you care to try this dish?"; "Would you like to come along to the movies?" (同)care, like
feel or express a desire or hope concerning the future or fortune of (同)wish well
hope for; have a wish; "I wish I could go home now"
make or express a wish; "I wish that Christmas were over"
primarily temporal sense; being or indicating a relatively great or greater than average duration or passage of time or a duration as specified; "a long life"; "a long boring speech"; "a long time"; "a long friendship"; "a long game"; "long ago"; "an hour long"
(of speech sounds or syllables) of relatively long duration; "the English vowel sounds in `bate, `beat, `bite, `boat, `boot are long"
for an extended distance
for an extended time or at a distant time; "a promotion long overdue"; "something long hoped for"; "his name has long been forgotten"; "talked all night long"; "how long will you be gone?"; "arrived long before he was expected"; "it is long after your bedtime"
having or being more than normal or necessary:"long on brains"; "in long supply"
holding securities or commodities in expectation of a rise in prices; "is long on coffee"; "a long position in gold"
involving substantial risk; "long odds"
of relatively great height; "a race of long gaunt men"- Sherwood Anderson; "looked out the long French windows"
primarily spatial sense; of relatively great or greater than average spatial extension or extension as specified; "a long road"; "a long distance"; "contained many long words"; "ten miles long"
have or feel a need for; "always needing friends and money"
a condition requiring relief; "she satisfied his need for affection"; "God has no need of men to accomplish His work"; "there is a demand for jobs" (同)demand
anything that is necessary but lacking; "he had sufficient means to meet his simple needs"; "I tried to supply his wants" (同)want
curiosity that motivates investigation and study (同)lust for learning, thirst for knowledge

PrepTutorEJDIC

…‘を'『切望する』,要求する,希望する / …‘に'性的欲望を感じる / 『願望』,欲望;要望,要求 / 《通例単数形で》『望みのもの』 / 〈C〉〈U〉(…に対する)性的欲望《+『for』+『名』》
…'を'『呼ぶ』;〈名簿・リスト〉'を'読み上げる / …'を'『呼び寄せる』　呼び集める;〈眠っている人〉'を'呼び起こす / …'を'命令する　命じる / 〈会〉'を'召集する　〈人〉‘に'『電話をかける』　〈人〉'を'名づける,称する　《『call』+『名』+『名』(形)〈補〉》(…であると)…'を'思う　考える　〈試合〉'を'中止する;〈審判が〉…‘に'判定を下す,宣告する　『呼びかける』　叫ぶ　(…を)『ちょっと訪れる』　(…に)立ち寄る　〈汽車・船などが〉(…に)停車する　停船する《+『on』+『名』〈人〉,+『at』+『名』〈場所〉》　〈C〉『呼び声』　叫び(cry, shout);(鳥・動物の)鳴き声,さえずり　〈C〉(らっば・たいこなどによる)呼びかけ　合図　〈C〉点呼,出席調べ(=roll call)　〈C〉『電話をかけること』,通話;(かかってきた)電話　〈C〉(…への)(短時間の)『訪問』,立ち寄り;(船の)寄港;(駅への)停車《+『on』+『名』〈人〉,+『at』+『名』〈場所〉》　〈C〉(…への)召集,招き;呼びかけ　要請《+『for』(『to』)+『名』》　〈C〉(…に対する)天職,使命《+『to』+『名』》　〈U〉魅力,ひきつけるもの(appeal, fascination)　〈U〉必要性,正当な理由　〈C〉(…に対する)需要　要求　要望《+『for』(『on』)+『名』》
〈人が〉(当然の権利として)…'を'『要求する』,『請求する』,'を'自分の物だと主張する;(…から)…'を'要求する《+『名』+『from』+『名』》 / 〈人が〉…‘と'『主張する』,断言する / 〈物事が〉…'を'品要とする,‘に'値する / (…に対して…の)権利を主張する《+on(for)+名+against+名》 / 〈C〉(…に対する)(当然の)『要求』,請求《+for(to)+名》 / 〈C〉主張,断言,公言 / 〈U〉(物事を)要求する権利(資格),請求権《+『to』+『名』〈物事〉》;(人に)要求する権利《+『on』+『名』〈人〉》 / 〈C〉請求物;(特に入植者に与えられる)一区画の土地;(鉱業権などの設定された)払い下げ精求地
《現在の反対への願望を表して》《wish+that『節』》…『であればよいのにと思う』 / 《過去の事実と反対の仮定・想像を表して》《wish+that『節』》…『であればよかったのにと思う』 / …‘を'『望む』,したい / 《『wish』+『名』〈人〉+『名』=+『名』+『to』+『名』〈人〉》〈人〉に〈あいさつ,幸運を祈る言葉など〉‘を'『述べる』,言う,祈って言う / 《実現の可能性がある願望》…であればよいと思う / (…に)…‘を'押しつける,無理して頼む《+『名』+on(upon)+『名』》 / (…を)『望む』,ほしがる《+for+『名』》 / (…に)願いをかける《+on(upon)+『名』》 / 〈C〉〈U〉『願い』,願望,希望 / 〈C〉《複数形で》(人の幸福などを願う)『祈願』,好意 / 〈C〉『望みの物』,願いごと
(距離・物の長さが)『長い』 / (時間が)『長い』,長く続く / 《時間・距離などを表離などを表す語を伴って》長さが…の / 『長々しい』,あきあきする / (数量が標準よりも)『多い』,長い / (人が)やせてひょろ長い / 長く,長い間,久しく / …じゅう / ずっと(前に,後に) / 長い間
『熱望する』
〈U〉《時にa~》『必要』,入用 / 〈C〉《しばしば複数形で》『必要なもの』,(…の)必要品《+『for』+『名』》 / 〈C〉(…に対する)欲求,切望《+『for』+『名』》 / 〈U〉(…の)『困窮』,欠乏,不足《+『of』(『for』)+『名』》 / 〈U〉『困った時』(『事態』),まさかの時 / …‘を'必要とする,要する / 《疑問文・否定文,また疑問・否定の内容を表す文で》…『する必要がある』,しなければならない / 《need not have doneの形で》…する必要はなかったのに

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2018/01/17 21:56:10」(JST)

Desire is a sense of longing or hoping for a person, object, or outcome. The same sense is expressed by emotions such as "craving". When a person desires something or someone, their sense of longing is excited by the enjoyment or the thought of the item or person, and they want to take actions to obtain their goal. The motivational aspect of desire has long been noted by philosophers; Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) asserted that human desire is the fundamental motivation of all human action.

While desires are often classified as emotions by laypersons, psychologists often describe desires as different from emotions; psychologists tend to argue that desires arise from bodily structures, such as the stomach's need for food, whereas emotions arise from a person's mental state. Marketing and advertising companies have used psychological research on how desire is stimulated to find more effective ways to induce consumers into buying a given product or service. While some advertising attempts to give buyers a sense of lack or wanting, other types of advertising create desire associating the product with desirable attributes, by showing either a celebrity or a model with the product.

The theme of desire is at the core of romance novels, which often create drama by showing cases where human desire is impeded by social conventions, class, or cultural barriers. The theme of desire is also used in other literary genres, such as Gothic novels (e.g., Dracula by Bram Stoker, in which desire is mingled with fear and dread). Poets ranging from Homer to Toni Morrison have dealt with the theme of desire in their work. Just as desire is central to the written fiction genre of romance, it is the central theme of melodrama films, which use plots that appeal to the heightened emotions of the audience by showing "crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship", in which desire is thwarted or unrequited.

In philosophy

Saudade (1899), by José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior

In philosophy, desire has been identified as a philosophical problem since Antiquity. In The Republic, Plato argues that individual desires must be postponed in the name of the higher ideal. In De Anima, Aristotle claims that desire is implicated in animal interactions and the propensity of animals to motion; at the same time, he acknowledges that reasoning also interacts with desire.

Hobbes (1588–1679) proposed the concept of psychological hedonism, which asserts that the "fundamental motivation of all human action is the desire for pleasure." Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) had a view which contrasted with Hobbes, in that "he saw natural desires as a form of bondage" that are not chosen by a person of their own free will. David Hume (1711–1776) claimed that desires and passions are non-cognitive, automatic bodily responses, and he argued that reasoning is "capable only of devising means to ends set by [bodily] desire".^[1]

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) called any action based on desires a hypothetical imperative, meaning by this that it is a command of reason that applies only if one desires the goal in question.^[2] Kant also established a relation between the beautiful and pleasure in Critique of Judgment. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel claimed that "self-consciousness is desire".

Because desire can cause humans to become obsessed and embittered, it has been called one of the causes of woe for mankind.^[3] Within the teachings of Buddhism, craving is thought to be the cause of all suffering that one experiences in human existence. The eradication of craving leads one to ultimate happiness, or Nirvana. However, desire for wholesome things is seen as liberating and enhancing.^[4] While the stream of desire for sense-pleasures must be cut eventually, a practitioner on the path to liberation is encouraged by the Buddha to "generate desire" for the fostering of skillful qualities and the abandoning of unskillful ones.^[5]

In religion

In Hinduism, the Rig Veda's creation myth Nasadiya Sukta states regarding the one (ekam) spirit: "In the beginning there was Desire (kama) that was first seed of mind. Poets found the bond of being in non-being in their heart's thought".

In Buddhism, for an individual to effect his or her liberation, the flow of sense-desire must be cut completely; however, while training, he or she must work with motivational processes based on skillfully applied desire.^[6] According to the early Buddhist scriptures, the Buddha stated that monks should "generate desire" for the sake of fostering skillful qualities and abandoning unskillful ones.^[5]

There is a double message here between what Buddha said, that desire must be created, and what some monks propose to their followers, that desire must be cut. Truth is Buddhism entails two aspects: the ideas monks taught to civilize peasantry, on the one hand, and the esoteric teachings of tantra (aimed at leaders) for self-realization, on the other, where—just as Buddha said—desire must be generated. Dr. Oscar R. Gómez holds that teachings imparted privately by H.H. 14th Dalai Lama are meant for leaders to be able to choose a specific desire consciously by creating it previously from the inside. People have a tendency to live based on desires coming from the outside, and such desires are the ones making choices for them. As an alternative, tantric Tibetan Buddhism allows to choose a desire consciously; to create desire rather than being created by it.^[7]

Within Christianity, desire is seen as something that can either lead a person towards God and destiny or away from him. Desire is not considered to be a bad thing in and of itself; rather, it is a powerful force within the human that, once submitted to the Lordship of Christ, can become a tool for good, for advancement, and for abundant living.

Scientific perspectives

Neuropsychology

While desires are often classified as emotions by laypersons, psychologists often describe desires as different from emotions. For psychologists, desires arise from bodily structures and functions (e.g., the stomach needing food and the blood needing oxygen). On the other hand, emotions arise from a person's mental state. A 2008 study by the University of Michigan indicated that, while humans experience desire and fear as psychological opposites, they share the same brain circuit.^[8] A 2008 study entitled "The Neural Correlates of Desire" showed that the human brain categorizes stimuli according to its desirability by activating three different brain areas: the superior orbitofrontal cortex, the mid-cingulate cortex, and the anterior cingulate cortex.^[9]^{[non-primary source needed]}

In affective neuroscience, "desire" and "wanting" are operationally defined as motivational salience;^[10]^[11] the form of "desire" or "wanting" associated with a rewarding stimulus (i.e., a stimulus which acts as a positive reinforcer, such as palatable food, an attractive mate, or an addictive drug) is called "incentive salience" and research has demonstrated that incentive salience, the sensation of pleasure, and positive reinforcement are all derived from neuronal activity within the reward system.^[10]^[12]^[13] Studies have shown that dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens shell and endogenous opioid signaling in the ventral pallidum are at least partially responsible for mediating an individual's desire (i.e., incentive salience) for a rewarding stimulus and the subjective perception of pleasure derived from experiencing or "consuming" a rewarding stimulus (e.g., pleasure derived from eating palatable food, sexual pleasure from intercourse with an attractive mate, or euphoria from using an addictive drug).^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16] Research also shows that the orbitofrontal cortex has connections to both the opioid and dopamine systems, and stimulating this cortex is associated with subjective reports of pleasure.^[17]

Psychiatry

Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, who is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression and for creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis, proposed the notion of the Oedipus complex, which argues that desire for the mother creates neuroses in their sons. Freud used the Greek myth of Oedipus to argue that people desire incest and must repress that desire. He claimed that children pass through several stages, including a stage in which they fixate on the mother as a sexual object. That this "complex" is universal has long since been disputed. Even if it were true, that would not explain those neuroses in daughters, but only in sons. While it is true that sexual confusion can be aberrative in a few cases, there is no credible evidence to suggest that it is a universal scenario. While Freud was correct in labeling the various symptoms behind most compulsions, phobias and disorders, he was largely incorrect in his theories regarding the etiology of what he identified.^[18]

French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist Jacques Lacan (1901–1981) argues that desire first occurs during a "mirror phase" of a baby's development, when the baby sees an image of wholeness in a mirror which gives them a desire for that being. As a person matures, Lacan claims that they still feel separated from themselves by language, which is incomplete, and so a person continually strives to become whole. He uses the term "jouissance" to refer to the lost object or feeling of absence which a person believes to be unobtainable. For more details on the Lacanian conception of desire, see desire (psychoanalysis). ^[19]

In marketing

Desire, in its simplest form, is a strong feeling of wanting to have something (Dictionary.com n.d.). In the context of marketing, desire is a consumer’s affective response to the acknowledged or remembered presence of a need; this need recognition is usually induced by a marketing message, communicated to the consumer by marketers (Dahlen, Lange & Smith, 2010). To understand this concept in more depth, it is helpful to first consider how desire fits into the marketing communications process; marketers call this process the linear model of communication.

As contended in Belch & Belch (2008), the linear model of communication is a basic dissection of the participants, communication tools, communication functions, processes and dysfunctions that constitute the marketing communications process. The two major participants in this process are the sender and receiver; respectively, the marketer and the consumer (Belch & Belch, 2008). The communication tools in this model are the marketers’ message to the consumer and the media vehicle (also known as the channel) in which the message is sent (Belch & Belch, 2008). The marketing communication process itself begins with communication functions; at this stage of the process, encoding occurs (Belch & Belch, 2008).

Belch & Belch (2008) assert that the sender uses their field of reference to convert data into information that can be understood by the receiver. Data are streams of raw facts that have not yet been put into context; whereas, information is the form that data takes once it has been organised into a structure that is meaningful to the user (Laudon & Laudon, 2013). To make the information meaningful to the consumer, the marketer encodes the message with appealing words, numbers, shapes, colours, sounds and perhaps even smells and tastes (Belch & Belch, 2008). The information is reformatted to catch the consumer’s attention while still suiting whichever media vehicle in which it is being sent. For example, Belch & Belch (2008) argue that if the channel is a newspaper advertisement, the marketer will use words, numbers, shapes, images and sometimes colour to encode the message. From here the sender releases the encoded message into the channel and awaits a response from the consumer. Upon receipt, the second communication function is started. This is where the receiver begins decoding the message using their own field of reference (Dahlen et al., 2010).

The consumer uses their life experiences, perceptions, attitudes, values and knowledge to understand the message they have received (Belch & Belch, 2008). It is paramount to the effectiveness of the communication that the message is encoded with information that the receiver has the ability to decode. If the encoding process of the sender does not align with the decoding process of the receiver, the message will not be understood and is therefore likely to be ignored (Hoyer, MacInnis, & Pieter, 2012). Once the consumer has decoded the marketer’s message, the sub process of consumer response begins.

Belch & Belch (2008) maintained that in response to the message, depending on levels of communication dysfunction such as noise and distortion, the consumer will first process the message cognitively by paying attention to it. If levels of noise and distortion are too high, the consumer will ignore the message (Hoyer et al., 2012). Belch & Belch (2008) advise that given that the consumer does pay attention to the message, the response process will move into the affective stage. This is where the message captures the consumer’s interest, from here the consumer may develop a desire for the subject of the message; namely the offering being advertised for acquisition and consumption (Belch & Belch, 2008). Following desire is the behavioural stage of response. This is the stage in which the consumer acts on the emotions birthed in the previous stage. Developed by E. K. Strong Jr. in 1925 (as cited in Belch & Belch, 2008), this sub process of the linear communication model is known as the AIDA Response model. Once the consumer’s response process is complete the linear communication model moves into its final process, feedback. This message is sent back to the sender from the receiver and comes in various forms that include but are not limited to word of mouth, warranty claims, comments on social media and telephone calls (Belch & Belch). This concludes the linear communications model. Upon acknowledging the place desire holds in the context of marketing, factors that influence desire can now be considered to broaden understanding of the concept.

The way in which a consumer communicates with their peers is called personal communication (Businessdictionary.com n.d.); from the perspective of the consumer, in regards to acquiring, consuming and disposing behaviour, this is the most credible source of information (Dahlen et al., 2010). For this reason, mind shapers, social influence in particular, hold a strong association with what a consumer is interested in and thusly, what a consumer desires. Social influence is pivotal to the offerings a consumer desires because as human beings, consumers are social creatures and have social needs (Hoyer et al., 2012). This idea is espoused in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (as cited in Hoyer et al., 2012) in the psychological social level of needs; here it is asserted by Maslow (cited in Hoyer et al., 2012) that all humans have a psychological social need for relationships, acceptance and love. Consumers seek to satiate this need by acquiring offerings that are in line with what their peers consider socially acceptable (Hoyer et al., 2012). Ergo, it is in line with this need to fit in that marketers seek to catch consumers’ attention, interest and desire through marketing messages that offer one liners such as “join the club!” and “don’t miss out” (Marcom Projects, 2007). Although social needs are not the only human need satisfied by acquiring and consuming market offerings, from here it is conceivable that consumers desire offerings, advertised in marketing messages as a means to satisfy their social need for love and acceptance. It can also be gleaned that this need to fit in can also be considered as a fear: Put forward in Effie Worldwide (2015), a fear of missing out on what others do or own is also known in the marketing industry as FOMO (Fear Of Missing Out). This concept is also a social influence that shapes consumers’ minds and rationalises desire.

Reference

Ang, L. (2014). Principles of Integrated Marketing Communications. New York City, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Bailey, P. (2015). Marketing to the senses: A multisensory strategy to align the brand touchpoints. Retrieved December 8, 2015, from WARC: www.warc.com

Belch, G. E., & Belch, M. A. (2012). Advertising and promotion: An integrated marketing communications perspective (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin.

Businessdictionary.com. (n.d.). Corporate identity. Retrieved March 18, 2016, from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/corporate-identity.html

Businessdictionary.com. (n.d.). Personal communication. Retrieved March 17, 2016, from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/personal-communication-services-PCS.html

Dahlen, M., Lange, F., & Smith, T. (2010). Marketing communications: A brand narrative approach. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

Dictionary.com. (n.d.). Disire. Retrieved March 17, 2016, from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/desire?s=t

Effie Worldwide. (2015). LifeBeat: Know your status stage. Retrieved December 8, 2015, from WARC: http://www.warc.com/

Hoyer, W.D., MacInnis, D.J., & Pieters, R. (2012). Consumer behavior (6th ed.). Mason, OH: Cenage Learning.

Laudon, K.C., & Laudon, J.P. (2013). Essentials of management information systems (10th ed.). Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Laurie, S., & Mortimer, K. (2011). ‘IMC is dead. Long live IMC’: Academics' versus practitioners' views. Journal of Marketing Management, 27(13-14), 1464–1478.

Marcom Projects (2007). Persuasion in everyday life. Retrieved from Kanopy: https://aut.kanopystreaming.com/video/persuasion-everyday-life/

Marketing Minds. (2015). Apple brand architecture. Retrieved March 18, 2016, from http://www.marketingminds.com.au/apple_branding_strategy.html

In fiction and art

Written fiction

The theme of desire is at the core of the romance novel. Novels which are based around the theme of desire, which can range from a long aching feeling to an unstoppable torrent, include Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert; Love in the Time of Cholera by Gabriel Garcia Marquez; the sensual, yet controversial novel Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov; Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë, and Dracula by Bram Stoker. Brontë's characterization of Jane Eyre depicts her as torn by an inner conflict between reason and desire, because "customs" and "conventionalities" stand in the way of her romantic desires.^[20] E.M. Forster's novels use homoerotic codes to describe same-sex desire and longing. Close male friendships with subtle homoerotic undercurrents occur in every novel, which subverts the conventional, heterosexual plot of the novels.^[21] In the Gothic-themed Dracula, Stoker depicts the theme of desire which is coupled with fear. When the Lucy character is seduced by Dracula, she describes her sensations in the graveyard as a mixture of fear and blissful emotion.

Poet W.B. Yeats depicts the positive and negative aspects of desire in his poems such as "The Rose for the World", "Adam's Curse", "No Second Troy", "All Things can Tempt me", and "Meditations in Time of Civil War". Some poems depict desire as a poison for the soul; Yeats worked through his desire for his beloved, Maud Gonne, and realized that "Our longing, our craving, our thirsting for something other than Reality is what dissatisfies us". In "The Rose for the World", he admires her beauty, but feels pain because he cannot be with her. In the poem "No Second Troy", Yeats overflows with anger and bitterness because of their unrequited love.^[22] Poet T. S. Eliot dealt with the themes of desire and homoeroticism in his poetry, prose and drama.^[23] Other poems on the theme of desire include John Donne's poem "To His Mistress Going to Bed", Carol Ann Duffy's longings in "Warming Her Pearls"; Ted Hughes' "Lovesong" about the savage intensity of desire; and Wendy Cope's humorous poem "Song".

Philippe Borgeaud's novels analyse how emotions such as erotic desire and seduction are connected to fear and wrath by examining cases where people are worried about issues of impurity, sin, and shame.

Film

Just as desire is central to the written fiction genre of romance, it is the central theme of melodrama films, which are a subgenre of the drama film. Like drama, a melodrama depends mostly on in-depth character development, interaction, and highly emotional themes. Melodramatic films tend to use plots that appeal to the heightened emotions of the audience. Melodramatic plots often deal with "crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship, strained familial situations, tragedy, illness, neuroses, or emotional and physical hardship." Film critics sometimes use the term "pejoratively to connote an unrealistic, bathos-filled, campy tale of romance or domestic situations with stereotypical characters (often including a central female character) that would directly appeal to feminine audiences."^[24] Also called "women's movies", "weepies", tearjerkers, or "chick flicks".

"Melodrama… is Hollywood's fairly consistent way of treating desire and subject identity", as can be seen in well-known films such as Gone with the Wind, in which "desire is the driving force for both Scarlett and the hero, Rhett". Scarlett desires love, money, the attention of men, and the vision of being a virtuous "true lady". Rhett Butler desires to be with Scarlett, which builds to a burning longing that is ultimately his undoing, because Scarlett keeps refuses his advances; when she finally confesses her secret desire, Rhett is worn out and his longing is spent.^[25]

In Cathy Cupitt's article on "Desire and Vision in Blade Runner", she argues that film, as a "visual narrative form, plays with the voyeuristic desires of its audience". Focusing on the dystopian 1980s science fiction film Blade Runner, she calls the film an "Object of Visual Desire", in which it plays to an "expectation of an audience's delight in visual texture, with the 'retro-fitted' spectacle of the post-modern city to ogle" and with the use of the "motif of the 'eye'". In the film, "desire is a key motivating influence on the narrative of the film, both in the 'real world', and within the text."^[26]

Contemporary spiritual perspective

Barry Long defined desire as stress or strain. It is a tension between an individual and the thing or state that that individual desires. As the thing does not feel this stress, the desiring is a one-way tension within the individual, an apparent reaching out towards the desired object or person.

When the person responds in the way desired, or the object is attained, the desire settles down into a relationship. A relationship is identifiable by the presence of an attitude in yourself which reacts in terms of "mine".

When a desire has been reduced to the level of a habit or idea it can be dealt with and eliminated fairly quickly by observation - seeing it for what it is. In that moment you suddenly realise you are free of the relationship as a need or dependence "of mine".^[27]

References

^ Ethics Chapter. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy CD-ROM, V. 1.0, London: Routledge Edward Craig (ed). "Morality and emotions". By Martha C. Nussbaum
^ "desire - behaviour". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Hagen, Steve. Buddhism Plain and Simple. New York: Broadway Books, 1997.
^ Charles S. Prebish, and Damien Keown, Buddhism - the EBook. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books, 2005, page 83.
^ ^a ^b Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "The Wings to Awakening".
^ Steven Collins, Selfless Persons: Thought and Imagery in Theravada Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1982, page 251: "In the end, the flowing streams of sense-desire must be 'cut' or 'crossed' completely; nevertheless, for the duration of the Path, a monk must perforce work with motivational and perceptual processes as they ordinarily are, that is to say, based on desire ... Thus, during mental training, the stream is not to be 'cut' immediately, but guided, like water along viaducts. The meditative steadying of the mind by counting in- and out-breaths (in the mindfulness of breathing) is compared to the steadying of a boat in 'a fierce current' by its rudder. The disturbance of the flow of a mountain stream by irrigation channels cut into its sides it used to illustrate the weakening of insight by the five 'hindrances'."
^ Gómez, Oscar R. (2009). Manual of Tantra Vol III ...from tantra to the technology of desire. Editorial Menteclara. ISBN 978-987-24510-2-8. Read at: Academia.edu
^ "Changing stress levels can make brain flip from 'desire' to 'dread'". Mar. 19, 2008 http://www.ns.umich.edu/htdocs/releases/story.php?id=6419
^ Kawabata H, Zeki S (2008). "The Neural Correlates of Desire". PLoS ONE. 3 (8): e3027. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003027.
^ ^a ^b Schultz W (2015). "Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". Physiological Reviews. 95 (3): 853–951. doi:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014. PMC 4491543 . PMID 26109341. Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. ... Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions. ... Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. ... Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. ... Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. ... Rewarding stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities consist of several major components. First, rewards have basic sensory components (visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory) ... Second, rewards are salient and thus elicit attention, which are manifested as orienting responses (FIGURE 1, middle). The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors, namely, their physical intensity and impact (physical salience), their novelty and surprise (novelty/surprise salience), and their general motivational impact shared with punishers (motivational salience). A separate form not included in this scheme, incentive salience, primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior (as opposed to learning) ... These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research (471) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward.
^ ^a ^b Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY, eds. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–148, 367, 376. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior (Chapter 15), attention, and multiple forms of memory. This organization of the DA system, wide projection from a limited number of cell bodies, permits coordinated responses to potent new rewards. Thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience (“wanting”) on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). In this example, dopamine modulates the processing of sensorimotor information in diverse neural circuits to maximize the ability of the organism to obtain future rewards.
^ ^a ^b Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 365–366, 376. ISBN 9780071481274. The neural substrates that underlie the perception of reward and the phenomenon of positive reinforcement are a set of interconnected forebrain structures called brain reward pathways; these include the nucleus accumbens (NAc; the major component of the ventral striatum), the basal forebrain (components of which have been termed the extended amygdala, as discussed later in this chapter), hippocampus, hypothalamus, and frontal regions of cerebral cortex. These structures receive rich dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain. Addictive drugs are rewarding and reinforcing because they act in brain reward pathways to enhance either dopamine release or the effects of dopamine in the NAc or related structures, or because they produce effects similar to dopamine. ... A macrostructure postulated to integrate many of the functions of this circuit is described by some investigators as the extended amygdala. The extended amygdala is said to comprise several basal forebrain structures that share similar morphology, immunocytochemical features, and connectivity and that are well suited to mediating aspects of reward function; these include the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the central medial amygdala, the shell of the NAc, and the sublenticular substantia innominata.
^ ^a ^b Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). "Pleasure systems in the brain". Neuron. 86 (3): 646–664. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018. PMC 4425246 . PMID 25950633. In the prefrontal cortex, recent evidence indicates that the OFC and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots (D.C. Castro et al., Soc. Neurosci., abstract). In specific subregions of each area, either opioid-stimulating or orexin-stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of ‘‘liking’’ reactions elicited by sweetness, similar to the NAc and VP hot spots. Successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the OFC or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid-anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans (Georgiadis et al., 2012; Kringelbach, 2005; Kringelbach et al., 2003; Small et al., 2001; Veldhuizen et al., 2010). Finally, in the brainstem, a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function (Söderpalm and Berridge, 2000). A brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive, but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste, pain, and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation (Wu et al., 2012) and in human emotion (especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis) (Damasio, 2010).
^ Kringelbach ML, Berridge KC (2013). "The Joyful Mind". From Abuse to Recovery: Understanding Addiction. Macmillan. pp. 199–207. ISBN 9781466842557. Retrieved 8 April 2016. So it makes sense that the real pleasure centers in the brain—those directly responsible for generating pleasurable sensations—turn out to lie within some of the structures previously identified as part of the reward circuit. One of these so-called hedonic hotspots lies in a subregion of the nucleus accumbens called the medial shell. A second is found within the ventral pallidum, a deep-seated structure near the base of the forebrain that receives most of its signals from the nucleus accumbens. ... On the other hand, intense euphoria is harder to come by than everyday pleasures. The reason may be that strong enhancement of pleasure—like the chemically induced pleasure bump we produced in lab animals—seems to require activation of the entire network at once. Defection of any single component dampens the high.
^ Grall-Bronnec M, Sauvaget A (2014). "The use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for modulating craving and addictive behaviours: a critical literature review of efficacy, technical and methodological considerations". Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 47: 592–613. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.10.013. PMID 25454360. Studies have shown that cravings are underpinned by activation of the reward and motivation circuits (McBride et al., 2006, Wang et al., 2007, Wing et al., 2012, Goldman et al., 2013, Jansen et al., 2013 and Volkow et al., 2013). According to these authors, the main neural structures involved are: the nucleus accumbens, dorsal striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), amygdala, hippocampus and insula.
^ Koob GF, Volkow ND (August 2016). "Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis". Lancet Psychiatry. 3 (8): 760–773. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(16)00104-8. PMID 27475769. Drug addiction represents a dramatic dysregulation of motivational circuits that is caused by a combination of exaggerated incentive salience and habit formation, reward deficits and stress surfeits, and compromised executive function in three stages. The rewarding effects of drugs of abuse, development of incentive salience, and development of drug-seeking habits in the binge/intoxication stage involve changes in dopamine and opioid peptides in the basal ganglia. The increases in negative emotional states and dysphoric and stress-like responses in the withdrawal/negative affect stage involve decreases in the function of the dopamine component of the reward system and recruitment of brain stress neurotransmitters, such as corticotropin-releasing factor and dynorphin, in the neurocircuitry of the extended amygdala. The craving and deficits in executive function in the so-called preoccupation/anticipation stage involve the dysregulation of key afferent projections from the prefrontal cortex and insula, including glutamate, to the basal ganglia and extended amygdala. Molecular genetic studies have identified transduction and transcription factors that act in neurocircuitry associated with the development and maintenance of addiction that might mediate initial vulnerability, maintenance, and relapse associated with addiction. ... Substance-induced changes in transcription factors can also produce competing effects on reward function.¹⁴¹ For example, repeated substance use activates accumulating levels of ΔFosB, and animals with elevated ΔFosB exhibit exaggerated sensitivity to the rewarding eff ects of drugs of abuse, leading to the hypothesis that ΔFosB might be a sustained molecular trigger or switch that helps initiate and maintain a state of addiction.^141,142
^ Kringelbach, Morten L. (May 2, 2006). "Searching the brain for happiness". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 19, 2006.
^ "Sigmund Freud (1856—1939)". The University of Tennessee, Martin. March 11, 2012. Retrieved January 16, 2018.
^ "A Systemic Perspective on Cognition and Mathematics". Lin Forrest Publishers. June 30, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2018.
^ Desire, Class Position, and Gender in Jane Eyre and Pickwick Papers Benjamin Graves '97 (English 73 Brown University, 1996)
^ Distant Desire: Homoerotic Codes and the Subversion of the English Novel in E.M. Forster's Fiction (Sexuality and Literature) by Parminder Kaur Bakshi
^ "Sepulveda - Desire: Can't Live With It, Can't Live Without It".
^ Gender, Desire, and Sexuality in T. S. Eliot. Edited by Cassandra Laity. Drew University, New Jersey. Nancy K. Gish. University of Southern Maine (ISBN 978-0-521-80688-6 | ISBN 0-521-80688-7)
^ "Melodramas Films".
^ [1]^{[dead link]}
^ "Cathy Cupitt, Eyeballing the Simulacra Desire and Vision in Blade Runner". Archived from the original on October 22, 1999. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
^ Barry Long, Knowing Yourself (pp 102 - 103)

UpToDate Contents

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1. 女性における性機能障害：管理 sexual dysfunction in women management
2. 女性における性機能障害：疫学、危険因子、および評価 sexual dysfunction in women epidemiology risk factors and evaluation
3. 女性におけるアンドロゲン欠乏症および治療の概要 overview of androgen deficiency and therapy in women
4. 女性オルガズム障害：疫学、病因、臨床症状、経過、評価、および診断 female orgasmic disorder epidemiology pathogenesis clinical manifestations course assessment and diagnosis
5. 女性のオルガスム障害の治療 treatment of female orgasmic disorder

English Journal

How do preschoolers' sharing behaviors relate to their theory of mind understanding?

Wu Z1, Su Y2.Author information 1Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.2Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China. Electronic address: yjsu@pku.edu.cn.AbstractThis study aimed to explore the development of resource sharing in preschoolers and its relationship with children's theory of mind (ToM) understanding. A total of 74 2- to 4-year-old Chinese children participated in three tasks with toys that could be shared with a puppet (animated by a female experimenter). In each sharing task, the puppet communicated her desire for children's items with a series of progressively more explicit cues. Results showed that 2- and 3-year-olds relied on more explicit communicative cues to share resources with others, whereas 4-year-olds shared more spontaneously. In addition, children's ToM understanding was positively correlated with their sharing behavior independent of their age. Specifically, children who had acquired the ability to understand that people could have different beliefs about the same thing and that people were ignorant if they had not seen the fact shared more spontaneously and shared more items with their playmate than children who had not acquired these two abilities. Findings suggest that preschoolers' sharing behavior is enhanced by their ToM understanding and explicit communicative cues provided by the playmate.
Journal of experimental child psychology.J Exp Child Psychol.2014 Apr;120:73-86. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2013.11.007. Epub 2013 Dec 31.
This study aimed to explore the development of resource sharing in preschoolers and its relationship with children's theory of mind (ToM) understanding. A total of 74 2- to 4-year-old Chinese children participated in three tasks with toys that could be shared with a puppet (animated by a female expe
PMID 24384326

Challenges and Motivating Factors Related to Positive Airway Pressure Therapy for Post-TIA and Stroke Patients.

Matthias MS, Chumbler NR, Bravata DM, Yaggi HK, Ferguson J, Austin C, McClain V, Dallas MI, Couch CD, Burrus N, Miech EJ.Author information a Veterans Affairs Health Services Research and Development Center on Implementing, Evidence-Based Practice, Roudebush VA Medical Center , Indianapolis , IN.AbstractChallenges adapting to continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) therapy are largely unexplored in patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack. This study, nested within a randomized controlled trial of CPAP use, employed qualitative methods to explore challenges and motivators related to CPAP at two time points: prior to initiating therapy and at a 1-month follow up. Emergent thematic analysis, an inductive, qualitative approach, revealed variations in how patients experienced and adapted to CPAP across five phases: (a) interpreting the sleep apnea diagnosis, (b) contemplating CPAP therapy, (c) trying CPAP therapy, (d) making mid-course adjustments, and (e) experiencing benefits from CPAP therapy. Patients all had mild to moderate sleep apnea, and frequently did not experience sleep apnea symptoms. A salient motivator for adhering to CPAP therapy for these patients was the desire to reduce the risk of subsequent cerebrovascular events. Self-determination theory guided the interpretation of results.
Behavioral sleep medicine.Behav Sleep Med.2014 Mar 4;12(2):143-57. doi: 10.1080/15402002.2013.778200. Epub 2013 Apr 9.
Challenges adapting to continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) therapy are largely unexplored in patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack. This study, nested within a randomized controlled trial of CPAP use, employed qualitative methods to explore challenges and motivators related to CPA
PMID 23570672

Alcohol consumption in young adults: The role of multisensory imagery.

Connor JP1, Kavanagh DJ2, Andrade J3, May J3, Feeney GF4, Gullo MJ4, White AM5, Fry ML6, Drennan J7, Previte J8, Tjondronegoro D9.Author information 1Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, The University of Queensland, Australia; Discipline of Psychiatry, The University of Queensland, Australia; Alcohol and Drug Assessment Unit, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Australia. Electronic address: Jason.Connor@uq.edu.au.2Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Australia.3School of Psychology, Plymouth University, United Kingdom.4Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, The University of Queensland, Australia; Alcohol and Drug Assessment Unit, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Australia.5Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, The University of Queensland, Australia.6Department of Marketing, Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Australia.7QUT Business School, Queensland University of Technology, Australia.8UQ Business School, The University of Queensland, Australia.9Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Australia.AbstractLittle is known about the subjective experience of alcohol desire and craving in young people. Descriptions of alcohol urges continue to be extensively used in the everyday lexicon of young, non-dependent drinkers. Elaborated Intrusion (EI) Theory contends that imagery is central to craving and desires, and predicts that alcohol-related imagery will be associated with greater frequency and amount of drinking. This study involved 1535 age stratified 18-25year olds who completed an alcohol-related survey that included the Imagery scale of the Alcohol Craving Experience (ACE) questionnaire. Imagery items predicted 12-16% of the variance in concurrent alcohol consumption. Higher total Imagery subscale scores were linearly associated with greater drinking frequency and lower self-efficacy for moderate drinking. Interference with alcohol imagery may have promise as a preventive or early intervention target in young people.
Addictive behaviors.Addict Behav.2014 Mar;39(3):721-4. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.11.023. Epub 2013 Dec 4.
Little is known about the subjective experience of alcohol desire and craving in young people. Descriptions of alcohol urges continue to be extensively used in the everyday lexicon of young, non-dependent drinkers. Elaborated Intrusion (EI) Theory contends that imagery is central to craving and desi
PMID 24360399

Prescription opioid use among university students: Assessment of post-cue exposure craving.

Ashrafioun L1, Carels RA2.Author information 1Bowling Green State University, Department of Psychology, United States. Electronic address: Lashraf@bgsu.edu.2Bowling Green State University, Department of Psychology, United States.AbstractDespite the increasing number of prescriptions written to adolescents and young adults for opioid analgesics, the rise in non-medical use of such drugs among university students, and the potential role of craving in the misuse of opioids, there have been no published studies assessing craving for prescription opioids in this population. Therefore, the current study was designed to assess the impact of prescription opioid-related cue exposure on craving in university students. Students (n=277) recruited from a large university in the Midwestern United States were randomly assigned to two conditions to test the impact of cue exposure to either prescription opioid-related stimuli or control stimuli. Relative to the control condition, prescription opioid-related cue exposure significantly increased overall craving, desire and intention to use prescription opioids, relief from negative states by using prescription opioids, and perceived control over prescription opioid use. In addition, when assessing correlates of post-cue exposure craving, negative mood and procurement of prescription opioids from non-medical sources were the only measured variables that were significantly associated with overall craving and/or any of the craving measure's subscales. Craving may be important aspect of prescription opioid use among university students. Future research assessing craving as a function of non-medical user subtype is warranted.
Addictive behaviors.Addict Behav.2014 Mar;39(3):586-92. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.11.012. Epub 2013 Nov 25.
Despite the increasing number of prescriptions written to adolescents and young adults for opioid analgesics, the rise in non-medical use of such drugs among university students, and the potential role of craving in the misuse of opioids, there have been no published studies assessing craving for pr
PMID 24345309

Japanese Journal

力士の"よそおい"と〈マスキュリニティ〉 : ライフストーリー・インタビューからの研究

川野佐江子
大阪樟蔭女子大学研究紀要 3, 147-158, 2013-01-31
本論文は、大相撲(財団法人日本相撲協会が挙行する本場所と呼ばれる相撲競技会)に出場できる力士たちの"よそおい"に着目することで、従来のヘゲモニックHegemonic な男性性「男らしさ」が今、どのような状況にあるのかを論じることが目的である。力士の"よそおい"とは、髷と着物を中心にした階級社会制度の視覚化である。それは、「全体」としての制度に従う力士の状況を説明するが、一方でその制度から覗く隙間に …
NAID 110009535973

発話がぶつからないWeb会議を実現するための発話欲求伝達手法

玉木秀和,東野豪,小林稔,井原雅行
情報処理学会論文誌 54(1), 275-283, 2013-01-15
本研究では,低コストで利用場所の制約が少ないWeb会議システムを用いて司会者のいないアイデア出し会議やフリーディスカッションを実施する際に,発話の衝突を低減させ,円滑な話者交替を可能にすることを目指す.そのために,本稿では発話欲求伝達手法を提案する.まず参加者の動作をシステムが観察し,その参加者の発話欲求度合いを推定する.参加者各々に,その推定結果をリアルタイムにフィードバックすることで,参加者自 …
NAID 110009511448

KNOWLEDGE AND USE OF FAMILY PLANNING METHODS AND SERVICES IN WEST YIMBO DIVISION, BONDO DISTRICT, WESTERN KENYA

Stevie M. NANGENDO
African study monographs 33(4), 233-251, 2012-12-28
… Moreover, the desire to give birthand nurture children, fear of side effects, bride wealth presentations, and disapproval by couplesand others may be stumbling blocks to contraceptive use in the study region …
NAID 110009534831

聞き役対話の分析および分析に基づいた対話制御部の構築

目黒豊美,東中竜一郎,堂坂浩二 ,南泰浩
情報処理学会論文誌 53(12), 2787-2801, 2012-12-15
我々は,システムがユーザの話を聞くことによってユーザが「話したい」という欲求を満たす聞き役対話システムの構築を目的としている.本研究では,まず,聞き役対話の特徴を分析するために,聞き役と話し役に分かれて行う対話(聞き役対話)と役割を持たない対話(雑談)を収集し,対話行為の割合を比較,また,対話の流れをHMMを用いて分析した.その結果,聞き役は自己開示を減らし,質問と相槌を増やすことで,話し役に自己 …
NAID 110009493426

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「claim」「need」「call」「requirement」「request」
拡張検索	「undesired」
関連記事	「desired」

「claim」

　　[★]

vt.

(当然の権利として)要求/請求する、自分のものだという(for onself)
(権利・事実を)主張する、帆みゃの承認を求める、～であると主張する、公言する、自称する(to be, that)
(物が人の注意を)ひく、求める、(注意)に値する
(病気・災害などが人命を)奪う

vi.

要求する、権利を主張する。意見を述べる。土地を占有する

n.

(権利としての)要求、請求(for,)。(権利・所有権の)主張、特許の申請。(保険)支払い請求、クレーム
要求する権利/資格
要求物。
(事実の)主張(to be, that)

関: allegation, argue, ask for, call, contend, contention, demand, desire, insist, need, order, request, require, requirement

「need」

　　[★]

助詞(否定・疑問文で)

(英正式)～する必要がある
[need not have done](主に英)～する必要はなかったのに(実際にはした)
(英正式)[need not do]必ずしも～でない

furthermore, aneurysms need not always be present, and angiographic findings may be limited to stenotic segments and obliteration of vessels.(HIM.2125)(さらに、動脈瘤はいつも存在するわけでないし、血管造影所見は血管の狭窄や閉塞に限られるかもしれない。)

vt.
vi.
n.

関: ask for, call, claim, demand, desire, entail, essential, fundamental, necessary, necessitate, necessity, order, prerequisite, request, require, requirement

「call」

　　[★]

v.

要求、呼ぶ、要求する、喚起する、訪問する

関: arouse、ask for、claim、demand、desire、need、order、refer、request、require、requirement、visit

「requirement」

　　[★]

n.

要求、必要、所要量

関: ask for、call、claim、demand、desire、essential、fundamental、necessary、necessity、need、order、prerequisite、recommended allowance、recommended intake、request、require

「request」

　　[★]

n.

依頼、要求、請求

v.

依頼する、要求する、請求する

関: ask for、call、claim、demand、desire、need、order、require、requirement

「undesired」

　　[★]

望まれない

関: unwanted

「desired」

　　[★]

望ましい、待望の

関: desirable

[1] Ethics Chapter. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy CD-ROM, V. 1.0, London: Routledge Edward Craig (ed). "Morality and emotions". By Martha C. Nussbaum

[2] "desire - behaviour". Encyclopædia Britannica.

[3] Hagen, Steve. Buddhism Plain and Simple. New York: Broadway Books, 1997.

[4] Charles S. Prebish, and Damien Keown, Buddhism - the EBook. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books, 2005, page 83.

[this_section-5] Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "The Wings to Awakening".

[6] Steven Collins, Selfless Persons: Thought and Imagery in Theravada Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1982, page 251: "In the end, the flowing streams of sense-desire must be 'cut' or 'crossed' completely; nevertheless, for the duration of the Path, a monk must perforce work with motivational and perceptual processes as they ordinarily are, that is to say, based on desire ... Thus, during mental training, the stream is not to be 'cut' immediately, but guided, like water along viaducts. The meditative steadying of the mind by counting in- and out-breaths (in the mindfulness of breathing) is compared to the steadying of a boat in 'a fierce current' by its rudder. The disturbance of the flow of a mountain stream by irrigation channels cut into its sides it used to illustrate the weakening of insight by the five 'hindrances'."

[7] Gómez, Oscar R. (2009). Manual of Tantra Vol III ...from tantra to the technology of desire. Editorial Menteclara. ISBN 978-987-24510-2-8. Read at: Academia.edu

[8] "Changing stress levels can make brain flip from 'desire' to 'dread'". Mar. 19, 2008 http://www.ns.umich.edu/htdocs/releases/story.php?id=6419

[9] Kawabata H, Zeki S (2008). "The Neural Correlates of Desire". PLoS ONE. 3 (8): e3027. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003027.

[Schultz-10] Schultz W (2015). "Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". Physiological Reviews. 95 (3): 853–951. doi:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014. PMC 4491543 . PMID 26109341. Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. ... Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions. ... Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. ... Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. ... Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. ... Rewarding stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities consist of several major components. First, rewards have basic sensory components (visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory) ... Second, rewards are salient and thus elicit attention, which are manifested as orienting responses (FIGURE 1, middle). The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors, namely, their physical intensity and impact (physical salience), their novelty and surprise (novelty/surprise salience), and their general motivational impact shared with punishers (motivational salience). A separate form not included in this scheme, incentive salience, primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior (as opposed to learning) ... These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research (471) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward.

[NAcc_function-11] Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY, eds. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–148, 367, 376. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior (Chapter 15), attention, and multiple forms of memory. This organization of the DA system, wide projection from a limited number of cell bodies, permits coordinated responses to potent new rewards. Thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience (“wanting”) on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). In this example, dopamine modulates the processing of sensorimotor information in diverse neural circuits to maximize the ability of the organism to obtain future rewards.

[NHM_Reward_System-12] Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 365–366, 376. ISBN 9780071481274. The neural substrates that underlie the perception of reward and the phenomenon of positive reinforcement are a set of interconnected forebrain structures called brain reward pathways; these include the nucleus accumbens (NAc; the major component of the ventral striatum), the basal forebrain (components of which have been termed the extended amygdala, as discussed later in this chapter), hippocampus, hypothalamus, and frontal regions of cerebral cortex. These structures receive rich dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain. Addictive drugs are rewarding and reinforcing because they act in brain reward pathways to enhance either dopamine release or the effects of dopamine in the NAc or related structures, or because they produce effects similar to dopamine. ... A macrostructure postulated to integrate many of the functions of this circuit is described by some investigators as the extended amygdala. The extended amygdala is said to comprise several basal forebrain structures that share similar morphology, immunocytochemical features, and connectivity and that are well suited to mediating aspects of reward function; these include the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the central medial amygdala, the shell of the NAc, and the sublenticular substantia innominata.

[Pleasure_system-13] Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). "Pleasure systems in the brain". Neuron. 86 (3): 646–664. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018. PMC 4425246 . PMID 25950633. In the prefrontal cortex, recent evidence indicates that the OFC and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots (D.C. Castro et al., Soc. Neurosci., abstract). In specific subregions of each area, either opioid-stimulating or orexin-stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of ‘‘liking’’ reactions elicited by sweetness, similar to the NAc and VP hot spots. Successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the OFC or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid-anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans (Georgiadis et al., 2012; Kringelbach, 2005; Kringelbach et al., 2003; Small et al., 2001; Veldhuizen et al., 2010). Finally, in the brainstem, a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function (Söderpalm and Berridge, 2000). A brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive, but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste, pain, and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation (Wu et al., 2012) and in human emotion (especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis) (Damasio, 2010).

[Euphoria_+_pleasure_circuitry-14] Kringelbach ML, Berridge KC (2013). "The Joyful Mind". From Abuse to Recovery: Understanding Addiction. Macmillan. pp. 199–207. ISBN 9781466842557. Retrieved 8 April 2016. So it makes sense that the real pleasure centers in the brain—those directly responsible for generating pleasurable sensations—turn out to lie within some of the structures previously identified as part of the reward circuit. One of these so-called hedonic hotspots lies in a subregion of the nucleus accumbens called the medial shell. A second is found within the ventral pallidum, a deep-seated structure near the base of the forebrain that receives most of its signals from the nucleus accumbens. ... On the other hand, intense euphoria is harder to come by than everyday pleasures. The reason may be that strong enhancement of pleasure—like the chemically induced pleasure bump we produced in lab animals—seems to require activation of the entire network at once. Defection of any single component dampens the high.

[Review_Reward_System-15] Grall-Bronnec M, Sauvaget A (2014). "The use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for modulating craving and addictive behaviours: a critical literature review of efficacy, technical and methodological considerations". Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 47: 592–613. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.10.013. PMID 25454360. Studies have shown that cravings are underpinned by activation of the reward and motivation circuits (McBride et al., 2006, Wang et al., 2007, Wing et al., 2012, Goldman et al., 2013, Jansen et al., 2013 and Volkow et al., 2013). According to these authors, the main neural structures involved are: the nucleus accumbens, dorsal striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), amygdala, hippocampus and insula.

[Neurobiology_of_addiction_August_2016_review-16] Koob GF, Volkow ND (August 2016). "Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis". Lancet Psychiatry. 3 (8): 760–773. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(16)00104-8. PMID 27475769. Drug addiction represents a dramatic dysregulation of motivational circuits that is caused by a combination of exaggerated incentive salience and habit formation, reward deficits and stress surfeits, and compromised executive function in three stages. The rewarding effects of drugs of abuse, development of incentive salience, and development of drug-seeking habits in the binge/intoxication stage involve changes in dopamine and opioid peptides in the basal ganglia. The increases in negative emotional states and dysphoric and stress-like responses in the withdrawal/negative affect stage involve decreases in the function of the dopamine component of the reward system and recruitment of brain stress neurotransmitters, such as corticotropin-releasing factor and dynorphin, in the neurocircuitry of the extended amygdala. The craving and deficits in executive function in the so-called preoccupation/anticipation stage involve the dysregulation of key afferent projections from the prefrontal cortex and insula, including glutamate, to the basal ganglia and extended amygdala. Molecular genetic studies have identified transduction and transcription factors that act in neurocircuitry associated with the development and maintenance of addiction that might mediate initial vulnerability, maintenance, and relapse associated with addiction. ... Substance-induced changes in transcription factors can also produce competing effects on reward function.¹⁴¹ For example, repeated substance use activates accumulating levels of ΔFosB, and animals with elevated ΔFosB exhibit exaggerated sensitivity to the rewarding eff ects of drugs of abuse, leading to the hypothesis that ΔFosB might be a sustained molecular trigger or switch that helps initiate and maintain a state of addiction.^141,142

[17] Kringelbach, Morten L. (May 2, 2006). "Searching the brain for happiness". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 19, 2006.

[18] "Sigmund Freud (1856—1939)". The University of Tennessee, Martin. March 11, 2012. Retrieved January 16, 2018.

[19] "A Systemic Perspective on Cognition and Mathematics". Lin Forrest Publishers. June 30, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2018.

[20] Desire, Class Position, and Gender in Jane Eyre and Pickwick Papers Benjamin Graves '97 (English 73 Brown University, 1996)

[21] Distant Desire: Homoerotic Codes and the Subversion of the English Novel in E.M. Forster's Fiction (Sexuality and Literature) by Parminder Kaur Bakshi

[22] "Sepulveda - Desire: Can't Live With It, Can't Live Without It".

[23] Gender, Desire, and Sexuality in T. S. Eliot. Edited by Cassandra Laity. Drew University, New Jersey. Nancy K. Gish. University of Southern Maine (ISBN 978-0-521-80688-6 | ISBN 0-521-80688-7)

[24] "Melodramas Films".

[25] [1]^{[dead link]}

[26] "Cathy Cupitt, Eyeballing the Simulacra Desire and Vision in Blade Runner". Archived from the original on October 22, 1999. Retrieved 2017-03-29.

[27] Barry Long, Knowing Yourself (pp 102 - 103)

v t e Emotions (list)
Emotions	Adoration Affection Agitation Agony Amusement Anger Anguish Annoyance Anxiety Apathy Arousal Attraction Awe Boredom Calmness Compassion Contempt Contentment Defeat Depression Desire Disappointment Disgust Ecstasy Embarrassment Vicarious Empathy Enthrallment Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Excitement Fear Frustration Gratitude Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Homesickness Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Hysteria Infatuation Insecurity Insult Interest Irritation Isolation Jealousy Joy Loneliness Longing Love Lust Melancholy Mono no aware Neglect Nostalgia Panic Passion Pity Pleasure Pride hubris Rage Regret Rejection Remorse Resentment Sadness Saudade Schadenfreude Sehnsucht Sentimentality Shame Shock Shyness Sorrow Spite Stress Suffering Surprise Sympathy Tenseness Wonder Worry
World views	Cynicism Defeatism Nihilism Optimism Pessimism Reclusion Weltschmerz

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desire