研究開発

関: laboratory research、R＆D、research、research activity、research priority、research technique、summary report、work

WordNet

provoke or excite; "The rock musician worked the crowd of young girls into a frenzy"
(physics) a manifestation of energy; the transfer of energy from one physical system to another expressed as the product of a force and the distance through which it moves a body in the direction of that force; "work equals force times distance"
arrive at a certain condition through repeated motion; "The stitches of the hem worked loose after she wore the skirt many times"
a product produced or accomplished through the effort or activity or agency of a person or thing; "it is not regarded as one of his more memorable works"; "the symphony was hailed as an ingenious work"; "he was indebted to the pioneering work of John Dewey"; "the work of an active imagination"; "erosion is the work of wind or water over time" (同)piece of work
activity directed toward making or doing something; "she checked several points needing further work"
have an effect or outcome; often the one desired or expected; "The voting process doesnt work as well as people thought"; "How does your idea work in practice?"; "This method doesnt work"; "The breaks of my new car act quickly"; "The medicine works only if you take it with a lot of water" (同)act
be employed; "Is your husband working again?"; "My wife never worked"; "Do you want to work after the age of 60?"; "She never did any work because she inherited a lot of money"; "She works as a waitress to put herself through college" (同)do work
cause to work; "he is working his servants hard" (同)put to work
shape, form, or improve a material; "work stone into tools"; "process iron"; "work the metal" (同)work on, process
behave in a certain way when handled; "This dough does not work easily"; "The soft metal works well"
cause to operate or function; "This pilot works the controls"; "Can you work an electric drill?"
exert oneself by doing mental or physical work for a purpose or out of necessity; "I will work hard to improve my grades"; "she worked hard for better living conditions for the poor"
gratify and charm, usually in order to influence; "the political candidate worked the crowds"
move in an agitated manner; "His fingers worked with tension"
move into or onto; "work the raisins into the dough"; "the student worked a few jokes into his presentation"; "work the body onto the flatbed truck"
operate in a certain place, area, or specialty; "She works the night clubs"; "The salesman works the Midwest"; "This artist works mostly in acrylics"
operate in or through; "Work the phones"
proceed towards a goal or along a path or through an activity; "work your way through every problem or task"; "She was working on her second martini when the guests arrived"; "Start from the bottom and work towards the top"
processing a photosensitive material in order to make an image visible; "the development and printing of his pictures took only two hours" (同)developing
a process in which something passes by degrees to a different stage (especially a more advanced or mature stage); "the development of his ideas took many years"; "the evolution of Greek civilization"; "the slow development of her skill as a writer" (同)evolution
a state in which things are improving; the result of developing (as in the early part of a game of chess); "after he saw the latest development he changed his mind and became a supporter"; "in chess your should take care of your development before moving your queen"
act of improving by expanding or enlarging or refining; "he congratulated them on their development of a plan to meet the emergency"; "they funded research and development"
(music) the section of a composition or movement (especially in sonata form) where the major musical themes are developed and elaborated
a district that has been developed to serve some purpose; "such land is practical for small park developments"
a recent event that has some relevance for the present situation; "recent developments in Iraq"; "what a revolting development!"
attempt to find out in a systematically and scientific manner; "The student researched the history of that word"
systematic investigation to establish facts
inquire into; "the students had to research the history of the Second World War for their history project"; "He searched for information on his relatives on the web"; "Scientists are exploring the nature of consciousness" (同)search, explore

PrepTutorEJDIC

〈U〉(一般的な)『仕事,』労働;努力,勉強 / 〈U〉(実際にやっている具体的な)『仕事』,作業,勉強 / 〈U〉《定冠詞なしで》『仕事の口,』職[業],(工場・会社などの)勤め先 / 〈U〉制作,細工;《比喩(ひゆ)的に》しわざ / 〈C〉《しばしば複数形で》(文学・芸術の)『作品,』著作,(ある人の)作品 / 〈U〉《集合的に》(材料・道具などを含めて)作っているもの(今しているもの)全部 / 《複数形で》(機械の)動く部分,仕掛け / 《複数形で》《単数・複数扱い》《しばしば複合語を作って》『工場』 / 《複数形で》(宗教・道徳的な)行為,行い / 〈U〉(物理学で)仕事量 / 『働く』,仕事をする;(…に)取り組む,(…を)勉強する《+『at』(『on』)+『名』》 / (…に)『勤める』,勤務する《+『at』(『on, for』)+『名』》 / 《しばしば副詞[句]を伴って》〈機械・道具などが〉『ぐあいよく動く,』作動する,〈計画などが〉うまくいく,〈薬などが〉効く / 《副詞[句]を伴って》(ある方向に)少しずつ進む / 〈顔などが〉ぴくぴく動く,〈波などが〉揺れる / 《通例副詞を伴って》細工される,こねられる / 発酵する / 〈機械・道具など〉‘を'『動かす』,運転する / 〈人・牛馬など〉‘を'『働かせる』 / 〈工場・鉱山・農場など〉‘を'操業(経営)する,〈土地〉‘を'耕作する / 〈ある地域〉‘を'活動場所にする,受け持つ / 〈結果・効果など〉‘を'もたらす,生じさせる / (手で)…‘を'細工する,加工する;…‘に'手を加えて(…を)作る《+名+into+名》 / 《副詞[句]を伴って》(苦労して)…‘を'進む,(努力して)…‘を'得る / 〈人・物〉‘を'動かして(…に)する《+名+to(into)+名》 / …‘を'刺しゅうする,縫い付ける
〈U〉〈C〉『発達』,発展,発育,成長;『開発』;進化 / 〈U〉(写真の)現像 / 〈C〉発達(発展)の結果できたもの / 〈C〉開発した土地(地区);(特に)住宅団地(housing development) / 〈C〉(最近の)でき事,新事実
《語・句・節を対等に結んで》…『と』…,…や…,および / 《数詞を結合して》…『足す』…,…に加えて / …『しかも』…,…して,同時に… / 《時間的に》『そして』,それから,すると(and then) / 《当然の帰結として》…『ので』,…だから(and so) / 《おもに話》《命令文などの後で》『そうすれば』,そうしたら / 《追加・強調して》それに,しかも / 《対照的な内容を導いて》ところが,しかし(but) / 《譲歩的に》それなのに,それでいながら / 《A and Bで一体の関係を表して》《単数扱い》 / 《同一語を反復して多数・継続などを表して》 / 《同一の複数名詞を結合して変化・種類などを表して》 / 《話》《「形容詞+and+形容詞」の形で前の形容詞が後に副詞的に働く》 / 《話》《「動詞come, goなど+and+動詞」の形でandとその後の動詞が不定詞の働きをして》 / 《「動詞+and+動詞」の形で後の動詞が現在分詞の意を表して》 / 《話》《文頭において前の質問・意見などに同意を示して》そうとも,そして(Yes!and) / 《話》《文頭に置いて驚き・疑念・非難などを表して》ほんとうに;…なのに
(新しい事実などの探究のための,特定の分野の)『研究』,『調査』《+『in』(『into』,『on』)+『名』》 / …‘を'研究する,調査する / (…を)研究する,調査する《+into(on)+名》
(次にくる語の発音が母音で始まるときに用いる) / (子音[h]で始まり第1音節に強勢のない語の場合はanを用いることがある.ただし,この場合は[h]を発音しない)

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/06/21 22:54:14」(JST)

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[Wiki en表示]

Cycle of research and development

Research and development (R&D), also known in Europe as research and technical (or technological) development (RTD), is a general term for activities in connection with corporate or governmental innovation. Research and development is a component of Innovation and is situated at the front end of the Innovation life cycle. Innovation builds on R&D and includes commercialization phases.

The activities that are classified as R&D differ from company to company, but there are two primary models, with an R&D department being either staffed by engineers and tasked with directly developing new products, or staffed with industrial scientists and tasked with applied research in scientific or technological fields which may facilitate future product development. In either case, R&D differs from the vast majority of corporate activities in that it is not often intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk and an uncertain return on investment.

Background

New product design and development is more often than not a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In an industry that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and range of products. This is necessary due to continuous technology change and development as well as other competitors and the changing preference of customers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, and networks to tap into the innovations of others.

A system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and only produces goods that are known to sell. Market research is carried out, which establishes what is needed. If the development is technology driven then R&D is directed toward developing products that market research indicates will meet an unmet need.

In general, research and development activities are conducted by specialized units or centers belonging to a company, or can be out-sourced to a contract research organization, universities, or state agencies. In the context of commerce, "research and development" normally refers to future-oriented, longer-term activities in science or technology, using similar techniques to scientific research but directed toward desired outcomes and with broad forecasts of commercial yield.

Statistics on organizations devoted to "R&D" may express the state of an industry, the degree of competition or the lure of progress. Some common measures include: budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are continuously maintained, public and reflect risk.

In the Unites States, a typical ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3.5% of revenues; this measure is called "R&D intensity". A high technology company such as a computer manufacturer might spend 7%. Although Allergan (a biotech company) tops the spending table with 43.4% investment, anything over 15% is remarkable and usually gains a reputation for being a high technology company. Companies in this category include pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co. (14.1%) or Novartis (15.1%), and engineering companies like Ericsson (24.9%).^[1] Such companies are often seen as credit risks because their spending ratios are so unusual.

Generally such firms prosper only in markets whose customers have extreme needs, such as medicine, scientific instruments, safety-critical mechanisms (aircraft) or high technology military armaments. The extreme needs justify the high risk of failure and consequently high gross margins from 60% to 90% of revenues. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, because so many individual projects yield no exploitable product. Most industrial companies get 40% revenues only.

On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and repackage advanced technologies as a way of amortizing the high overhead. They often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems.

Research has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment program.^[2]

Business

Present-day research and development is a core part of the modern business world. Major decisions in firms are made based on research and development.

Research and development is of great importance in business as the level of competition, production processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing where companies watch competitors and customers closely in order to keep pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their customers.

Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee "more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share".^[3]

Research is also the most risky financing area because both the development of an invention and its successful realization carries uncertainty factors including the profitability of the invention.^[4] One way of reducing the uncertainty of researching know-hows is to obtain already researched know-hows.^[5]

The U.S. holds its position as the largest corporate in-country R&D spender, importer, and exporter. Although the U.S. is shifting more of its R&D exports to low-cost countries in Asia such as China and India, most R&D imports are from Europe, which provided 63 percent of the U.S. total in 2015. A large increase (46 percent) in R&D exports out of Europe, and low growth in domestic and imported R&D spending (2 percent and 18 percent, respectively), caused Europe to drop from the largest to the third-largest region for R&D spending.^[6] There are over 1000 R&D centers employing more than 335 000 IT specialists in Central and Eastern Europe, including Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic and other countries. ^[7] Ukraine has over 100 R&D centers of global tech, telecom, software, gaming, e-commerce companies. ^[8]

Benefit of research and development by sector

In general, it has been found that there is a positive relationship between the research and development and firm productivity across all sectors, but that this positive relationship is much stronger in high-tech firms than in low-tech firms.^[9]^[10] In research done by Francesco Crespi and Cristiano Antonelli, high-tech firms were found to have "virtuous" Matthew effects while low-tech firms experienced "vicious" Matthew effects, meaning that high-tech firms were awarded subsidies on merit while low-tech firms most often were given subsidies based on name recognition, even if not put to good use.^[11] While the strength of the relationship between R&D spending and productivity in low-tech industries is less than in high-tech industries, studies have been done showing non-trivial carryover effects to other parts of the marketplace by low-tech R&D.^[12]

Government expenditures

United States

President Barack Obama requested $147.696 billion for research & development in FY2012.^[13] Much of this spending is devoted to basic research on the mechanisms of disease.

European Union

Research and innovation in Europe are financially supported by the programme Horizon 2020, which is also open to participation worldwide.^[14]

Notable example of Research and development activities in Europe is the European environmental research and innovation policy. Main features are multidisciplinary character and involvement of different actors so to provide safe, economically feasible, environmentally sound and socially acceptable solutions along the entire value chain of human activities.

However, government-funded research that paid for the work in discovering the human genetic code (DNA) has patent-restrictions.

Notes and references

^ All figures UK R&D Scoreboard as of 2006^[update].
^ Johansson; Lööf (December 2008). "The Impact of Firm's R&D Strategy on Profit and Productivity".
^ "Aerospace and Defense: Inventing and Selling the Next Generation" (PDF). Center for Strategic and International Studies.
^ "Investor-partner business partner finder Business dictionary".
^ "Investor-partner business partner finder Business dictionary".
^ 2015 Global Innovation 1000 (Study Report). October 2015 http://www.strategyand.pwc.com/reports/2015-global-innovation-1000-media-report
^ 2015 Report by the Association of Business Service Leadershttp://www.absl.cz/docs/CEE_report_final.pdf
^ 101 reasons why Ukraine is the leading IT outsourcing destination. May 2016 http://adoriasoft.com/101-reasons-why-ukraine-is-the-leading-it-outsourcing-destination/
^ Ortega-Argiles, Raquel; Potters, Lesley; Vivarelli, Marco (2011). "R&D and productivity: testing sectoral peculiarities using micro data". Empirical Economics 41 (3): 817–839. doi:10.1007/s00181-010-0406-3.
^ Ortega-Argiles, Raquel; Piva, Mariacristina; Vivarelli, Marco (2011). "Productivity Gains from R&D Investment: Are High-Tech Sectors Still Ahead?". IZA Discussion Papers (IZA) (5975): 1–22. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Crespi, Francesco; Antonelli, Cristiano (2011). "Matthew Effects and R&D Subsidies: Knowledge Cumulability in High-Tech and Low-Tech Industries". Working Papers (Università degli Studi Roma Tre) (140): 1–24. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Mendonca, Sandro (2009). "Brave Old World: Accounting for 'High-Tech' Knowledge in 'Low-Tech' Industries". Research Policy 38 (3): 470–482. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2008.10.018.
^ https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41098.pdf
^ See Horizon 2020 – the EU's new research and innovation programme http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-13-1085_en.htm

External links

Levy, David M. (2002). "Research and Development". In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (1st ed.). Library of Economics and Liberty. OCLC 317650570, 50016270, 163149563
U.S. Federal Investments in Energy R&D: 1961-2008
R&D Magazine:
- R&D 100 Awards.
DOE Funded Research Projects Win 30 R&D Awards for 2008
USA Today May 2008 Q&A with Texas Instruments CEO about Bayh-Dole Act
OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2008
2010 Science and Engineering Indicators – Research and Development: National Trends and International Linkages
Scientific Grant Awards Database Contains details of over 2,000,000 scientific research projects conducted over the past 25 years.
RAND R&D Methods Used by Federal Agencies in USA
Crossing the Border to the Future of Education
Center for Strategic and International Studies | Defense Industrial Initiatives Group | Internal R&D Productivity in Aerospace and Defense

UpToDate Contents

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Adult Attachment, Stress, and Romantic Relationships.

Simpson JA1, Steven Rholes W2.
Current opinion in psychology.Curr Opin Psychol.2017 Feb;13:19-24.
In this article, we discuss theory and research on how individuals who have insecure adult romantic attachment orientations typically think, feel, and behave when they or their romantic partners encounter certain types of chronic or acute stress. We first review basic principles of attachment theory
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Early Childhood Education to Promote Health Equity: A Community Guide Systematic Review.

Hahn RA1, Barnett WS, Knopf JA, Truman BI, Johnson RL, Fielding JE, Muntaner C, Jones CP, Fullilove MT, Hunt PC; Community Preventive Services Task Force.
Journal of public health management and practice : JPHMP.J Public Health Manag Pract.2016 Dec 15. [Epub ahead of print]
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The Relationship of Health Literacy With Use of Digital Technology for Health Information: Implications for Public Health Practice.

Manganello J1, Gerstner G, Pergolino K, Graham Y, Falisi A, Strogatz D.
Journal of public health management and practice : JPHMP.J Public Health Manag Pract.2016 Dec 15. [Epub ahead of print]
OBJECTIVE: An understanding of the association of health literacy with patterns related to access and usage of digital technologies and preferences for sources of health information is necessary for public health agencies and organizations to appropriately target channels for health information diss
PMID 26672402

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StarCloud: Optimizing a Testing Framework for Android Development

Jared Ravetch,Kento Aida
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… Smartphone development is changing at rate that is becoming increasingly difficult for application developers to develop and test their applications on all relevant versions of the smartphone OS. … We present StarCloud, an Android testing framework that emulates a cloud of connected and distributed Android devices utilizing both public Amazon's Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) and private OpenStack cloud infrastructure. …
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DMATP-MPI: MPI向け動的メモリ割当分析ツール

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我々は JST-CREST において,性能を犠牲としない省メモリ型の通信ライブラリの研究開発を進めている.なぜならば,ポストペタスケールのスーパーコンピュータではプロセス数が数千万規模に達する一方,計算性能に比例したメモリ量の増加は望めず,通信ライブラリの使用するメモリがシステムを圧迫する懸念があるためである.省メモリ化に着目した場合,通信ライブラリ単体のメモリ使用量を定量的に測定・評価する必要が …
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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「work」「laboratory research」「research technique」「summary report」「research priority」
関連記事	「research」「development」