useful

• adj.

• 有用な、役立つ、便利な、有益な、有意義な

関

avail, available, beneficial, convenient, conveniently, help, helpful, informative, instrumental, meaningful, of use, salutary, serve, serviceable, subserve, usefully, valuable, worthwhile

　 　

WordNet

1. being of use or service; "the girl felt motherly and useful"; "a useful job"; "a useful member of society" (同)utile
2. put the ball into play; "It was Agassis turn to serve"
3. (sports) a stroke that puts the ball in play; "his powerful serves won the game" (同)service
4. work for or be a servant to; "May I serve you?"; "She attends the old lady in the wheelchair"; "Can you wait on our table, please?"; "Is a salesperson assisting you?"; "The minister served the King for many years" (同)attend_to, wait on, attend, assist
5. spend time in prison or in a labor camp; "He did six years for embezzlement" (同)do
6. serve a purpose, role, or function; "The tree stump serves as a table"; "The female students served as a control group"; "This table would serve very well"; "His freedom served him well"; "The table functions as a desk" (同)function
7. help to some food; help with food or drink; "I served him three times, and after that he helped himself" (同)help
8. deliver a warrant or summons to someone; "He was processed by the sheriff" (同)process, swear out
9. provide (usually but not necessarily food); "We serve meals for the homeless"; "She dished out the soup at 8 P.M."; "The entertainers served up a lively show" (同)serve up, dish out, dish up, dish
10. promote, benefit, or be useful or beneficial to; "Art serves commerce"; "Their interests are served"; "The lake serves recreation"; "The Presidents wisdom has served the country well" (同)serve well
11. mate with; "male animals serve the females for breeding purposes" (同)service
12. contribute or conduce to; "The scandal served to increase his popularity"
13. devote (part of) ones life or efforts to, as of countries, institutions, or ideas; "She served the art of music"; "He served the church"; "serve the country"
14. do duty or hold offices; serve in a specific function; "He served as head of the department for three years"; "She served in Congress for two terms"
15. do military service; "She served in Vietnam"; "My sons never served, because they are short-sighted"
16. contribute to the furtherance of; "This money will help the development of literacy in developing countries"
17. improve the condition of; "These pills will help the patient" (同)aid
18. improve; change for the better; "New slipcovers will help the old living room furniture"
19. give help or assistance; be of service; "Everyone helped out during the earthquake"; "Can you help me carry this table?"; "She never helps around the house" (同)assist, aid
20. be of use; "This will help to prevent accidents" (同)facilitate
21. obtainable or accessible and ready for use or service; "kept a fire extinguisher available"; "much information is available through computers"; "available in many colors"; "the list of available candidates is unusually long"
22. not busy; not otherwise committed; "he was not available for comment"; "he was available and willing to accompany her" (同)uncommitted
23. convenient for use or disposal; "the house is available after July 1"; "2000 square feet of usable office space" (同)usable, useable
24. a means of serving; "of no avail"; "theres no help for it" (同)help, service
25. use to ones advantage; "He availed himself of the available resources"
26. take or use; "She helped herself to some of the office supplies" (同)help
27. be of use to, be useful to; "It will avail them to dispose of their booty"
28. having great material or monetary value especially for use or exchange; "a valuable diamond"
29. something of value; "all our valuables were stolen"
30. having worth or merit or value; "a valuable friend"; "a good and worthful man" (同)worthful
31. as many as a house will accommodate; "they entertained a houseful of guests"
32. in a useful manner; "extra money could be usefully spent on this project"

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 『役に立つ』,有用な
2. 〈人が〉〈人〉‘に'『仕える』,‘の'役に立つ;〈社会など〉‘に'尽くす / 〈神・君主など〉‘に'仕える,服従する / (公職・兵役などで)〈ある期間〉‘を'『勤める』,〈判決・刑罰など〉‘に'『服する』 / 〈要求など〉‘を'満たす,〈目的など〉‘に'かなう / 〈物が〉(…として)〈人〉‘の'役に立つ《+『名』〈人〉+『as』(『for』)+『名』》 / 〈食事・飲物など〉‘を'出す,〈人〉‘に'配膳する / (規則的にまたは引き続いて)(…を)…‘に'供給する《+『名』+『with』+『名』》 / (テニス・バレーなどで)〈ボール〉‘を'サーブする / (人に)〈令状など〉‘を'送達する《+『名』+『on』+『名』〈人〉》;(令状などを)〈人〉‘に'送達する《+『名』〈人〉+『with』+『名』》 / (また『service』)〈動物が〉…‘と'交尾する / (…として…のもとで)『仕える』,勤務する《+『under』(『at, on』)+『名』+『as』+『名』》 / 『役立つ』,利用できる / 『給仕をする』,食事をすすめる / 〈天候・時間などが〉都合がよい / (テニスなどで)ボールをサーブする / (テニスなどの)サープ[の番],サープの仕方
3. 《しばしば副詞〈句〉を伴って》〈人が〉〈人〉を『手伝う』,『助ける』,の役に立つ / 〈物事が〉〈人・事〉‘に'役立つ,‘を'よくするのに役立つ / …‘を'救う,助ける,救助する / 〈料理など〉‘を'盛り分ける / (料理などを)〈人〉‘に'よそってあげる,ついでやる《+『名』+『to』+『名』》 / 《cannotと共に》…‘を'避ける,防ぐ;…‘を'がまんする,こらえる / 〈人が〉(…を)助ける,手伝う《+『with』+『名』(do『ing』)》 / 〈物事が〉役立つ,助けになる / 〈U〉『助け』,援助,助力;救助 / 〈C〉(…にとって)助けとなるもの(人),役立つもの(人)《+『to』+『名』》 / 〈C〉雇い人,使用人,な手伝い;《米》《集合的に》家政婦 / 〈U〉『救済手段』,防止策
4. 『利用できる』,『役に立つ』 / (品物・情報などが)『手にはいる』 / (人が)手があいている,暇である / (法律が)効力のある;《英》(切符など)有効な
5. 《通例否定文に用いて》(…に)『役に立つ』,用が足りる《+『with』+『名』》 / 〈人〉‘に'役立つ,'を'利する / 《文》利益,効用
6. (金銭的に)『価値のある』,高価な / 役に立つ,有益な,貴重な / (身の回り品・宝石などの)貴重品
7. (…の)家いっぱい[の量,数]《+『of』+『名』》

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/06/29 20:39:54」(JST)

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

This article is about the economic concept. For other uses, see Utility (disambiguation).

Part of a series on
Utilitarianism
Predecessors Epicurus David Hume Claude Adrien Helvétius William Godwin Francis Hutcheson
Key people Jeremy Bentham John Stuart Mill Henry Sidgwick Richard Mervyn Hare Peter Singer
Types of utilitarianism Preference Rule Act Two-level Total Average Negative Hedonism Enlightened self-interest
Key concepts Pain Suffering Pleasure Utility Happiness Eudaimonia Consequentialism Felicific calculus
Problems Mere addition paradox Paradox of hedonism Utility monster
Related topics Rational choice theory Game theory Social choice Neoclassical economics
Politics portal

In economics, utility is a representation of preferences over some set of goods and services. Preferences have a (continuous) utility representation so long as they are transitive, complete, and continuous.

Utility is usually applied by economists in such constructs as the indifference curve, which plot the combination of commodities that an individual or a society would accept to maintain a given level of satisfaction. Individual utility and social utility can be construed as the value of a utility function and a social welfare function respectively. When coupled with production or commodity constraints, under some assumptions, these functions can be used to analyze Pareto efficiency, such as illustrated by Edgeworth boxes in contract curves. Such efficiency is a central concept in welfare economics.

In finance, utility is applied to generate an individual's price for an asset called the indifference price. Utility functions are also related to risk measures, with the most common example being the entropic risk measure.

Quantifying utility

It was recognized that utility could not be measured or observed directly, so instead economists devised a way to infer underlying relative utilities from observed choice. These 'revealed preferences', as they were named by Paul Samuelson, were revealed e.g. in people's willingness to pay:

Utility is taken to be correlative to Desire or Want. It has been already argued that desires cannot be measured directly, but only indirectly, by the outward phenomena to which they give rise: and that in those cases with which economics is chiefly concerned the measure is found in the price which a person is willing to pay for the fulfilment or satisfaction of his desire. (Marshall 1920:78)

Cardinal and ordinal utility

For more details on this topic, see cardinal utility.

Economists distinguish between cardinal utility and ordinal utility. When cardinal utility is used, the magnitude of utility differences is treated as an ethically or behaviorally significant quantity. On the other hand, ordinal utility captures only ranking and not strength of preferences.

Utility functions of both sorts assign a ranking to members of a choice set. For example, suppose a cup of orange juice has utility of 120 utils, a cup of tea has a utility of 80 utils, and a cup of water has a utility of 40 utils. When speaking of cardinal utility, it could be concluded that the cup of orange juice is better than the cup of tea by exactly the same amount by which the cup of tea is better than the cup of water. One is not entitled to conclude, however, that the cup of tea is two thirds as good as the cup of juice, because this conclusion would depend not only on magnitudes of utility differences, but also on the "zero" of utility.

It is tempting when dealing with cardinal utility to aggregate utilities across persons. The argument against this is that interpersonal comparisons of utility are meaningless because there is no simple way to interpret how different people value consumption bundles.^{[citation needed]}

When ordinal utilities are used, differences in utils are treated as ethically or behaviorally meaningless: the utility index encode a full behavioral ordering between members of a choice set, but tells nothing about the related strength of preferences. In the above example, it would only be possible to say that juice is preferred to tea to water, but no more.

Neoclassical economics has largely retreated from using cardinal utility functions as the basic objects of economic analysis, in favor of considering agent preferences over choice sets. However, preference relations can often be represented by utility functions satisfying several properties.

Ordinal utility functions are unique up to positive monotone transformations, while cardinal utilities are unique up to positive linear transformations.

Although preferences are the conventional foundation of microeconomics, it is often convenient to represent preferences with a utility function and analyze human behavior indirectly with utility functions. Let X be the consumption set, the set of all mutually-exclusive baskets the consumer could conceivably consume. The consumer's utility function ranks each package in the consumption set. If the consumer strictly prefers x to y or is indifferent between them, then .

For example, suppose a consumer's consumption set is X = {nothing, 1 apple,1 orange, 1 apple and 1 orange, 2 apples, 2 oranges}, and its utility function is u(nothing) = 0, u(1 apple) = 1, u(1 orange) = 2, u(1 apple and 1 orange) = 4, u(2 apples) = 2 and u(2 oranges) = 3. Then this consumer prefers 1 orange to 1 apple, but prefers one of each to 2 oranges.

In microeconomic models, there are usually a finite set of L commodities, and a consumer may consume an arbitrary amount of each commodity. This gives a consumption set of , and each package is a vector containing the amounts of each commodity. In the previous example, we might say there are two commodities: apples and oranges. If we say apples is the first commodity, and oranges the second, then the consumption set and u(0, 0) = 0, u(1, 0) = 1, u(0, 1) = 2, u(1, 1) = 4, u(2, 0) = 2, u(0, 2) = 3 as before. Note that for u to be a utility function on X, it must be defined for every package in X.

A utility function represents a preference relation on X iff for every , implies . If u represents , then this implies is complete and transitive, and hence rational.

In order to simplify calculations, various assumptions have been made of utility functions.

• CES (constant elasticity of substitution, or isoelastic) utility
• Exponential utility
• Quasilinear utility
• Homothetic preferences

Most utility functions used in modeling or theory are well-behaved. They are usually monotonic and quasi-concave. However, it is possible for preferences not to be representable by a utility function. An example is lexicographic preferences which are not continuous and cannot be represented by a continuous utility function.

Expected utility

Main article: Expected utility hypothesis

The expected utility theory deals with the analysis of choices among risky projects with (possibly multidimensional) outcomes.

The expected utility model was first proposed by Nicholas Bernoulli in 1713 and solved by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738 as the St. Petersburg paradox. Bernoulli argued that the paradox could be resolved if decisionmakers displayed risk aversion and argued for a logarithmic cardinal utility function.

The first important use of the expected utility theory was that of John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern who used the assumption of expected utility maximization in their formulation of game theory.

Additive von Neumann–Morgenstern utility

Main article: Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem

When comparing objects it makes sense to rank utilities, but older conceptions of utility allowed no way to compare the sizes of utilities - a person may say that a new shirt is preferable to a baloney sandwich, but not that it is twenty times preferable to the sandwich.

The reason is that the utility of twenty sandwiches is not twenty times the utility of one sandwich, by the law of diminishing returns. So it is hard to compare the utility of the shirt with 'twenty times the utility of the sandwich'. But Von Neumann and Morgenstern suggested an unambiguous way of making a comparison like this.

Their method of comparison involves considering probabilities. If a person can choose between various randomized events (lotteries), then it is possible to additively compare the shirt and the sandwich. It is possible to compare a sandwich with probability 1, to a shirt with probability p or nothing with probability 1 − p. By adjusting p, the point at which the sandwich becomes preferable defines the ratio of the utilities of the two options.

A notation for a lottery is as follows: if options A and B have probability p and 1 − p in the lottery, write it as a linear combination:

$L = p A + (1-p) B \,$

More generally, for a lottery with many possible options:

$L = \sum p_i A_i, \,$

with the sum of the p _is equalling 1.

By making some reasonable assumptions about the way choices behave, von Neumann and Morgenstern showed that if an agent can choose between the lotteries, then this agent has a utility function which can be added and multiplied by real numbers, which means the utility of an arbitrary lottery can be calculated as a linear combination of the utility of its parts.

This is called the expected utility theorem. The required assumptions are four axioms about the properties of the agent's preference relation over 'simple lotteries', which are lotteries with just two options. Writing to mean 'A is weakly preferred to B' ('A is preferred at least as much as B'), the axioms are:

1. completeness: For any two simple lotteries and , either or (or both).
2. transitivity: for any three lotteries , if and , then .
3. convexity/continuity (Archimedean property): If , then there is a between 0 and 1 such that the lottery is equally preferable to .
4. independence: for any three lotteries , if and only if .

In more formal language: A von Neumann–Morgenstern utility function is a function from choices to the real numbers:

which assigns a real number to every outcome in a way that captures the agent's preferences over simple lotteries. Under the four assumptions mentioned above, the agent will prefer a lottery to a lottery if and only if the expected utility of is greater than the expected utility of :

Repeating in category language: is a morphism between the category of preferences with uncertainty and the category of reals as an additive group.

Of all the axioms, independence is the most often discarded. A variety of generalized expected utility theories have arisen, most of which drop or relax the independence axiom.

• CES (constant elasticity of substitution, or isoelastic) utility is one with constant relative risk aversion
• Exponential utility exhibits constant absolute risk aversion

Money

One of the most common uses of a utility function, especially in economics, is the utility of money. The utility function for money is a nonlinear function that is bounded and asymmetric about the origin. These properties can be derived from reasonable assumptions that are generally accepted by economists and decision theorists, especially proponents of rational choice theory. The utility function is concave in the positive region, reflecting the phenomenon of diminishing marginal utility. The boundedness reflects the fact that beyond a certain point money ceases being useful at all, as the size of any economy at any point in time is itself bounded. The asymmetry about the origin reflects the fact that gaining and losing money can have radically different implications both for individuals and businesses. The nonlinearity of the utility function for money has profound implications in decision making processes: in situations where outcomes of choices influence utility through gains or losses of money, which are the norm in most business settings, the optimal choice for a given decision depends on the possible outcomes of all other decisions in the same time-period.

Utility as probability of success

Castagnoli and LiCalzi (1996) and Bordley and LiCalzi (2000) provided another interpretation for Von Neumann and Morgenstern's theory. Specifically for any utility function, there exists a hypothetical reference lottery with the utility of a lottery being its probability of performing no worse than the reference lottery. Suppose success is defined as getting an outcome no worse than the outcome of the reference lottery. Then this mathematical equivalence means that maximizing expected utility is equivalent to maximizing the probability of success. In many contexts, this makes the concept of utility easier to justify and to apply. For example, a firm's utility might be the probability of meeting uncertain future customer expectations.

Discussion and criticism

Cambridge economist Joan Robinson famously criticized utility for being a circular concept: "Utility is the quality in commodities that makes individuals want to buy them, and the fact that individuals want to buy commodities shows that they have utility" (Robinson 1962: 48).

Another criticism comes from the assertion that neither cardinal nor ordinary utility is empirically observable in the real world. In the case of cardinal utility it is impossible to measure the level of satisfaction "quantitatively" when someone consumes or purchases an apple. In case of ordinal utility, it is impossible to determine what choices were made when someone purchases, for example, an orange. Any act would involve preference over a vast set of choices (such as apple, orange juice, other vegetable, vitamin C tablets, exercise, not purchasing, etc.).

An evolutionary psychology perspective is that utility may be better viewed as due to preferences that maximized evolutionary fitness in the ancestral environment but not necessarily in the current one.

See also

• Cardinal utility

References

Further reading

• Neumann, John von & Morgenstern, Oskar (1944). Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 
• Nash, John F. (1950). "The Bargaining Problem". Econometrica 18 (2): 155–162. JSTOR 1907266. 
• Anand, Paul (1993). Foundations of Rational Choice Under Risk. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-823303-5. 
• Kreps, David M. (1988). Notes on the Theory of Choice. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-7553-3. 
• Fishburn, Peter C. (1970). Utility Theory for Decision Making. Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger. ISBN 0-88275-736-9. 
• Plous, S. (1993). The Psychology of Judgement and Decision Making. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-050477-6. 
• Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas (Aug. 1936). "The Pure Theory of Consumer's Behavior". Quarterly Journal of Economics 50 (4): 545–593. JSTOR 1891094. 

• Gilboa, Itzhak (2009). Theory of Decision under Uncertainty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-74123-1. 

External links

• Definition of Utility by Investopedia
• Anatomy of Cobb-Douglas Type Utility Functions in 3D
• Anatomy of CES Type Utility Functions in 3D
• Simpler Definition with example from Investopedia

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usefulとは。意味や和訳。[形]1 （…に）有用な, 役立つ, 有効な, 有益な；助けになる((to, for ..., to do))a few useful hints2, 3の有益なヒントprove [come in] useful（必要なとき）役立つmake oneself useful人の役に立つThe spire... - goo ...

• 医療・福祉・介護の就職転職支援 株式会社 ユースフル

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• 国内化粧品・MLM製品買取～useful～

化粧品・ポーラ化粧品・ノエビア化粧品の買い取りならusefulへ！全国より郵送買取いたします ... 国内化粧品・MLM製品・高価現金買取いたします！ 国内化粧品・MLM製品を現金買取致します。コストを徹底的にカットしておりますので、

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「help」「serve」「available」「instrumental」「valuable」
拡張検索	「usefulness」「usefully」

「help」

　　[★]

• vt.

• 助力/援助する、助ける、救う。手伝う。手伝って～させる。(rflx)必要なことを自分でする。困難を切り抜ける。(～ sbに副詞(句)を伴って)助けて～させる
• (～の状態を)よくする、改善する
• 促進する、助長する。～の助けとなる
• (can(not ～ it (doing sth)で)避ける(prevent)、制する、抑える、禁ずる
• (人に食べ物などを)取ってやる、酌をする、勧める(to)

• vi.
• n.

関

aid, assist, assistance, avail, available, helpful, instrumental, serve, serviceable, subserve, support, useful, valuable

　 　 　 　 　 　

「serve」

　　[★]

• v.

(任務を)果たす、役立つ、貢献する、勤める、奉仕する

関

achieve、attain、avail、available、conducive、contribute、contribution、fulfill、help、helpful、instrumental、play、serviceable、subserve、useful、valuable

　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　

「available」

　　[★]

• 入手可能な、利用可能な、利用できる、有用な、役立つ

関

accessible、affordable、avail、help、helpful、instrumental、obtainable、of use、serve、serviceable、subserve、useful、usefully、valuable

　 　 　 　

「instrumental」

　　[★]

• adj.

• 機器の、手段になる、役立つ

関

avail、available、avenue、equipment、gateway、help、helpful、instrument、mean、means、policy、serve、serviceable、subserve、tool、useful、valuable

　 　

「valuable」

　　[★]

• adj.

• 価値ある、役立つ、貴重な

関

avail、available、help、helpful、instrumental、invaluable、meritorious、serve、serviceable、subserve、useful、valued、worth、worthwhile、worthy

　 　 　 　

「usefulness」

　　[★]

• n.

• 有用性、有益性、役立つこと

関

availability、usability、utility、validity

「usefully」

　　[★]

• adv.

• 有用に

関

available、of use、useful