WordNet

occurring from time to time; "took an occasional glass of wine"
without or seeming to be without plan or method; offhand; "a casual remark"; "information collected by casual methods and in their spare time"
occurring or appearing or singled out by chance; "seek help from casual passers-by"; "a casual meeting"; "a chance occurrence" (同)chance
hasty and without attention to detail; not thorough; "a casual (or cursory) inspection failed to reveal the houses structural flaws"; "a passing glance"; "perfunctory courtesy" (同)cursory, passing, perfunctory
not showing effort or strain; "a difficult feat performed with casual mastery"; "careless grace" (同)effortless
appropriate for ordinary or routine occasions; "casual clothes"; "everyday clothes" (同)everyday, daily
marked by blithe unconcern; "an ability to interest casual students"; "showed a casual disregard for cold weather"; "an utterly insouciant financial policy"; "an elegantly insouciant manner"; "drove his car with nonchalant abandon"; "was polite in a teasing nonchalant manner" (同)insouciant, nonchalant
occurring from time to time; "casual employment"; "a casual correspondence with a former teacher"; "an occasional worker" (同)occasional
be the case by chance; "I chanced to meet my old friend in the street"
a risk involving danger; "you take a chance when you let her drive"
anything that happens suddenly or by chance without an apparent cause; "winning the lottery was a happy accident"; "the pregnancy was a stroke of bad luck"; "it was due to an accident or fortuity" (同)stroke, fortuity, chance event
an unfortunate mishap; especially one causing damage or injury
happening by chance or unexpectedly or unintentionally ; "with an inadvertent gesture she swept the vase off the table"; "accidental poisoning"; "an accidental shooting" (同)inadvertent
a musical notation that makes a note sharp or flat or natural although that is not part of the key signature
not methodically or according to plan; "he dealt with his course work casually"
in an unconcerned manner; "glanced casually at the headlines" (同)nonchalantly
now and then or here and there; "he was arrogant and occasionally callous"; "open areas are only occasionally interrupted by clumps of trees"; "they visit New York on occasion"; "now and again she would take her favorite book from the shelf and read to us"; "as we drove along, the beautiful scenery now and then attracted his attention" (同)on occasion, once in a while, now and then, now and again, at_times, from time to time
give occasion to
an opportunity to do something; "there was never an occasion for her to demonstrate her skill"
the time of a particular event; "on the occasion of his 60th birthday"
reason; "there was no occasion for complaint"

PrepTutorEJDIC

『時たまの』,時おりの / 《文》特別な場合のための / 《文》(家具が)予備の,補助の
『むぞうさな』,さりげない(offhand) / 『偶然の』,思いがけない / ふだん着の,くだけた / むとんじゃくな,無関心な / 臨時雇労働者 / ふだん着
〈C〉〈U〉『偶然』,偶然のでき事;運,めぐり合わせ / 〈U〉〈C〉(何かが起こる)『公算』,見込み,可能性(probability) / 〈C〉『好機』,機会(opportunity) / 〈C〉危険,冒険;かけ / 《『chance to』 do》〈人が〉偶然;する / 《『it chances』+『that』『節』》〈物事が〉偶然に起こる / …'を'運を天に任せてする / 偶然の,はずみの
〈C〉『偶然』,偶発,めぐり合わせ / 〈C〉『事故』,災難
『偶然の』,思いがけない / (音楽の)臨時記号
偶然に,なにげなく
『たまに』,時おり
〈C〉(事が起こる,特定の)『時』,場合 / 〈C〉『でき事』;(しばしば)意義深いでき事 / 〈U〉〈C〉『機会』,好機 / 〈U〉〈C〉『理由』,根拠;必要 / …‘を'引き起こす,生じさせる

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/03/16 20:27:14」(JST)

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Occasionalism is a philosophical theory about causation which says that created substances cannot be efficient causes of events. Instead, all events are taken to be caused directly by God. (A related theory, which has been called 'occasional causation', also denies a link of efficient causation between mundane events, but may differ as to the identity of the true cause that replaces them.^[1]) The theory states that the illusion of efficient causation between mundane events arises out of God's causing of one event after another. However, there is no necessary connection between the two: it is not that the first event causes God to cause the second event: rather, God first causes one and then causes the other.

Islamic theological schools

The doctrine first reached prominence in the Islamic theological schools of Iraq, especially in Basra. The ninth century theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari argued that there is no secondary causation in the created order. The world is sustained and governed through direct intervention of a divine primary causation. As such the world is in a constant state of recreation by God. The most famous proponent of the Asharite occasionalist doctrine was Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali, an 11th century theologian based in Baghdad. In The Incoherence of the Philosophers, Al-Ghazali launched a philosophical critique against Neoplatonic-influenced early Islamic philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina. In response to the philosopher's claim that the created order is governed by secondary efficient causes (God being, as it were, the Primary and Final Cause in an ontological and logical sense), Ghazali argues that what we observe as regularity in nature based presumably upon some natural law is actually a kind of constant and continual regularity. There is no independent necessitation of change and becoming, other than what God has ordained. To posit an independent causality outside of God's knowledge and action is to deprive Him of true agency, and diminish his attribute of power. In his famous example, when fire and cotton are placed in contact, the cotton is burned not because of the heat of the fire, but through God's direct intervention, a claim which he defended using logic. In the 12th century, this theory was defended and further strengthened by the Islamic theologian Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, using his expertise in the natural sciences of astronomy, cosmology and physics.

Because God is usually seen as rational, rather than arbitrary, his behaviour in normally causing events in the same sequence (i.e., what appears to us to be efficient causation) can be understood as a natural outworking of that principle of reason, which we then describe as the laws of nature. Properly speaking, however, these are not laws of nature but laws by which God chooses to govern his own behaviour (his autonomy, in the strict sense) — in other words, his rational will. This is not, however, an essential element of an occasionalist account, and occasionalism can include positions where God's behaviour (and thus that of the world) is viewed as ultimately inscrutable, thus maintaining God's essential transcendence. On this understanding, apparent anomalies such as miracles are not really such: they are simply God behaving in a way that appears unusual to us. Given his transcendent freedom, he is not bound even by his own nature. Miracles, as breaks in the rational structure of the universe, can occur, since God's relationship with the world is not mediated by rational principles.

Dualism

One of the motivations for the theory is the dualist belief that mind and matter are so utterly different in their essences that one cannot affect the other. Thus, a person's mind cannot be the true cause of his hand's moving, nor can a physical wound be the true cause of mental anguish. In other words, the mental cannot cause the physical and vice versa. Also, occasionalists generally hold that the physical cannot cause the physical either, for no necessary connection can be perceived between physical causes and effects. The will of God is taken to be necessary.

The doctrine is, however, more usually associated with certain seventeenth century philosophers of the Cartesian school. There are hints of an occasionalist viewpoint here and there in Descartes's own writings, but these can mostly be explained away under alternative interpretations.^[2] However, many of his later followers quite explicitly committed themselves to an occasionalist position. In one form or another, the doctrine can be found in the writings of: Johannes Clauberg, Claude Clerselier, Gerauld de Cordemoy, Arnold Geulincx, Louis de La Forge, François Lamy, and (most notably), Nicolas Malebranche.

Hume's arguments, Berkeley and Leibniz

These occasionalists' negative argument, that no necessary connections could be discovered between mundane events, were echoed by certain arguments of Nicholas of Autrecourt in the fourteenth century, and were later taken up by David Hume in the eighteenth. Hume, however, stopped short when it came to the positive side of the theory, where God was called upon to replace such connections, complaining that 'We are got into fairy land [...] Our line is too short to fathom such immense abysses.'^[3] Instead, Hume felt that the only place to find necessary connections was in the subjective associations of ideas within the mind itself. George Berkeley was also inspired by the occasionalists, and he agreed with them that no efficient power could be attributed to bodies. For Berkeley, bodies merely existed as ideas in percipient minds, and all such ideas were, as he put it, 'visibly inactive'.^[4] However, Berkeley disagreed with the occasionalists by continuing to endow the created minds themselves with efficient power. G.W. Leibniz agreed with the occasionalists that there could be no efficient causation between distinct created substances, but he did not think it followed that there was no efficient power in the created world at all. On the contrary, every simple substance had the power to produce changes in itself. The illusion of transeunt efficient causation, for Leibniz, arose out of the pre-established harmony between the alterations produced immanently within different substances.

Notes

^ Steven Nadler, 'The Occasionalism of Louis de la Forge', in Nadler (ed.), Causation in Early Modern Philosophy (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993), 57–73; Nadler, 'Descartes and Occasional Causation', British Journal for the History of Philosophy, 2 (1994) 35–54.
^ Daniel Garber, Descartes' Metaphysical Physics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 299–305.
^ David Hume, An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding, sect. 7, pt. 1.
^ George Berkeley, A Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, sect. 25.

External links

Cosmological Argument aiming to establish Occasionalism
Occasionalism from the Catholic Encyclopedia

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English Journal

Ground reaction forces and plantar pressure distribution during occasional loaded gait.

Castro M, Abreu S, Sousa H, Machado L, Santos R, Vilas-Boas JP.SourceCenter of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, School of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Plácido Costa, 91, 4200 450 Porto, Portugal. marcelocastro_fisio@hotmail.com
Applied ergonomics.Appl Ergon.2013 May;44(3):503-9. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2012.10.016. Epub 2012 Nov 16.
This study compared the ground reaction forces (GRF) and plantar pressures between unloaded and occasional loaded gait. The GRF and plantar pressures of 60 participants were recorded during unloaded gait and occasional loaded gait (wearing a backpack that raised their body mass index to 30); this lo
PMID 23157973

Osteonal lamellae elementary units: Lamellar microstructure, curvature and mechanical properties.

Faingold A, Cohen SR, Reznikov N, Wagner HD.SourceDepartment of Materials and Interfaces, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
Acta biomaterialia.Acta Biomater.2013 Apr;9(4):5956-62. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.11.032. Epub 2012 Dec 6.
The mechanical and structural properties of the sublayers of osteonal lamellae were studied. Young's modulus (E) of adjacent individual lamellae was measured by nanoindentation of parallel slices every 1-3μm, in planes parallel and perpendicular to the osteon axis (OA). In planes parallel to the OA
PMID 23220032

Implicit and explicit reward learning in chronic nicotine use.

Paelecke-Habermann Y, Paelecke M, Giegerich K, Reschke K, Kübler A.SourceDepartment of Psychology, Julius Maximilians University Würzburg, Germany. Electronic address: yvonne.paelecke-habermann@uni-wuerzburg.de.
Drug and alcohol dependence.Drug Alcohol Depend.2013 Apr 1;129(1-2):8-17. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.09.004. Epub 2012 Oct 23.
BACKGROUND: Chronic tobacco use is related to specific neurobiological alterations in the dopaminergic brain reward system that can be termed "reward deficiency syndrome" in dependent nicotine consumers. The close linkage of dopaminergic activity and reward learning led us to expect implicit and exp
PMID 23098679

Blue-yellow colour vision impairment and cognitive deficits in occasional and dependent stimulant users.

Hulka LM, Wagner M, Preller KH, Jenni D, Quednow BB.SourceExperimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Clinic for Affective Disorders and General Psychiatry, University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich, Switzerland.
The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology / official scientific journal of the Collegium Internationale Neuropsychopharmacologicum (CINP).Int J Neuropsychopharmacol.2013 Apr;16(3):535-47. doi: 10.1017/S1461145712000624. Epub 2012 Jun 18.
Specific blue-yellow colour vision impairment has been reported in dependent cocaine users and it was postulated that drug-induced changes in retinal dopamine neurotransmission are responsible. However, it is unclear whether these changes are confined to chronic cocaine users, whether they are speci
PMID 22704223