出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/07/24 14:03:42」(JST)
Cosmetics are substances used to enhance the appearance or odor of the human body. They are generally mixtures of chemical compounds, some being derived from natural sources, many being synthetic.[1]
In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which regulates cosmetics,[2] defines cosmetics as "intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body's structure or functions." This broad definition includes, as well, any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category.[3]
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The word cosmetics derives from the Greek κοσμητική τέχνη (kosmetikē tekhnē), meaning "technique of dress and ornament", from κοσμητικός (kosmētikos), "skilled in ordering or arranging"[4] and that from κόσμος (kosmos), meaning amongst others "order" and "ornament".[5]
Archaeological evidence of cosmetics dates at least from ancient Egypt and Greece. According to one source, early major developments include:[1]
The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics.[6][7] Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament—2 Kings 9:30 where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and the book of Esther describes various beauty treatments as well.
Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history. For example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared makeup improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors.[8]
Of the major cosmetics firms, the largest is L'Oréal, which was founded by Eugene Schueller in 1909 as the French Harmless Hair Colouring Company (now owned by Liliane Bettencourt 26% and Nestlé 28%; the remaining 46% is traded publicly). The market was developed in the USA during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II and Estée Lauder just after.
Beauty products are now widely available from dedicated internet-only retailers,[9] who have more recently been joined online by established outlets, including the major department stores and traditional bricks and mortar beauty retailers.
Although modern make-up has been used mainly by women traditionally, gradually an increasing number of males are using cosmetics usually associated to women to enhance or cover their own facial features. Concealer is commonly used by cosmetic-conscious men. Cosmetics brands are releasing cosmetic products especially tailored for men, and men are using such products increasily more commonly.[10]
During the 20th century, the popularity of cosmetics increased rapidly.[citation needed] Cosmetics are increasingly used by girls at a young age, especially in the United States. Due to the fast-decreasing age of make-up users, many companies, from high-street brands like Rimmel to higher-end products like Estee Lauder, have catered to this expanding market by introducing more flavored lipsticks and glosses, cosmetics packaged in glittery, sparkly packaging and marketing and advertising using young models.[citation needed] The social consequences of younger and younger beautification has had much attention in the media over the last few years.
Criticism of cosmetics has come from a variety of sources including some feminists, religious groups, animal rights activists, authors and public interest groups. Growing awareness and preference for cosmetics exists for cosmetics lacking toxic ingredients, especially those derived from petroleum, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and parabens.[11]
Like most industries, cosmetic companies resist regulation by government agencies like the FDA, and have lobbied against this throughout the years. The FDA does not have to approve or review the cosmetics, or what goes in them before they are sold to the consumers. The FDA only regulates against the colors that can be used in the cosmetics and hair dyes. The cosmetic companies do not have to report any injuries from the products; they also only have voluntary recalls on products.[12]
Numerous reports have raised concern over the safety of a few surfactants. SLS causes a number of skin issues including dermatitis.[13][14][15][16][17]
Parabens can cause skin irritation and contact dermatitis in individuals with paraben allergies, a small percentage of the general population.[18] Animal experiments have shown that parabens have a weak estrogenic activity, acting as xenoestrogens.[19]
Synthetic fragrances are widely used in consumer products. Studies concluded from patch testing show synthetic fragrances are made of many ingredients which cause allergic reactions.[20]
Cosmetics companies have been criticized for making pseudo-scientific claims about their products which are misleading or unsupported by scientific evidence.[21][22]
Cosmetics testing on animals is particularly controversial. Such tests, involve general toxicity, eye and skin irritancy, phototoxicity (toxicity triggered by ultraviolet light) and mutagenicity.[23]
Cosmetics testing is banned in the Netherlands, Belgium, and the UK, and in 2002, after 13 years of discussion, the European Union (EU) agreed to phase in a near-total ban on the sale of animal-tested cosmetics throughout the EU from 2009, and to ban all cosmetics-related animal testing. France, which is home to the world's largest cosmetics company, L'Oreal, has protested the proposed ban by lodging a case at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, asking that the ban be quashed.[24] The ban is also opposed by the European Federation for Cosmetics Ingredients, which represents 70 companies in Switzerland, Belgium, France, Germany and Italy.[24]
However, the current literature on the motivation for cosmetics use is scarce
A correlational study that surveyed thirty English women revealed that anxiety (p= .008), self-presentation (p=.003), and conformity (p= .007) are significantly positively correlated with the application of cosmetics, and social confidence (p=.032), emotional stability (p=.037), self-esteem (p=.003), and physical attractiveness (p=.006) are significantly negatively correlated with cosmetics usage. (Fieldman, Robertson and Hussey, 2008)[25] This data suggests that anxious, insecure females are motivated to apply cosmetics more so than females who are emotionally secure, socially confident and perceive themselves as physically attractive.
Another study conducted by Cash, Dawson, Davis, Bowen and Galumbeck, utilizing a sample of undergraduate college students, discovered that male peers tend to be harsher judges of a female's physical attractiveness than female peers are. It also revealed that females may overestimate their physical attractiveness when they are wearing makeup cosmetics. (1988)[26]
Cosmetics include skin-care creams, lotions, powders, perfumes, lipsticks, fingernail and toe nail polish, eye and facial makeup, towelettes, permanent waves, colored contact lenses, hair colors, hair sprays and gels, deodorants, hand sanitizer, baby products, bath oils, bubble baths, bath salts, butters and many other types of products. A subset of cosmetics is called "make-up," which refers primarily to colored products intended to alter the user’s appearance. Many manufacturers distinguish between decorative cosmetics and care cosmetics.
Most cosmetics are distinguished by the area of the body intended for application.
Cosmetics can be also described by the physical composition of the product. Cosmetics can be liquid or cream emulsions; powders, both pressed and loose; dispersions; and anhydrous creams or sticks.
Makeup remover is the product used to remove the makeup products applied on the skin. It is used for cleaning the skin for other procedures, like applying any type of lotion at evening before the person go to sleep.
Also included in the general category of cosmetics are skin care products. These include creams and lotions to moisturize the face and body which are often formulated for different skin types per range, sunscreens to protect the skin from UV radiation and damage, skin lighteners, and treatment products to repair or hide skin imperfections (acne, wrinkles, dark circles under eyes, etc.), tanning oils to brown the skin.
For each skin type present, the correct types of products must be used in order to maintain healthy and attractive skin.
There are five basic skin types, including:
This type of skin has a fine, even and smooth surface due to having an ideal balance between oil and moisture contents and is therefore neither greasy nor dry. People who have normal skin have small, barely-visible pores. Thus, their skin appears clear and does not develop spots and blemishes. This type of skin needs minimal and gentle treatment.
Dry skin has a parched appearance and tends to flake easily. It is prone to wrinkles and lines due to the inability to retain moisture, as well as, the inadequate production of sebum by sebaceous glands. Dry skin often has problems in cold weather as it dries up even further. Constant protection in the form of a moisturizer by day and a moisture-rich cream by night is essential.
As its name implies, this type of skin’s surface is slightly to moderately greasy, which is caused by the over secretion of sebum. The excess oil on the surface of the skin draws dirt and dust from the environment to stick to it. Oily skin is usually prone to black heads, white heads, spots and pimples. It needs to be cleansed thoroughly every day.
This is the most common type of skin. As the name suggests, it is a combination of both oily and dry skin where certain areas of the face are oily and the rest dry. The oily parts are usually found on a central panel, called T – Zone, consisting of the forehead, nose and chin. The dry areas consist of the cheeks and the areas around the eyes and mouth. In such cases, each part of the face should be treated accordingly where the dry areas are treated as for dry skin and the central panel is treated as for oily skin. There are also skin care products made especially for those who have combination skin.
Sensitive skin has a very fine texture and is excessively sensitive to changes in the climate. This skin type is easily irritated, bruised and/or scarred from bleaching, waxing, threading, perfumes, temperature extremes, soap, shaving creams, etc. People who belong to this skin type should avoid products with dyes, perfumes, or unnecessary chemical ingredients that may aggravate the skin.
Cleansing is the first essential step to any daily skin care routine. Cleansing the face at least twice a day is suitable for normal skin. If skin is oily, a more frequent cleansing or about four to five times a day is required. However, products that are water-based and gentle are ideal so as to not over-dry the skin. For dry skin, it is best to avoid frequent washing and a suitable oil-based cosmetic cleanser instead of soap is preferred. There are several alternatives to soap and water cleansing. Cleansers can be in the form of creams, milks, lotions, gels and liquids. All are a mixture of oil, wax and water which have been formulated to suit different skin types. A cotton -pad dipped in fresh milk available at home, is an equally effective natural cleanser. To complete the cleansing process, the skin must be rinsed with water. Some who wear long wearing foundation may find it beneficial to pre-cleanse the face with a cleansing oil to remove any silicones left over from the foundation.
Essentially all face masks have some sort of a cleansing action. Various ingredients are used in the masks, depending on the skin type. Clay forms an important constituent of many face masks that helps to remove dirt, sebum, and dead skin to refresh and soften the skin surface. Fullers earth is a special type of clay often used in face packs. It contains aluminium silicate and as it dries on the skin, it absorbs the superficial dead cells and blots up any excessive oil. It is therefore excellent for oily skin but should not be used on dry skin. Kaolin is also a fine clay which removes grime, oils and dead cells. Again it is best for oily skin and should be avoided on dry skin. Another ingredient of some of the masks is a peeling or exfoliating agent which helps remove the top layer of dead cells from the skin, leaving behind fresh youthful skin. Oatmeal and bran are the commonly used peelers. In addition, natural ingredients such as cucumbers, curds, lemon juice and Brewer's Yeast are added to many masks to restore the acid / alkali balance of the skin. There are three general forms that masks come in: Clay, Peel, and Sheet. The clay formulation is one of the most common. It is usually composed of different clays to draw out the impurities in the skin. Peel masks usually have a gel like consistency and are peeled off of the skin to help exfoliate. Sheet masks are becoming more common in America, they are very popular in Asia. Sheet masks can be used to treat different skin concerns, but one of the most popular concerns is skin brightening.
Many skin care products include skin fresheners, toners and astringents which generally contain alcohol and water. These products are used after cleansing the skin to freshen and tone up and remove any traces of dirt or impurities from the skin, as well as restore the skin’s acid/ alkali balance. Non-alcoholic fresheners are for dry and sensitive skin. Those with alcohol (astringent) are for oily skin. People with combination skin should use both kinds for the different areas of their face.
Regular use of a suitable moisturizer benefits the skin as it not only replaces water lost from the skin but also prevents the loss of water. It protects the skin against the drying influences of the environment including the harsh effects of the sun, cold and heat. Tinted moisturizers can be used under foundation cosmetics. It allows make-up to remain moist. Using a moisturizer is particularly beneficial for dry skins. Oil free moisturizers are also available for oily skins. There are two types of moisturizers: Oil - in water emulsions and water -in -oil emulsions. For normal and combination skin, a water based moisturizer containing minimal oil is suitable. Sensitive and dry types of skin need moisturizers containing a high content of oil.
The sun is the most damaging environmental factor to the health and appearance of skin. Ultraviolet radiation from sunlight can cause permanent damage to the skin causing it to sag, lose elasticity and form wrinkles. Severe sunburn can even cause skin cancer. Therefore, sunscreen and SPF-foundations protect the skin against these damaging effects. They also shield the skin from direct contact with dirt or pollutants in the air and help the skin retain necessary moisture. Sunscreen's come in lotions and creams. A sunscreen with the sun protection factor (SPF) of number 15 can block most of the sun's ultraviolet radiations before it can damage the skin. The SPF number indicates the length of time that the product will protect the skin, i.e. 15 hours. Sunscreens should be applied at least 10 minutes before exposure to the sun to ensure proper absorption and effective protection.
Ingredients' listings in cosmetics are highly regulated in many countries.
Once a niche market, handmade and certified organic products are becoming more mainstream. Even though many cosmetic products are regulated, health concerns persist regarding the presence of harmful chemicals within these products.[citation needed] Aside from color additives, cosmetic products and their ingredients are not subject to regulation prior to their release into the market.[10] Many new products are released into the market every season, often with light testing. Many cosmetic companies claim "All natural" and "organic" products such as anti-ageing and anti-acne creams based on Egg Oil which contains Omega-3 fatty acids and xanthophylls. All natural products contain mineral, egg and plant ingredients and organic products are made with organic agricultural products. Products who claim they are organic are not, unless they are certified "USDA Organic."[27][28]
The term "mineral makeup" applies to a category of face makeup, including foundation, eye shadow, blush, and bronzer, that is made with loose, dry mineral powders. Lipsticks, liquid foundations, and other liquid cosmetics, as well as compressed makeups such as eye shadow and blush in compacts, are also often called mineral makeup if they have the same primary ingredients as dry mineral makeups; however, liquid makeups must contain preservatives and compressed makeups must contain binders, which the dry mineral makeups do not.
The main ingredients in mineral makeups are usually coverage pigments, such as zinc oxide and titanium dioxide, both of which are also physical sunscreens.[29]
Other main ingredients include mica (Sericite) and pigmenting minerals, such as iron oxide, tin oxide[disambiguation needed], and magnesium myristate.
Mineral makeup usually does not contain synthetic fragrances, preservatives, parabens, mineral oil, and chemical dyes. Because of this, many dermatologists consider mineral makeup to be purer and kinder to the skin than makeup that contains those ingredients.[30]
However, some mineral makeups contain Bismuth oxychloride, which can be irritating to the skin of sensitive individuals. Others also contain talc, over which there is some controversy because of its comedogenic tendencies (tendency to clog pores and therefore cause acne) and because some people are sensitive to talc.
Because titanium dioxide and zinc oxide have anti-inflammatory properties, mineral makeups with those ingredients can also have a calming effect on the skin, which is particularly important for those who suffer from inflammatory problems such as rosacea. Zinc oxide is also anti-microbial,[31] so mineral makeups can be beneficial for those with acne.
Mineral makeup is noncomedogenic (as long as it doesn't contain talc), and it offers a mild amount of sun protection (because of the titanium dioxide and zinc oxide).[32]
Because they don't contain liquid ingredients, mineral makeups can last in their containers indefinitely as long as the user doesn't contaminate them with liquid.
Cosmetic compositions comprise pigment, essentially titanium dioxide and optionally fillers, and fatty binder. Fillers act as to improve the dispersion of pigment both at the time of preparation of the composition and during its spreading. Fillers also improve the cosmetics stability. The fatty binder is usually from oils and waxes of animal, vegetable or synthetic origin and their mixtures. The binder presents solid at room temperature. The fatty binder can additionally contain volatile oils (called spreading agents) which facilitate the spreading of the composition during application on the skin. The pigments can be inorganic pigment or organic pigments. Pigment particle size could be ranging from 0.01 to 0.15 microns and more preferably for 0.01 to 0.03 microns. Cosmetics products must be homogeneous and stable during the application. Basically, the pigment raw material has the relative large and irregular particle. The pigment is usually ground in aqueous medium in regular ball mill to reduce the pigment particle size. In this step, the pigment can go down to about 10-15 micron. However, a reagglomeration of the various particles is observed after the above grinding and drying. Due to the agglomeration, the compositions are visually appealing, often poorly stable and cover poorly. Therefore, pigments and other ingredients in the cosmetic need to be further ground through some specific milling apparatus to form a homogeneous and fine particle dispersed paste like products (the ideal pigment particle size should be in 10-30 nm).[33]
Generally, the mixture of the raw materials is processed by the shearing stress apparatus for the homogeneous kneading. The applied shearing apparatus could be a three roll mill, a colloid mill, a sand grinder mill, a Gaulin homogenizer and so on. A three-roll mill is used to the greatest advantage.[34]
Sand mills, vertical cylinders filled with grinding media, operate on the principle that small mill media stir rapidly in the presence of the pigment slurry. Dispersion takes place as a result of pigment shearing as it rises through shaft impeller. Dispersion of the pigment depends strongly on the media size. Therefore, sand mills is hard to decrease the particle size to the nano range.[35]
Colloid mill uses stone grinding discs. The upper stone is stationary and the lower stone is rotating fast at speeds upt to 3600 revs per minute. The low viscosity slurry is fed into the center of the static top stone by gravity and is passed between the two stones by centrifugal force, where it is subjected to extreme turbulence and shear forces to affect the dispersion. Colloid mill can reach the very fine particle size. However the limitation is that the colloid mill size is usually small and not suitable to treat a big batch material.
Three-roll mill consists of three rollers which are made from chilled steel or granite, run parallel to each other, and each one rotates at a different speed, and each contact face passes in the opposite direction to the adjacent roller. The gap between them, the nip, can be adjusted. The mill base is fed into the nip between rollers one and two and the final product is taken from roller three by means of a scraper bar.[36]
Among these mills, the three-roll mill is preferred since all paste compositions are experienced the shear force when they go through the gap. Therefore the more homogenous structure can be reached by this process. The particle size could go down to nanosize range. The gap between the rolls may be adjusted to control the fines of dispersion. The loading capacity could be easily adjusted through the machine design.[37]
The manufacture of cosmetics is currently dominated by a small number of multinational corporations that originated in the early 20th century, but the distribution and sale of cosmetics is spread among a wide range of different businesses. The market volume of the cosmetics industry in the US, Europe, and Japan is about EUR 70B/y, according to a 2005 publication.[1] In Germany, the cosmetic industry generated sales of EUR 12.6 billion at retail sales, in 2008[38] which made of German cosmetic industry the 3rd in the world, after Japan and the United States. Also, it has been shown that in the same country, this industry has grown with nearly 5 percent in one year, from 2007 to 2008. The exports of Germany in this industry reached in 2008 EUR 5.8 billion whereas the imports of cosmetics totaled EUR 3 billion.[38] The main countries that export cosmetics to Germany are France, Switzerland, the United States and Italy and they mainly consist of makeup and fragrances or perfumes for women.
The worldwide cosmetics and perfume industry currently generates an estimated annual turnover of US$170 billion (according to Eurostaf - May 2007). Europe is the leading market, representing approximately €63 billion, while sales in France reached €6.5 billion in 2006, according to FIPAR (Fédération des Industries de la Parfumerie - the French federation for the perfume industry).[39] France is another country in which the cosmetic industry plays an important role, both nationally and internationally. Most products on whose label it is stated "Made in France" are valued on the international market. According to data from 2008, the cosmetic industry has risen constantly in France, for 40 consecutive years. In 2006, this industrial sector reached a record level of EUR 6.5 billion. Famous cosmetic brands produced in France include Vichy, Yves Saint Laurent, Yves Rocher and many others.
The Italian cosmetic industry is also an important player in the European cosmetic market. Although not as large as in other European countries, the cosmetic industry in Italy was estimated to reach EUR 9 billion in 2007.[40] The Italian cosmetic industry is however dominated by hair and body products and not makeup as in many other European countries. In Italy, hair and body products make up approximately 30% of the cosmetic market. Makeup and facial care however are the first cosmetic products to be exported in the United States.
Due to the popularity of cosmetics, especially fragrances and perfumes, many designers who are not necessarily involved in the cosmetic industry came up with different perfumes carrying their names. Moreover, some actors and singers have their own perfume line (such as Celine Dion). The designer perfumes are, like any other designer products, the most expensive in the industry as the consumer pays not only for the product but also for the brand. Famous Italian fragrances are produced by Giorgio Armani, Dolce and Gabbana and so on.
Recently, Procter & Gamble, which sells CoverGirl and Dolce & Gabbana makeup, funded a study[41] concluding that makeup makes women seem more competent.[42] Due to the source of funding, the quality of this Boston University study comes into question.
The cosmetic industry worldwide seems to be continuously developing, now more than ever with the advent of the Internet companies. Many famous companies sell their cosmetic products online also in countries in which they do not have representatives.
Research on the email marketing of cosmetics to consumers suggests they are goal-oriented with email content that is seen as useful motivating them to visit a store to try the cosmetics or talk to sales representatives. Useful content included special sales offerings and new product information rather than makeup trends.[43]
The main directive in the EU affecting the manufacture, labelling and supply of cosmetics and personal care products is the Cosmetics Directive 76/768/EEC.[44] It applies to all the countries of the EU as well as Iceland, Norway and Switzerland. These regulations apply to single-person companies making or importing just one product as well as to large multinationals. In the UK the directive is enacted as the Cosmetic Product (safety) Regulations 2008.[45] For manufacturers and importers of cosmetic products it is necessary to comply to the applying regulations in order to sell their products. In this industry it is common fall back on a suitably qualified person, such as an independent third party inspection and testing company, to verify the cosmetics’ compliance against the requirements of applicable cosmetic regulations and other relevant legislation, including REACH, GMP, hazardous substances, etc.[46][47]
In the European Union, the circulation of cosmetic products and their safety are law subjects since 1976. One of the newest amendments of the directive concerning cosmetic industry comes as a result of the attempt to ban animal testing. Therefore, testing cosmetic products on animals is illegal in the European Union from September 2004 and testing separate ingredients of such products on animals is also prohibited by law starting with March 2009.[48]
In the U.S. the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the body making legislation in what concerns cosmetic industry and its various aspects within the United States.[49] The FDA joined with thirteen other Federal agencies in forming the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) in 1997 which is an attempt to ban animal testing and find other methods to test the cosmetic products.[50]
An account executive is responsible for visiting all department and specialty store counter sales and doors. They explain new products and "gifts with purchase" (free items given out upon purchase of a certain cosmetics item that costs more than a set amount).
A beauty adviser provides product advice based on the client's skin care and makeup requirements. Beauty advisers can become certified through the Anti-Aging Beauty Institute.
A cosmetician is a professional who provides facial and body treatments for clients. The term cosmetologist is sometimes used interchangeably with this term, but most commonly refers to a certified professional. A freelance makeup artist provides clients with beauty advice and cosmetics assistance—usually paid by the cosmetic company by the hour, however they sometimes work as independently without a company.
Professionals in cosmetics marketing careers manage research focus groups, promote the desired brand image, and provide other marketing services (sales forecasting, allocation to different retailers, etc.).
Many involved within the cosmetics industry often specialize in a certain area of cosmetics such as special effects makeup or makeup techniques specific to the film, media and fashion sectors.
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