endocrine disruptor

• 内分泌攪乱物質

関

endocrine-disrupting chemical

WordNet

1. throw into disorder; "This event disrupted the orderly process"
2. of or belonging to endocrine glands or their secretions; "endocrine system" (同)endocrinal

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. …‘を'混乱させる / (一時的に)…‘を'中断させる
2. 内分泌(ぶんぴつ)の / 内分泌物;内分泌腺(せん)

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/12/10 00:50:03」(JST)

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

A comparison of the structures of the natural hormone estradiol (left) and one of the nonyl-phenols (right), an endocrine disruptor.

Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interfere with endocrine (or hormone system) in animals, including humans. These disruptions can cause cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other developmental disorders. Specifically, they are known to cause learning disabilities, severe attention deficit disorder, cognitive and brain development problems, deformations of the body (including limbs); sexual development problems, feminizing of males or masculine effects on females, etc. Any system in the body controlled by hormones, can be derailed by hormone disruptors. The critical period of development for most organisms is between the transition from a fertilized egg, into a fully formed infant. As the cells begin to grow and differentiate, there are critical balances of hormones and protein changes that must occur. Therefore, a dose of disrupting chemicals can do substantial damage to a developing fetus (baby). The same dose may not significantly affect adult mothers—for a more scientific explanation, see below.

Endocrine disruptors are substances that "interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action, or elimination of natural hormones in the body that are responsible for development, behavior, fertility, and maintenance of homeostasis (normal cell metabolism)." They are sometimes also referred to as hormonally active agents, endocrine disrupting chemicals, or endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs).

EDC studies have shown that endocrine disruptors can cause adverse biological effects in animals, and low-level exposures also cause similar effects in human beings. The term endocrine disruptor is often used as synonym for xenohormone although the latter can mean any naturally occurring or artificially produced compound showing hormone-like properties (usually binding to certain hormonal receptors).

History of the field of endocrine disruption

The term endocrine disruptor was coined at the Wingspread Conference Centre in Wisconsin, in 1991. One of the early papers on the phenomenon was by Theo Colborn in 1993. In this paper, she stated that environmental chemicals disrupt the development of the endocrine system, and that effects of exposure during development are often permanent. Although the endocrine disruption has been disputed by some, work sessions from 1992 to 1999 have generated consensus statements from scientists regarding the hazard from endocrine disruptors, particularly in wildlife and also in humans. The Endocrine Society released a scientific statement outlining mechanisms and effects of endocrine disruptors on “male and female reproduction, breast development and cancer, prostate cancer, neuroendocrinology, thyroid, metabolism and obesity, and cardiovascular endocrinology,” and showing how experimental and epidemiological studies converge with human clinical observations “to implicate EDCs as a significant concern to public health.” The statement noted that it is difficult to show that endocrine disruptors cause human diseases, and it recommended that the precautionary principle should be followed. A concurrent statement expresses policy concerns.

Endocrine disrupting compounds encompass a variety of chemical classes, including drugs, pesticides, compounds used in the plastics industry and in consumer products, industrial by-products and pollutants, and even some naturally produced botanical chemicals. Some are pervasive and widely dispersed in the environment and may bio-accumulate. Some are persistent organic pollutants (POP's), and can be transported long distances across national boundaries and have been found in virtually all regions of the world, and may even concentrate near the North Pole, due to weather patterns and cold conditions. Others are rapidly degraded in the environment or human body or may be present for only short periods of time. Health effects attributed to endocrine disrupting compounds include a range of reproductive problems (reduced fertility, male and female reproductive tract abnormalities, and skewed male/female sex ratios, loss of fetus, menstrual problems); changes in hormone levels; early puberty; brain and behavior problems; impaired immune functions; and various cancers.

One example of the consequences of the exposure of developing animals, including humans, to hormonally active agents is the case of the drug diethylstilbestrol (DES), a non-steroidal estrogen and not an environmental pollutant. Prior to its ban in the early 1970s, doctors prescribed DES to as many as five million pregnant women to block spontaneous abortion, an off-label use of this medication prior to 1947. It was discovered after the children went through puberty that DES affected the development of the reproductive system and caused vaginal cancer. The relevance of the DES saga to the risks of exposure to endocrine disruptors is questionable, as the doses involved are much higher in these individuals than in those due to environmental exposures.

Aquatic life subjected to endocrine disruptors in an urban effluent have experienced decreased levels of serotonin and increased feminization.

Endocrine system

Main article: Endocrine system

Endocrine systems are found in most varieties of animals. The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones, and receptors that detect and react to the hormones.

Hormones travel throughout the body and act as chemical messengers. Hormones interface with cells that contain matching receptors in or on their surfaces. The hormone binds with the receptor, much like a key would fit into a lock. The endocrine system regulates adjustments through slower internal processes, using hormones as messengers. The endocrine system secretes hormones in response to environmental stimuli and to orchestrate developmental and reproductive changes. The adjustments brought on by the endocrine system are biochemical, changing the cell's internal and external chemistry to bring about a long term change in the body. These systems work together to maintain the proper functioning of the body through its entire life cycle. Sex steroids such as estrogens and androgens, as well as thyroid hormones, are subject to feedback regulation, which tends to limit the sensitivity of these glands.

Hormones work at very small doses (part per billion ranges). Endocrine disruption can thereby also occur from low-dose exposure to exogenous hormones or hormonally active chemicals that can interfere with receptors for other hormonally mediated processes. Furthermore, since endogenous hormones are already present in the body in biologically active concentrations, additional exposure to relatively small amounts of exogenous hormonally active substances can disrupt the proper functioning of the body's endocrine system. Thus, an endocrine disruptor can elicit adverse effects at much lower doses than a toxicity, acting through a different mechanism.

The timing of exposure is also critical. Most critical stages of development occur in utero, where the fertilized egg divides, rapidly developing every structure of a fully formed baby, including much of the wiring in the brain. Interfering with the hormonal communication in utero can have profound effects both structurally and toward brain development. Depending on the stage of reproductive development, interference with hormonal signaling can result in irreversible effects not seen in adults exposed to the same dose for the same length of time. Experiments with animals have identified critical developmental time points in utero and days after birth when exposure to chemicals that interfere with or mimic hormones have adverse effects that persist into adulthood. Disruption of thyroid function early in development may be the cause of abnormal sexual development in both males and females early motor development impairment, and learning disabilities.

There are studies of cell cultures, laboratory animals, wildlife, and accidentally exposed humans that show that environmental chemicals cause a wide range of reproductive, developmental, growth, and behavior effects, and so while "endocrine disruption in humans by pollutant chemicals remains largely undemonstrated, the underlying science is sound and the potential for such effects is real." While compounds that produce estrogenic, androgenic, antiandrogenic, and antithyroid actions have been studied, less is known about interactions with other hormones.

The interrelationship between exposures to chemicals and health effects are rather complex. It is hard to definitively link a particular chemical with a specific health effect, and exposed adults may not show any ill effects. But, fetuses and embryos, whose growth and development are highly controlled by the endocrine system, are more vulnerable to exposure and may suffer overt or subtle lifelong health and/or reproductive abnormalities. Prebirth exposure, in some cases, can lead to permanent alterations and adult diseases.

Some in the scientific community are concerned that exposure to endocrine disruptors in the womb or early in life may be associated with neurodevelopmental disorders including reduced IQ, ADHD, and autism. Certain cancers and uterine abnormalities in women are associated with exposure to DES in the womb due to DES used as a medical treatment.

In another case, phthalates in pregnant women’s urine was linked to subtle, but specific, genital changes in their male infants – a shorter, more female-like anogenital distance and associated incomplete descent of testes and a smaller scrotum and penis. The science behind this study has been questioned by phthalate industry consultants. As of June 2008, there are only five studies of anogenital distance in humans, and one researcher has stated "Whether AGD measures in humans relate to clinically important outcomes, however, remains to be determined, as does its utility as a measure of androgen action in epidemiologic studies."

Dose-response controversy

One major objection to the theory of endocrine disruptors is the dosage effect. There is a large gap between high exposures seen in a laboratory experiment versus the relatively low levels found in the environment. Critics argue that dose-response relationship data suggest that the amounts of the chemicals actually in the environment are too low to cause an effect. A consensus statement by the Learning and Development Disabilities Initiative rebuts this criticism arguing that "The very low-dose effects of endocrine disruptors can not be predicted from high-dose studies, which contradicts the standard 'dose makes the poison' rule of toxicology. Nontraditional dose-response curves are referred to as nonmonotonic dose response curves." Furthermore, endocrine disrupting effects have been noted in animals exposed to environmentally relevant levels of some chemicals. For example, researchers have found that a common flame retardant, PBDE-47, affects the reproductive system and thyroid gland of female rats in doses of the order of those to which humans are exposed.

The dosage objection could also be overcome if low concentrations of different endocrine disruptors were synergistic, which was asserted in a paper by Arnold. This paper was published in Science in June 1996, and was one reason for the passage of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. The results could not be confirmed with the same and alternative methodologies, and the original paper was retracted, with Arnold found to have committed scientific misconduct by the United States Office of Research Integrity. Subsequent papers by other authors demonstrated that low concentrations of endocrine disruptors can have synergistic effects in amphibians, but it is not clear that this is an effect mediated through the endocrine system.

The conventional relationship (more exposure equals higher risk) has been challenged by some studying endocrine disruptors. For example, it has been claimed that Tamoxifen and some phthalates have fundamentally different (and harmful) effects on the body at low doses than at high doses.

Routes of exposure

Food is a major mechanism by which people are exposed to pollutants. Diet is thought to account for up to 90% of a person's PCB and DDT body burden. In a study of 32 different common food products from three grocery stores in Dallas, fish and other animal products were found to be contaminated with PBDE. Since these compounds are fat soluble, it is likely they are accumulating from the environment in the fatty tissue of animals we eat. Some suspect fish consumption is a major source of many environmental contaminates. Indeed, both wild and farmed salmon from all over the world have been shown to contain a variety of man-made organic compounds.

With the increase in household products containing pollutants and the decrease in the quality of building ventilation, indoor air has become a significant source of pollutant exposure. Residents living in homes with wood floors treated in the 1960s with PCB-based wood finish have a much higher body burden than the general population. A study of indoor house dust and dryer lint of 16 homes found high levels of all 22 different PBDE congeners tested for in all samples. Recent studies suggest that contaminated house dust, not food, may be the major source of PBDE in our bodies. One study estimated that ingestion of house dust accounts for up to 82% of our PBDE body burden.

Research conducted by the Environmental Working Group found that 19 out of 20 children tested had levels of PBDE in their blood 3.5 times higher than the amount in their mothers' blood. It has been shown that contaminated housedust is a primary source of lead in young children's bodies. It may be that babies and toddlers ingest more contaminated housedust than the adults they live with, and therefore have much higher levels of pollutants in their systems.

Consumer goods are another potential source of exposure to endocrine disruptors. An analysis of the composition of 42 household cleaning and personal care products versus 43 "chemical free" products has been performed. The products contained 55 different chemical compounds: 50 were found in the 42 conventional samples representing 170 product types, while 41 were detected in 43 "chemical free" samples representing 39 product types. Parabens, a class of chemicals that has been associated with reproductive-tract issues, were detected in seven of the "chemical free" products, including three sunscreens that did not list parabens on the label. Vinyl products such as shower curtains were found to contain more than 10% by weight of the compound DEHP, which when present in dust has been associated with asthma and wheezing in children. The risk of exposure to chemical compounds increases as products, both conventional and "chemical free," are used in combination. "If a consumer used the alternative surface cleaner, tub and tile cleaner, laundry detergent, bar soap, shampoo and conditioner, facial cleanser and lotion, and toothpaste [he or she] would potentially be exposed to at least 19 compounds: 2 parabens, 3 phthalates, MEA, DEA, 5 alkylphenols, and 7 fragrances."

An analysis of the endocrine disrupting chemicals in Old Order Mennonite women in mid-pregnancy determined that they have much lower levels in their systems than the general population. Mennonites eat mostly fresh, unprocessed foods, farm without pesticides, and use few or no cosmetics or personal care products. One woman who had reported using hairspray and perfume had high levels of monoethyl phthalate, while the other women all had levels below detection. Three women who reported being in a car or truck within 48 hours of providing a urine sample had higher levels of diethylhexyl phthalate which is found in polyvinyl chloride, and is used in car interiors.

Types of endocrine disruptors

All people are exposed to chemicals with estrogenic effects in their everyday life, because endocrine disrupting chemicals are found in low doses in thousands of products. Chemicals commonly detected in people include DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), bisphenol A (BPA), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE's), and a variety of phthalates. There is some dispute in the scientific community surrounding the claim that these chemicals actually disrupt the endocrine system. Many believe that there is little evidence that the degree of exposure in humans is enough to warrant concern, while many others believe there is evidence that these chemicals pose some risk to human health.

Some researchers are investigating the health risks to children of endocrine disrupting chemicals. Bisphenol A, until 2010 a common component in the plastic used to manufacture plastic baby bottles, has been banned in most countries. In 2010, despite strong industry opposition, Canada was the first to ban BPA's use in baby bottles. Australia and the European Union followed in 2011. Several states in the United States had banned its use by 2011, and in 2012 a nation-wide ban was put in place.

Xenoestrogens

Main article: Xenoestrogen

Xenoestrogens are a type of xenohormone that imitates estrogen. Synthetic xenoestrogens include widely used industrial compounds, such as PCBs, BPA and phthalates, which have estrogenic effects on a living organism.

Alkylphenols

Main article: Alkylphenols

Alkylphenols are xenoestrogens. The European Union has implemented sales and use restrictions on certain applications in which nonylphenols are used because of their alleged "toxicity, persistence, and the liability to bioaccumulate" but the United States EPA has taken a slower approach to make sure that action is based on "sound science".

Bisphenol A (BPA)

Main article: Bisphenol A

Bisphenol A chemical structure

Bisphenol A is commonly found in plastic bottles, plastic food containers, dental materials, and the linings of metal food and infant formula cans. Another exposure comes from receipt paper commonly used at grocery stores and restaurants, because today the paper is commonly coated with a BPA containing clay for printing purposes.

BPA is a known endocrine disruptor, and numerous studies have found that laboratory animals exposed to low levels of it have elevated rates diabetes, mammary and prostate cancers, decreased sperm count, reproductive problems, early puberty, obesity, and neurological problems. Early developmental stages appear to be the period of greatest sensitivity to its effects, and some studies have linked prenatal exposure to later physical and neurological difficulties. Regulatory bodies have determined safety levels for humans, but those safety levels are currently being questioned or are under review as a result of new scientific studies. A 2011 study that investigated the number of chemicals pregnant women are exposed to in the U.S. found BPA in 96% of women.

In 2010 the World Health Organization expert panel recommended no new regulations limiting or banning the use of Bisphenol-A, stating that "initiation of public health measures would be premature."

In August 2008, the U.S. FDA issued a draft reassessment, reconfirming their initial opinion that, based on scientific evidence, it is safe. However in October 2008, FDA's advisory Science Board concluded that the Agency's assessment was "flawed" and hadn't proven the chemical to be safe for formula-fed infants. In January 2010, the FDA issued a report indicating that, due to findings of recent studies that used novel approaches in testing for subtle effects, both the National Toxicology Program at the National Institutes of Health as well as the FDA have some level of concern regarding the possible effects of BPA on the brain and behavior of fetuses, infants and younger children. In 2012 the FDA did ban the use of BPA in baby bottles, however the Environmental Working Group called the ban "purely cosmetic". In a statement they said,“If the agency truly wants to prevent people from being exposed to this toxic chemical associated with a variety of serious and chronic conditions it should ban its use in cans of infant formula, food and beverages." The Natural Resources Defense Council called the move inadequate saying, the FDA needs to ban BPA from all food packaging. In a statement a FDA spokesman said the agency's action was not based on safety concerns and that "the agency continues to support the safety of BPA for use in products that hold food."

Uses of long-chain alkylphenols

The long-chain alkylphenols are used extensively as precursors to the detergents, as additives for fuels and lubricants, polymers, and as components in phenolic resins. These compounds are also used as building block chemicals that are also used in making fragrances, thermoplastic elastomers, antioxidants, oil field chemicals and fire retardant materials. Through the downstream use in making alkylphenolic resins, alkylphenols are also found in tires, adhesives, coatings, carbonless copypaper and high performance rubber products. They have been used in industry for over 40 years.

Certain alkylphenols are degradation products from nonionic detergents. Nonylphenol is considered to be a low-level endocrine disruptor owing to its tendency to mimic estrogen.

DDT

Main article: DDT

DDT Chemical structure

Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) was first used as a pesticide against Colorado potato beetles on crops beginning in 1936. An increase in the incidence of malaria, epidemic typhus, dysentery, and typhoid fever led to its use against the mosquitoes, lice, and houseflies that carried these diseases. Before World War II, pyrethrum, an extract of a flower from Japan, had been used to control these insects and the diseases they can spread. During World War II, Japan stopped exporting pyrethrum, forcing the search for an alternative. Fearing an epidemic outbreak of typhus, every British and American soldier was issued DDT, who used it to routinely dust beds, tents, and barracks all over the world.

DDT was approved for general, non-military use after the war ended. It became used worldwide to increase monoculture crop yields that were threatened by pest infestation, and to reduce the spread of malaria which had a high mortality rate in many parts of the world. Its use for agricultural purposes has since been prohibited by national legislation of most countries, while its use as a control against malaria vectors is permitted, as specifically stated by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

As early as 1946, the harmful effects of DDT on bird, beneficial insects, fish, and marine invertebrates were seen in the environment. The most infamous example of these effects were seen in the eggshells of large predatory birds, which did not develop to be thick enough to support the adult bird sitting on them. Further studies found DDT in high concentrations in carnivores all over the world, the result of biomagnification through the food chain. Twenty years after its widespread use, DDT was found trapped in ice samples taken from Antarctic snow, suggesting wind and water are another means of environmental transport. Recent studies show the historical record of DDT deposition on remote glaciers in the Himalayas.

More than sixty years ago when biologists began to study the effects of DDT on laboratory animals, it was discovered that DDT interfered with reproductive development. Recent studies suggest DDT may inhibit the proper development of female reproductive organs that adversely affects reproduction into maturity. Additional studies suggest that a marked decrease in fertility in adult males may be due to DDT exposure. Most recently, it has been suggested that exposure to DDT in utero can increase a child's risk of childhood obesity. DDT is still used as anti-malarial insecticide in Africa and parts of Southeast Asia in limited quantities.

Polychlorinated biphenyls

Main article: Polychlorinated biphenyls

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a class of chlorinated compounds used as industrial coolants and lubricants. PCBs are created by heating benzene, a byproduct of gasoline refining, with chlorine. They were first manufactured commercially by the Swann Chemical Company in 1927. In 1933, the health effects of direct PCB exposure was seen in those who worked with the chemicals at the manufacturing facility in Alabama. In 1935, Monsanto acquired the company, taking over US production and licensing PCB manufacturing technology internationally.

General Electric was one of the largest US companies to incorporate PCBs into manufactured equipment. Between 1952 and 1977, the New York GE plant had dumped more than 500,000 pounds of PCB waste into the Hudson River. PCBs were first discovered in the environment far from its industrial use by scientists in Sweden studying DDT.

The effects of acute exposure to PCBs were well known within the companies who used Monsanto's PCB formulation who saw the effects on their workers who came into contact with it regularly. Direct skin contact results in a severe acne-like condition called chloracne. Exposure increases the risk of skin cancer, liver cancer, and brain cancer. Monsanto tried for years to downplay the health problems related to PCB exposure in order to continue sales.

The detrimental health effects of PCB exposure to humans became undeniable when two separate incidents of contaminated cooking oil poisoned thousands of residents in Japan (Yushō disease, 1968) and Taiwan (Yu-cheng disease, 1979), leading to a worldwide ban on PCB use in 1977. Recent studies show the endocrine interference of certain PCB congeners is toxic to the liver and thyroid, increases childhood obesity in children exposed prenatally, and may increase the risk of developing diabetes.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Main article: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are a class of compounds found in flame retardants used in plastic cases of televisions and computers, electronics, carpets, lighting, bedding, clothing, car components, foam cushions and other textiles. Potential health concern: PBDE's are structurally very similar to Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and have similar neurotoxic effects. Research has correlated halogenated hydrocarbons, such as PCBs, with neurotoxicity. PBDEs are similar in chemical structure to PCBs, and it has been suggested that PBDEs act by the same mechanism as PCBs.

In the 1930s and 1940s, the plastics industry developed technologies to create a variety of plastics with broad applications. Once World War II began, the US military used these new plastic materials to improve weapons, protect equipment, and to replace heavy components in aircraft and vehicles. After WWII, manufacturers saw the potential plastics could have in many industries, and plastics were incorporated into new consumer product designs. Plastics began to replace wood and metal in existing products as well, and today plastics are the most widely used manufacturing materials.

By the 1960s, all homes were wired with electricity and had numerous electrical appliances. Cotton and wood had been the dominant textile used to produce home furnishings, but now their home furnishings were composed of mostly synthetic materials. More than 500 billion cigarettes were consumed each year in the 1960s, as compared to less than 3 billion per year at the turn of the century. When combined with high density living, the potential for home fires was higher in the 1960s than it had ever been in the US. By the late 1970s, approximately 6000 people in the US died each year in home fires.

In 1972, in response to this situation, the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control was created to study the fire problem in the US. In 1973 they published their findings in America Burning, a 192-page report that made recommendations to increase fire prevention. Most of the recommendations dealt with fire prevention education and improved building engineering, such as the installation of fire sprinklers and smoke detectors. The Commission expected that with the recommendations, a 5% reduction in fire losses could be expected each year, halving the annual losses within 14 years.

Historically, treatments with alum and borax were used to reduce the flammability of fabric and wood, as far back as Roman times. Since it is a non-absorbent material once created, flame retardant chemicals are added to plastic during the polymerization reaction when it is formed. Organic compounds based on halogens like bromine and chlorine are used as the flame retardant additive in plastics, and in fabric based textiles as well. The widespread use of brominated flame retardants may be due to the push from Great Lakes Chemical Corporation (GLCC) to profit from its huge investment in bromine. In 1992, the world market consumed approximately 150,000 tonnes of bromine-based flame retardants, and GLCC produced 30% of the world supply.

PBDEs have the potential to disrupt thyroid hormone balance and contribute to a variety of neurological and developmental deficits, including low intelligence and learning disabilities. Many of the most common PBDE's were banned in the European Union in 2006. Studies with rodents have suggested that even brief exposure to PBDEs can cause developmental and behavior problems in juveniles and exposure interferes with proper thyroid hormone regulation.

Phthalates

Main article: Phthalates

Phthalates are found in some soft toys, flooring, medical equipment, cosmetics and air fresheners. They are of potential health concern because they are known to disrupt the endocrine system of animals, and some research has implicated them in the rise of birth defects of the male reproductive system.

Although an expert panel has concluded that there is "insufficient evidence" that they can harm the reproductive system of infants, California and Europe have banned them from toys. One phthalate, Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), used in medical tubing, catheters and blood bags, may harm sexual development in male infants. In 2002, the Food and Drug Administration released a public report which cautioned against exposing male babies to DEHP. Although there are no direct human studies the FDA report states: "Exposure to DEHP has produced a range of adverse effects in laboratory animals, but of greatest concern are effects on the development of the male reproductive system and production of normal sperm in young animals. In view of the available animal data, precautions should be taken to limit the exposure of the developing male to DEHP". Similarly, phthalates may play a causal role in disrupting masculine neurological development when exposed prenatally.

Perfluorooctanoic acid

PFOA exerts hormonal effects including alteration of thyroid hormone levels. Blood serum levels of PFOA were associated with an increased time to pregnancy — or "infertility" — in a 2009 study. PFOA exposure is associated with decreased semen quality. PFOA appeared to act as an endocrine disruptor by a potential mechanism on breast maturation in young girls. A C8 Science Panel status report noted an association between exposure in girls and a later onset of puberty.

Other suspected endocrine disruptors

Some other examples of putative EDCs are polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins (PCDDs) and -furans (PCDFs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenol derivatives and a number of pesticides (most prominent being organochlorine insecticides like endosulfan and DDT and its derivatives, the herbicide atrazine, and the fungicide vinclozolin), the contraceptive 17-alpha ethinylestradiol, as well as naturally occurring phytoestrogens such as genistein and mycoestrogens such as zearalenone.

The molting in crustaceans is an endocrine-controlled process. In the marine penaeid shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, exposure to endosulfan resulted increased susceptibility to acute toxicity and increased mortalities in the postmolt stage of the shrimp.

Temporal trends of body burden

Since being banned, the average human body burdens of DDT and PCB have been declining. Since their ban in 1972, the PCB body burden is 1/100 of what it was in the early 1980s (Weschler 2009). Monitoring programs of European breast milk samples have shown that PBDE levels are increasing. An analysis of PBDE content in breast milk samples from Europe, Canada, and the US shows that levels are 40 times higher for North American women than for European women, and that levels in North America are doubling each year.

Legal approach

The multitude of possible endocrine disruptors are technically regulated in the United States by many laws, including: the Toxic Substances Control Act, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, the Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Clean Air Act.

The Congress of the United States has improved the evaluation and regulation process of drugs and other chemicals. The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 and the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1996 simultaneously provided the first legislative direction requiring the EPA to address endocrine disruption through establishment of a program for screening and testing of chemical substances.

In 1998 the EPA announced the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program by establishment of a framework for priority setting, screening and testing more than 85,000 chemicals in commerce. The basic concept behind the program is that prioritization will be based on existing information about chemical uses, production volume, structure-activity and toxicity. Screening is done by use of in vitro test systems (by examining, for instance, if an agent interacts with the estrogen receptor or the androgen receptor) and via the use of in animal models, such as development of tadpoles and uterine growth in prepubertal rodents. Full scale testing will examine effects not only in mammals (rats) but also in a number of other species (frogs, fish, birds and invertebrates). Since the theory involves the effects of these substances on a functioning system, animal testing is essential for scientific validity, but has been opposed by animal rights groups. Similarly, proof that these effects occur in humans would require human testing, and such testing also has opposition.

After failing to meet several deadlines to begin testing, the EPA finally announced that they were ready to begin the process of testing dozens of chemical entities that are suspected endocrine disruptors early in 2007, eleven years after the program was announced. When the final structure of the tests was announced there was objection to their design. Critics have charged that the entire process has been compromised by chemical company interference. In 2005, the EPA appointed a panel of experts to conduct an open peer-review of the program and its orientation. Their results found that "the long-term goals and science questions in the EDC program are appropriate", however this study was conducted over a year before the EPA announced the final structure of the screening program.

Environmental and human body cleanup

There is evidence that once a pollutant is no longer in use, or once its use is heavily restricted, the human body burden of that pollutant declines. Through the efforts of several large-scale monitoring programs, the most prevalent pollutants in the human population are fairly well known. The first step in reducing the body burden of these pollutants is enacting policies that eliminate or phase out their production.

The second step toward lowering human body burden is awareness of and potentially labeling foods that are likely to contain high amounts of pollutants. This strategy has worked in the past - pregnant and nursing women are cautioned against eating seafood that is known to accumulate high levels of mercury. Ideally, a certification process should be in place to routinely test animal products for POP concentrations. This would help the consumer identify which foods have the highest levels of pollutants.

The most challenging aspect^{[citation needed]} of this problem is discovering how to eliminate these compounds from the environment and where to focus remediation efforts. Even pollutants no longer in production persist in the environment, and bio-accumulate in the food chain. An understanding of how these chemicals, once in the environment, move through ecosystems, is essential to designing ways to isolate and remove them. Working backwards through the food chain may help to identify areas to prioritize for remediation efforts. This may be extremely challenging for contaminated fish and marine mammals that have a large habitat and who consume fish from many different areas throughout their lives.

Many persistent organic compounds, PCB, DDT and PBDE included, accumulate in river and marine sediments. Several processes are currently being used by the EPA to clean up heavily polluted areas, as outlined in their Green Remediation program.

One of the most interesting ways is the utilization of naturally occurring microbes that degrade PCB congeners to remediate contaminated areas.

There are many success stories of cleanup efforts of large heavily contaminated Superfund sites. A 10-acre (40,000 m²) landfill in Austin, Texas contaminated with illegally dumped VOCs was restored in a year to a wetland and educational park.

A US uranium enrichment site that was contaminated with uranium and PCBs was cleaned up with high tech equipment used to find the pollutants within the soil. The soil and water at a polluted wetlands site were cleaned of VOCs, PCBs and lead, native plants were installed as biological filters, and a community program was implemented to ensure ongoing monitoring of pollutant concentrations in the area. These case studies are encouraging due to the short amount of time needed to remediate the site and the high level of success achieved.

See also

• Endocrine system
• Hormone
• Obesogen
• Xenoestrogen
• Precautionary principle
• Theo Colborn
• John Sumpter

References

External links

• "Global assessment of the state-of-the-science of endocrine disruptors". International Programme on Chemical Safety. World Health Organization. 2002. http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/new_issues/endocrine_disruptors/en/. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
  • "Scientific Facts on Endocrine Disruptors". GreenFacts. http://www.greenfacts.org/en/endocrine-disruptors/endocrine-disruptors.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-14. "a peer-reviewed summary of the above WHO assessment, by GreenFacts"
• "Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals". Center for Bioenvironmental Research at Tulane and Xavier Universities. http://e.hormone.tulane.edu/learning/learning.html. Retrieved 2009-03-14. "NSF sponsored Environmental Signalling Network's website"
• "EUROPA - Environment - Endocrine disrupters". European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/endocrine/index_en.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-14. "The EU strategy on EDCs"
• "Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program". United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/scipoly/oscpendo/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-14. "US EPA (strategy) on EDCs"
• Connor EL (2008-03-20). "Endocrine Disruptors: Fact vs. Fad - IME Video Library". University of Wisconsin - Madison Health Sciences Learning Center. http://videos.med.wisc.edu/videoInfo.php?videoid=2386. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
• Botham C, Holmes P (2005-03-01). "Chemicals purported to be endocrine disruptors: A complication of published lists". Leicester, UK, MRC Institute for Environment and Health. http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/health/researchareas/environmenthealth/ieh/ieh%20publications/w20.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
• "Our Stolen Future". www.OurStolenFuture.org. http://www.ourstolenfuture.org/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-14. "Synopses of new scientific findings about endocrine disruption"
• Daly G (2006). "OnEarth Magazine, Winter 2006 - Bad Chemistry: A Special Report". Natural Resources Defense Council. http://www.nrdc.org/onearth/06win/chem1.asp. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
• Hamilton D (1998). "Fooling with nature: interviews: Theo Colborn". Frontline. The Public Broadcasting system and WGBH Boston Educational Foundation. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/nature/interviews/colborn.html. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
• Krimsky S (2000). Hormonal chaos: the scientific and social origins of the environmental endocrine hypothesis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6279-5. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title_pages/1736.html.
• "Sex-change chemicals in Potomac". BBC News. 2007-01-18. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6275841.stm. Retrieved 2009-03-14.

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

• 1. 女性の生殖能力に影響を及ぼす職業リスクと環境リスクの概要 overview of occupational and environmental risks to reproduction in females
• 2. Definition; epidemiology; and etiology of obesity in children and adolescents
• 3. ジエチルスチルベストロール（DES）投与例の転帰およびフォローアップ outcome and follow up of diethylstilbestrol des exposed individuals
• 4. 男性不妊症の原因 causes of male infertility
• 5. 癌の治療中や治療後の小児に起きる睡眠障害 sleep disorders during and after cancer in children

English Journal

• Adult exposure to the synthetic hormone 17α-ethynylestradiol affects offspring of the gastropods Nassarius burchardi and Nassarius jonasii.

• Borysko L1, Ross PM2.Author information 1School of Science and Health, University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury K12, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South DC 1797, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.2School of Science and Health, University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury K12, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South DC 1797, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Electronic address: pm.ross@uws.edu.au.AbstractThe aim of this study was to determine whether adult exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds affects offspring using trans-generational testing. Adult estuarine dwelling gastropods Nassarius burchardi and Nassarius jonasii were exposed to the synthetic estrogen 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) to determine the effects on the development and survival of their offspring. Adults were maintained in synthetic seawater controls and EE2 treatments (0.005, 0.05, 0.5, 50µg/L) over a sixteen week period. Egg capsules were collected from the adults following four, ten and sixteen weeks of adult exposure and transferred to different EE2 exposure scenarios. Treatment concentrations were selected to represent changes in EE2 exposure that could occur over different periods in an organism's lifecycle. Egg capsules laid by adults were therefore transferred to control or EE2 treatments (0.005, 0.05, 0.5, 5, 50, 500µg/L) to develop until hatching. The percentage of egg capsules with unviable eggs and abnormalities, number of days for hatching to occur and hatching success were measured. The veliger larvae that hatched from egg capsules following two, eight and fourteen weeks of adult exposure to EE2 and controls were used in 96h acute toxicity tests with controls and EE2 treatments at concentrations of 0.5, 5, 50, 500, 1250, 2500, 4000µg/L. Exposure of adult N. burchardi and N. jonasii to EE2 affected the percentage of egg capsules with unviable eggs, the development and hatching success of embryos and survival of veligers. These toxicity tests produced a complex set of results with different responses in developing eggs and veliger larvae to the adult EE2 treatments and length of adult exposure. This study demonstrates the importance of trans-generational testing and adult exposure scenarios in toxicity investigations.
• Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.Ecotoxicol Environ Saf.2014 May;103:91-100. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2013.12.032. Epub 2014 Jan 24.
• The aim of this study was to determine whether adult exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds affects offspring using trans-generational testing. Adult estuarine dwelling gastropods Nassarius burchardi and Nassarius jonasii were exposed to the synthetic estrogen 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) to dete
• PMID 24462525

• Sub-NOAEL amounts of vinclozolin and xenoestrogens target rat chondrogenesis in vivo.

• Auxietre TA1, Dumontier MF1, Balguy I1, Frapart Y2, Canivenc-Lavier MC3, Berges R3, Boudalia S3, Auger J4, Corvol MT1, Savouret JF5.Author information 1INSERM UMRS747, Universite Paris Descartes, UFR Biomedicale, 45 rue des Saints Peres, Paris F-75006, France.2CNRS UMR 8601, Universite Paris Descartes, UFR Biomedicale, 45 rue des Saints Peres, Paris F-75006, France.3Centre des Sciences du Gout et de l'Alimentation, UMR 1324 CSGA, INRA, 17 rue Sully, BP 86510, Dijon F-21065, France.4Histologie-Embryologie, Biologie de la Reproduction, CECOS, Cochin/Broca/Hôtel Dieu, Hopitaux Universitaires Paris Centre, 53, avenue de l'Observatoire, Paris F-75014, France.5INSERM UMRS747, Universite Paris Descartes, UFR Biomedicale, 45 rue des Saints Peres, Paris F-75006, France. Electronic address: jfsavouret@gmail.com.AbstractSeveral endocrine disrupting compounds (EDC) elicit skeletal dysgenesis at pharmacological doses. We have investigated the impact of doses below the "No Observed Adverse Effect" (NOAEL) for vinclozolin (V), an anti-androgenic fungicide, alone or associated with xenoestrogens (Genistein, G and bisphenol-A, BPA). V, G, BPA and their combinations were administered orally to female Wistar rats during gestation and lactation. F1 and F2 offspring were investigated for skeletal anomalies at post-natal days 30, 110 (d30, d110). Skeletal development was monitored by measuring caudal vertebrae and long bones dimensions by X-ray micro-CT-scan. A significant increase in Inter Transverse Apophysis (ITA) distance at the upper head of caudal vertebrae, associated with a reduction in vertebral body height was observed in treated F1 females, but not males. Histometrical analysis of vertebral body growth plate cartilage was performed on serial sections of caudal vertebrae. F1 females but not males showed a diminution in growth plate thickness, with greater impact on the hypertrophic zone. All effects were maximal at d30. Effects on ITA width persisted until d110 while effects on growth plate disappeared. These effects were essentially vinclozolin or BPA-dependent. F2 animals were not affected. Our data suggest that vinclozolin and xenoestrogens act as cartilage developmental disruptors. We suggest that present NOAEL values for these compounds, and EDC at large, might be reconsidered using gestational exposure models. Finally, micro CT-scan appears a valuable non-invasive technique to detect EDC effects on live fauna.
• Biochimie.Biochimie.2014 Apr;99:169-77. doi: 10.1016/j.biochi.2013.12.001. Epub 2013 Dec 12.
• Several endocrine disrupting compounds (EDC) elicit skeletal dysgenesis at pharmacological doses. We have investigated the impact of doses below the "No Observed Adverse Effect" (NOAEL) for vinclozolin (V), an anti-androgenic fungicide, alone or associated with xenoestrogens (Genistein, G and bisphe
• PMID 24333988

• Bisphenol a does not affect memory performance in adult male rats.

• Kuwahara R1, Kawaguchi S, Kohara Y, Jojima T, Yamashita K.Author information 1Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 852-8521, Japan.AbstractBisphenol A (BPA) is an estrogenic endocrine disruptor used for producing polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. This study investigated the effects of oral BPA administration on memory performance, general activity, and emotionality in adult male Sprague Dawley rats using a battery of behavioral tests, including an appetite-motivated maze test (MAZE test) used to assess spatial memory performance. In addition, in order to confirm the effects of BPA on spatial memory performance, we examined whether intrahippocampal injection of BPA affects spatial memory consolidation. In the MAZE test, although oral BPA administration at 10 mg/kg significantly altered the number of entries into the incorrect area compared to those of vehicle-treated rats, male rats given BPA through either oral administration or intrahippocampal injection failed to show significant differences in latencies to reach the reward. Also, oral BPA administration did not affect fear-motivated memory performance in the step-through passive avoidance test. Oral BPA administration at 0.05 mg/kg, the lowest dose used in this study, was correlated with a decrease in locomotor activity in the open-field test, whereas oral administration at 10 mg/kg, the highest dose used in this study, was correlated with a light anxiolytic effect in the elevated plus-maze test. The present study suggests that BPA in adulthood has little effect on spatial memory performance in male rats.
• Cellular and molecular neurobiology.Cell Mol Neurobiol.2014 Apr;34(3):333-42. doi: 10.1007/s10571-013-0017-6. Epub 2013 Dec 11.
• Bisphenol A (BPA) is an estrogenic endocrine disruptor used for producing polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. This study investigated the effects of oral BPA administration on memory performance, general activity, and emotionality in adult male Sprague Dawley rats using a battery of behavioral
• PMID 24326521

Japanese Journal

• Cigarette Smoke Extract Disrupts Transcriptional Activities Mediated by Thyroid Hormones and Its Receptors

• Ｂｉｏｌ．　Ｐｈａｒｍ．　Ｂｕｌｌ． 41(3), 383-393, 2018
• NAID 130006407491

• Bisphenol A and Its Derivatives Induce Degradation of HIF-1alpha <i>via</i> the Lysosomal Pathway in Human Hepatocarcinoma Cell Line, Hep3B

• Ｂｉｏｌ．　Ｐｈａｒｍ．　Ｂｕｌｌ． 41(3), 374-382, 2018
• NAID 130006407488

• Topics from special edition 乳がん細胞における内分泌撹乱物質ビスフェノールのエストロゲン受容体応答

• 細胞 49(7), 363-367, 2017-06
• NAID 40021244793

Related Links

• Endocrine disruptor assessment list - ECHA

For REACH substances, inclusion in the list means that an informal hazard assessment for endocrine-disrupting properties either is under development or has been completed since the start of the implementation of the SVHC ...

• Endocrine Disruptors - National Institute of Environmental ...

Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that may interfere with the body’s endocrine system and produce adverse developmental, reproductive, neurological, and immune effects in both humans and wildlife. Endocrine disruptors are ...

• Endocrine Disruption | US EPA

EPA implements screening, testing and research programs to gather information the Agency uses to evaluate possible endocrine effects associated with the use of a chemical. EPA takes appropriate steps to mitigate any related ...

---

★リンクテーブル★

関連記事	「disrupt」「endocrine」

「disrupt」

　　[★]

• v.

• 破壊する、分裂させる、混乱させる、乱す

関

abolish、break、confound、confuse、confusion、derange、derangement、destroy、destruction、disarray、dismantle、disorganized、disorient、disruptant、disruption、divide、division、fission、fragmentation、lesion、perturb、perturbation、rupture、split、subversion、subvert、upset

　 　

「endocrine」

　　[★]

• n.

• 内分泌、エンドクリン

関

endocrinic, endocrinal