WordNet

take up someones soul into heaven; "This is the day when May was assumed into heaven"
take on a certain form, attribute, or aspect; "His voice took on a sad tone"; "The story took a new turn"; "he adopted an air of superiority"; "She assumed strange manners"; "The gods assume human or animal form in these fables" (同)acquire, adopt, take_on, take
take on titles, offices, duties, responsibilities; "When will the new President assume office?" (同)adopt, take_on, take_over
take to be the case or to be true; accept without verification or proof; "I assume his train was late" (同)presume, take for granted
occupy or take on; "He assumes the lotus position"; "She took her seat on the stage"; "We took our seats in the orchestra"; "She took up her position behind the tree"; "strike a pose" (同)take, strike, take_up
seize and take control without authority and possibly with force; take as ones right or possession; "He assumed to himself the right to fill all positions in the town"; "he usurped my rights"; "She seized control of the throne after her husband died" (同)usurp, seize, take_over, arrogate
the act of taking possession of or power over something; "his assumption of office coincided with the trouble in Cuba"; "the Nazi assumption of power in 1934"; "he acquired all the companys assets for ten million dollars and the assumption of the companys debts" (同)laying claim
the act of assuming or taking for granted; "your assumption that I would agree was unwarranted"
a hypothesis that is taken for granted; "any society is built upon certain assumptions" (同)supposition, supposal
set forth beforehand, often as an explanation; "He premised these remarks so that his readers might understand"
a statement that is assumed to be true and from which a conclusion can be drawn; "on the assumption that he has been injured we can infer that he will not to play" (同)premiss, assumption
take something as preexisting and given (同)premiss
constitute reasonable evidence for; "A restaurant bill presumes the consumption of food"
take liberties or act with too much confidence
take as a given; assume as a postulate or axiom; "He posited three basic laws of nature" (同)posit
(logic) a proposition that is accepted as true in order to provide a basis for logical reasoning (同)posit
a tentative insight into the natural world; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena; "a scientific hypothesis that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory"; "he proposed a fresh theory (同)possibility, theory
a proposal intended to explain certain facts or observations

PrepTutorEJDIC

(証拠はないが)…'を'『当然のことと思う』,仮定する,推測する(suppose) / 〈役目・任務など〉'を'『引き受ける』〈責任〉'を'『負う』 / 〈人が〉〈ある生活様式・態度〉'を'身につける,とる,〈ある性質・様相など〉'を'帯びる / …‘の'ふりをする,'を'装う(pretend) / …'を'自分のものにする,奪い取る
(任務などを)引き受けること《+『of』+『名』》 / (権力・権利などの)専有,横領《+『of』+『名』》 / (態度などの)でしゃばり,おうへい / 仮定,想定;仮説 / 《the A-》聖母マリアの被昇天;聖母被昇天祭(8月15日)
〈C〉(推理を行う上で結論の根拠となる)『前提』;(…という)根拠《+『that節』》 / 《the premises》前述の事項,前述の物件 / 《複数形で》家屋敷,土地建物;敷地,構内 / …‘を'前置きとして(あらかじめ)述べる;…ということを前提とする《+『that節』》
…‘を'推定する,仮定する / 《『presume to』 do》『思い切って』『する』,大胆(生意気)にも…する(dare) / 思いあがった(生意気な,大胆な)ことをする / (…に)つけ入る,つけ込む,甘える《+『on』(『upon』)+『名』》
(自明のこととして)…‘を'仮定する;…‘だと'仮定する《+『that節』》 / (推論の基礎となる)仮説,仮定;(数学の)公理
仮説,仮定,前提

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/12/25 15:27:19」(JST)

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Andreas Cellarius hypothesis, demonstrating the planetary motions in eccentric and epicyclical orbits

A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for further research.^[1]

A different meaning of the term hypothesis is used in formal logic, to denote the antecedent of a proposition; thus in the proposition "If P, then Q", P denotes the hypothesis (or antecedent); Q can be called a consequent. P is the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual) What If question.

The adjective hypothetical, meaning "having the nature of a hypothesis", or "being assumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis", can refer to any of these meanings of the term "hypothesis".

Uses

In its ancient usage, hypothesis referred to a summary of the plot of a classical drama. The English word hypothesis comes from the ancient Greek ὑπόθεσις (hupothesis), meaning "to put under" or "to suppose".^[1]

In Plato's Meno (86e–87b), Socrates dissects virtue with a method used by mathematicians,^[2] that of "investigating from a hypothesis."^[3] In this sense, 'hypothesis' refers to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplifies cumbersome calculations.^[4] Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous example of this usage in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis.^[5]

In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model.^[6] Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.

Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific method involves experimentation, to test the ability of some hypothesis to adequately answer the question under investigation. In contrast, unfettered observation is not as likely to raise unexplained issues or open questions in science, as would the formulation of a crucial experiment to test the hypothesis. A thought experiment might also be used to test the hypothesis as well.

In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis. If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis needs to be tested by others providing observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.

Scientific hypothesis

People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis, often called an "educated guess"^[7]^[8] because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. However, some scientists reject the term "educated guess" as incorrect.^[9] Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.

According to Schick and Vaughn,^[10] researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:

Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed above)
Parsimony (as in the application of "Occam's razor", discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of entities)
Scope – the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena
Fruitfulness – the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future
Conservatism – the degree of "fit" with existing recognized knowledge-systems.

Working hypothesis

A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further research^[11] in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the hypothesis ultimately fails.^[12] Like all hypotheses, a working hypothesis is constructed as a statement of expectations, which can be linked to the exploratory research purpose in empirical investigation. Working hypotheses and are often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative research.^[13]^[14]

The provisional nature of working hypotheses make them useful as an organizing device in applied research. Here they act like a useful guide to address problems that are still in a formative phase. ^[15]

In recent years, philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypotheses, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, Karl Popper's colleague and student, respectively, have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis.

Hypotheses, concepts and measurement

Concepts in Hempel's deductive-nomological model play a key role in the development and testing of hypotheses. Most formal hypotheses connect concepts by specifying the expected relationships between propositions. When a set of hypotheses are grouped together they become a type of conceptual framework. When a conceptual framework is complex and incorporates causality or explanation it is generally referred to as a theory. According to noted philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel "An adequate empirical interpretation turns a theoretical system into a testable theory: The hypothesis whose constituent terms have been interpreted become capable of test by reference to observable phenomena. Frequently the interpreted hypothesis will be derivative hypotheses of the theory; but their confirmation or disconfirmation by empirical data will then immediately strengthen or weaken also the primitive hypotheses from which they were derived."^[16]

Hempel provides a useful metaphor that describes the relationship between a conceptual framework and the framework as it is observed and perhaps tested (interpreted framework). "The whole system floats, as it were, above the plane of observation and is anchored to it by rules of interpretation. These might be viewed as strings which are not part of the network but link certain points of the latter with specific places in the plane of observation. By virtue of those interpretative connections, the network can function as a scientific theory"^[17] Hypotheses with concepts anchored in the plane of observation are ready to be tested. In "actual scientific practice the process of framing a theoretical structure and of interpreting it are not always sharply separated, since the intended interpretation usually guides the construction of the theoretician."^[18] It is, however, "possible and indeed desirable, for the purposes of logical clarification, to separate the two steps conceptually."^[18]

Statistical hypothesis testing

When a possible correlation or similar relation between phenomena is investigated, such as whether a proposed remedy is effective in treating a disease, the hypothesis that a relation exists cannot be examined the same way one might examine a proposed new law of nature. In such an investigation, if the tested remedy shows no effect in a few cases, these do not necessarily falsify the hypothesis. Instead, statistical tests are used to determine how likely it is that the overall effect would be observed if the hypothesized relation does not exist. If that likelihood is sufficiently small (e.g., less than 1%), the existence of a relation may be assumed. Otherwise, any observed effect may be due to pure chance.

In statistical hypothesis testing, two hypotheses are compared. These are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that states that there is no relation between the phenomena whose relation is under investigation, or at least not of the form given by the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the alternative to the null hypothesis: it states that there is some kind of relation. The alternative hypothesis may take several forms, depending on the nature of the hypothesized relation; in particular, it can be two-sided (for example: there is some effect, in a yet unknown direction) or one-sided (the direction of the hypothesized relation, positive or negative, is fixed in advance).^[19]

Conventional significance levels for testing hypotheses (acceptable probabilities of wrongly rejecting a true null hypothesis) are .10, .05, and .01. Whether the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, must be determined in advance, before the observations are collected or inspected. If these criteria are determined later, when the data to be tested are already known, the test is invalid.^[20]

The above procedure is actually dependent on the number of the participants (units or sample size) that is included in the study. For instance, the sample size may be too small to reject a null hypothesis and, therefore, it is recommended to specify the sample size from the beginning. It is advisable to define a small, medium and large effect size for each of a number of important statistical tests which are used to test the hypotheses.^[21]

References

^ ^a ^b Hilborn, Ray; Mangel, Marc (1997). The ecological detective: confronting models with data. Princeton University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-691-03497-3. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
^ Wilbur R. Knorr, "Construction as existence proof in ancient geometry", p. 125, as selected by Jean Christianidis (ed.), Classics in the history of Greek mathematics, Kluwer.
^ Gregory Vlastos, Myles Burnyeat (1994) Socratic studies, Cambridge ISBN 0-521-44735-6, p. 1
^ "Neutral hypotheses, those of which the subject matter can never be directly proved or disproved, are very numerous in all sciences." — Morris Cohen and Ernest Nagel (1934) An introduction to logic and scientific method p. 375. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company.
^ "Bellarmine (Ital. Bellarmino), Roberto Francesco Romolo", Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition.: 'Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system ... all he claimed was that it should be presented as a hypothesis until it should receive scientific demonstration.' This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
^ Crease, Robert P. (2008) The Great Equations ISBN 978-0-393-06204-5, p.112 lists the conservation of energy as an example of accounting a constant of motion. Hypothesized by Sadi Carnot, truth demonstrated by James Prescott Joule, proven by Emmy Noether.
^ "When it is not clear under which law of nature an effect or class of effect belongs, we try to fill this gap by means of a guess. Such guesses have been given the name conjectures or hypotheses.", Hans Christian Ørsted(1811) "First Introduction to General Physics" ¶18. Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted, ISBN 0-691-04334-5 p.297
^ "In general we look for a new law by the following process. First we guess it. ...", —Richard Feynman (1965) The Character of Physical Law p.156
^ "Just a Theory": 7 Misused Science Words
^ Schick, Theodore; Vaughn, Lewis (2002). How to think about weird things: critical thinking for a New Age. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-7674-2048-9.
^ Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Eprint via Answers.com.
^ See in "hypothesis", Century Dictionary Supplement, v. 1, 1909, New York: The Century Company. Reprinted, v. 11, p. 616 (via Internet Archive) of the Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, 1911.

hypothesis [...]—Working hypothesis, a hypothesis suggested or supported in some measure by features of observed facts, from which consequences may be deduced which can be tested by experiment and special observations, and which it is proposed to subject to an extended course of such investigation, with the hope that, even should the hypothesis thus be overthrown, such research may lead to a tenable theory.
^ Patricia M. Shields, Hassan Tajalli (2006). "Intermediate Theory: The Missing Link in Successful Student Scholarship". Journal of Public Affairs Education 12 (3): 313–334.
^ Patricia M. Shields (1998). "Pragmatism As a Philosophy of Science: A Tool For Public Administration". In Jay D. White. Research in Public Administration 4. pp. 195–225 [211]. ISBN 1-55938-888-9.
^ Patricia M. Shields and Nandhini Rangarajan. 2013. A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management]. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press. pp. 109-157
^ Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, p. 36
^ Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, p. 36.
^ ^a ^b Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, p. 33.
^ Altman. DG., Practical Statistics for Medical Research, CRC Press, 1990, Section 8.5,
^ Mellenbergh, G.J.(2008). Chapter 8: Research designs: Testing of research hypotheses. In H.J. Adèr & G.J. Mellenbergh (Eds.) (with contributions by D.J. Hand), Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion (pp. 183-209). Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing
^ Altman. DG., Practical Statistics for Medical Research, CRC Press, 1990, Section 15.3,

External links

"How science works", Understanding Science by the University of California Museum of Paleontology.

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English Journal

Wine authenticity verification as a forensic problem: An application of likelihood ratio test to label verification.

Martyna A1, Zadora G2, Stanimirova I3, Ramos D4.Author information 1Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Ingardena 3, 30-060 Krakow, Poland. Electronic address: rzepecka@chemia.uj.edu.pl.2Institute of Forensic Research, Westerplatte 9, 31-033 Krakow, Poland; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemometric Research Group, Institute of Chemistry, The University of Silesia, Szkolna 9, 40-006 Katowice, Poland. Electronic address: gzadora@ies.krakow.pl.3Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemometric Research Group, Institute of Chemistry, The University of Silesia, Szkolna 9, 40-006 Katowice, Poland. Electronic address: ivana.stanimirova-daszykowska@us.edu.pl.4Institute of Forensic Science and Security and ATVS - Biometric Recognition Group (ATVS), Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, C/Francisco Tomas y Valiente 11, 28049 Madrid, Spain. Electronic address: daniel.ramos@uam.es.AbstractThe aim of the study was to investigate the applicability of the likelihood ratio (LR) approach for verifying the authenticity of 178 samples of 3 Italian wine brands: Barolo, Barbera, and Grignolino described by 27 parameters describing their chemical compositions. Since the problem of products authenticity may be of forensic interest, the likelihood ratio approach, expressing the role of the forensic expert, was proposed for determining the true origin of wines. It allows us to analyse the evidence in the context of two hypotheses, that the object belongs to one or another wine brand. Various LR models were the subject of the research and their accuracy was evaluated by the Empirical cross entropy (ECE) approach. The rates of correct classifications for the proposed models were higher than 90% and their performance evaluated by ECE was satisfactory.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2014 May 1;150:287-95. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.10.111. Epub 2013 Nov 1.
The aim of the study was to investigate the applicability of the likelihood ratio (LR) approach for verifying the authenticity of 178 samples of 3 Italian wine brands: Barolo, Barbera, and Grignolino described by 27 parameters describing their chemical compositions. Since the problem of products aut
PMID 24360452

Antibody-based magnetic nanoparticle immunoassay for quantification of Alzheimer's disease pathogenic factor.

Kim CB, Choi YY, Song WK, Song KB.Author information Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon 305-700, Republic of Korea.AbstractAlzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that leads to a decline in cognitive and intellectual abilities and an irreversible mental deterioration. Based on multidisciplinary AD research, the most universally accepted hypotheses on AD pathogenesis are the intracerebral aggregate formation of beta-amyloid (Aβ) peptides. According to medical paradigmatic transition from medical treatment to early diagnostic prevention, scientists have considered physiological body fluid as a biomarker medium, in which the promising AD biomarkers could be verified. Recently, use of saliva has been considered as one of the diagnostic fluids over the past decade with meaningful diagnostic potential. We utilized saliva as a biomarker medium to correlate the salivary Aβ levels to AD pathological aspects, especially to the mild cognitive impairment group among AD patients, and to verify our detecting system to be sensitive enough for an early diagnostic tool. The identification of the salivary AD biomarkers using a facile microarraying method would motivate this study with the assistance of magnetically assembled antibody-conjugated nanoparticles and a photomultiplier tube as an optical detector. This simple magnetoimmunoassay system measures the photointensity generated by fluorescence, enables the quantification of the Aβ peptides from AD salivary samples, and consequently classifies the salivary Aβ levels into AD pathological aspects. This method demonstrates a facile approach enabling it to simply detect salivary Aβ peptides at a concentration as low as ~20 pg/ml. It is expected that our simple magnetoimmunoassay system may have a potential as a detector for low-level Aβ peptides with weak-fluorescence emission.
Journal of biomedical optics.J Biomed Opt.2014 May;19(5):051205. doi: 10.1117/1.JBO.19.5.051205.
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that leads to a decline in cognitive and intellectual abilities and an irreversible mental deterioration. Based on multidisciplinary AD research, the most universally accepted hypotheses on AD pathogenesis are the intracerebral aggregate forma
PMID 24297060

Anthropometric, medical history and lifestyle risk factors for myeloproliferative neoplasms in The Iowa Women's Health Study cohort.

Leal AD, Thompson CA, Wang AH, Vierkant RA, Habermann TM, Ross JA, Mesa RA, Virnig BA, Cerhan JR.Author information Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN.AbstractClassical myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are composed of essential thrombocythemia (ET), polycythemia vera (PV) and myelofibrosis (MF), the etiology of which is largely unknown. We investigated the role of anthropometric, medical and lifestyle factors with risk of MPN in a prospective cohort of 27,370 women aged 55-69 years at enrollment. After >250,000 person-years of follow-up, 257 cases of MPN were identified (172 ET, 64 PV, 21 MF). Risk factor profiles were mostly unique for the two most common types, ET and PV. ET was associated with energy balance factors including body mass index (RR = 1.52 for >29.3 vs. <23.4 kg/m(2) ; p-trend = 0.042), physical activity (RR = 0.66 for high vs. low; p-trend = 0.04) and adult onset diabetes (RR = 1.82; p = 0.009), while PV was not. PV was associated with current smoking (RR = 2.83; p-trend = 0.016), while ET was not. Regular use of aspirin was associated with lower risk of ET (RR = 0.68; p = 0.017). These results broadly held in multivariate models. Our results suggest distinct etiologies for these MPN subtypes and raise mechanistic hypotheses related to obesity-related inflammatory pathways for ET and smoking-related carcinogenic pathways for PV. Regular aspirin use may lower risk for ET.
International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer.Int J Cancer.2014 Apr 1;134(7):1741-50. doi: 10.1002/ijc.28492. Epub 2013 Oct 15.
Classical myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are composed of essential thrombocythemia (ET), polycythemia vera (PV) and myelofibrosis (MF), the etiology of which is largely unknown. We investigated the role of anthropometric, medical and lifestyle factors with risk of MPN in a prospective cohort of
PMID 24114627

Japanese Journal

Testing statistical hypotheses based on the density power divergence

Basu A.,Mandal A.,Martin N.
Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics 65(2), 319-348, 2013-04
NAID 40019552434

DO RINGTAILED LEMURS EXHIBIT A SKEWED BIRTH SEX RATIO DEPENDING ON SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS? A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF A WILD POPULATION

Yukio TAKAHATA/Naoki KOYAMA/Shin'ichiro ICHINO/Naomi MIYAMOTO/Takayo SOMA/Masayuki NAKAMICHI
African study monographs 34(1), 57-64, 2013-03-25
… Thus, our data do not support the Trivers–Willard, local resource competition–population, or local resource enhancement hypotheses. …
NAID 110009555748

重畳表示型ビデオチャットにおける枠の3次元的な移動と存在の効果

吉野孝,藤田真吾
情報処理学会論文誌 54(1), 249-255, 2013-01-15
我々は,遠隔地対話者の存在感を向上させるシステムとして"ドアコム"を開発した.ドアコムは,ユーザの一方(ドア操作側)がドア型インタフェースを用い,相手の空間(ドア無し側)に現れるような表示をする,重畳表示型のビデオチャットシステムである.これまでの実験から,ユーザの存在感の向上と映像の立体感に関するコメントが得られていた.そこで,本論文では,重畳表示型ビデオチャットシステムであるドアコムのどのよう …
NAID 110009511445