アセチルコリン受容体(アセチルコリンじゅようたい、英: acetylcholine receptor、AChR)は神経伝達物質であるアセチルコリンの受容体である。アセチルコリンによって刺激されるので、コリン作動性受容体とも呼ばれる。 アセチルコリン受容体は代謝調節型のムスカリン受容体とイオンチャネル型のニコチン受容体の二つに大別される。ムスカリンがムスカリン受容体アゴニストとして、ニコチンがニコチン受容体アゴニストとして働くことからこの名前がある。 アセチルコリンはどちらの受容体にも作用する。アセチルコリン受容体に作用する薬は、その作用する受容体及びその受容体の存在する組織によって異なる作用を示す。薬物の中にはどちらにも作用するものと、どちらか一方により選択的に作用するものがある。
目次
- 1 ムスカリン受容体
- 1.1 サブタイプ
- 1.2 ムスカリン受容体の刺激作用
- 1.3 ムスカリン受容体作動薬
- 1.4 ムスカリン受容体拮抗薬
- 2 ニコチン受容体
- 2.1 ニコチン受容体の分類
- 2.2 ニコチン受容体の刺激作用
- 2.3 ニコチン受容体作動薬
- 2.4 ニコチン受容体拮抗薬
- 3 注釈
- 4 参考文献
- 5 関連項目
ムスカリン受容体
ムスカリン受容体(mAchR)は代謝調節型の受容体でGタンパク質共役受容体(GPCR)の一種である。末梢では副交感神経の神経終末に存在し、副交感神経の効果器の活動を制御する。中枢にも存在している。尚、ムスカリン受容体はさらに細かくM1~M5のサブタイプで分類され[1]、それぞれの受容体に非選択的に作用する薬と選択的に作用する薬が存在する。副交感神経終末にはM1受容体が多い。
サブタイプ
- M1 - 脳(皮質、海馬)、腺、交感神経に分布
- M2 - 心臓、後脳、平滑筋に分布
- M3 - 平滑筋、腺、脳に分布
- M4 - 脳(前脳、線条体)に分布
- M5 - 脳(黒質)、眼に分布
ムスカリン受容体の刺激作用
- 心臓では、洞房結節に作用し、心拍数を低下させる。
- 消化器では、一般に消化管運動、消化液(胃酸・唾液)の分泌を促進する。
- 血管平滑筋は拡張し、血圧が低下する。
- 気管支平滑筋は収縮する。
- 眼では、縮瞳し、眼圧が低下する。
- 膀胱は収縮し排尿を促す。膀胱にはM2/M3受容体が多い。
ムスカリン受容体作動薬
- ピロカルピン
- セビメリン
- ベタネコール
- ムスカリン
ムスカリン受容体拮抗薬
アセチルコリンがムスカリン受容体を刺激することを阻害する。ムスカリン受容体拮抗薬(M1ブロッカー、Muscarinic antagonist)。
- アトロピン
- トロピカミド
- オキシブチニン
- プロピベリン
- トルテロジン
- ソリフェナシン
- イミダフェナシン
ニコチン受容体
ニコチン受容体(nAchR)は、イオンチャネル型の受容体で、末梢では自律神経(交感神経と副交感神経)の節前線維終末(副腎髄質での神経終末を含む)及び運動神経終末に存在しており、交感神経も副交感神経もともにニコチン受容体を介して興奮が伝達され、筋肉の運動はニコチン受容体を介して行われる。尚、自律神経節前線維終末受容体(NN受容体)と運動神経終末のニコチン受容体(NM受容体)は厳密には異なる受容体であり、非選択的に作用する薬と選択的に作用する薬がある。
ニコチン受容体の分類
- 筋肉型(NM) - 神経筋接合部に分布
- 末梢神経型(NN) - 自律神経節、副腎髄質に分布
- 中枢神経型(CNS) - シナプスに分布
ニコチン受容体の刺激作用
- NN受容体を介して交感神経及び副交感神経の興奮様作用が起こる。一般に交感神経と副交感神経は「拮抗的二重支配」を行っており、その作用は互いに拮抗することが多い。よってどちらの作が現れるかは、どちらの神経がより優位にその組織を支配しているかによって決まる。
- 心臓は副交感神経が優位に支配しており、心拍数が低下する。
- 血圧(血管平滑筋)の支配は交感神経が優位に支配しており血圧は上昇する。
- 消化器系は副交感神経が優位に支配しており、ムスカリン受容体刺激様作用が生じる。
- NM受容体を介して筋肉の収縮が起こり痙攣を生じる。
ニコチン受容体作動薬
- カルバコール
- ニコチン
- ネオスチグミン(骨格筋の受容体にのみ作用)
ニコチン受容体拮抗薬
アセチルコリンがニコチン受容体に結合することを阻害する。
- スキサメトニウム(スキサメトニウムはアンタゴニストではなく、アセチルコリンよりも長く脱分極させることで次の興奮が伝えられなくなることにより作用を発揮する)
- ヘキサメトニウム
- パンクロニウム
- ベクロニウム
- ツボクラリン
注釈
- ^ meddic - 医学用語集めでぃっく [ムスカリン受容体]
参考文献
松崎 雄 「疼痛伝達機構における帯状回ムスカリン受容体の役割 - 神経因性疼痛モデルを用いた検討」 NAID 110008146938
山崎 良彦「海馬の神経回路におけるニコチンの作用」 NAID 10026544506
関連項目
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この項目は、医学に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています(プロジェクト:医学/Portal:医学と医療)。 |
Acetylcholine receptor |
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An acetylcholine receptor (abbreviated AChR) is an integral membrane protein that responds to the binding of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter.
Contents
- 1 Classification
- 2 Receptor types
- 3 Role in health and disease
- 4 See also
- 5 References
- 6 External links
Classification
Like other transmembrane receptors, acetylcholine receptors are classified according to their "pharmacology," or according to their relative affinities and sensitivities to different molecules. Although all acetylcholine receptors, by definition, respond to acetylcholine, they respond to other molecules as well.
- Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR, also known as "ionotropic" acetylcholine receptors) are particularly responsive to nicotine. The nicotine ACh receptor is also a Na+ and K+ ion channel
- Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChR, also known as "metabotropic" acetylcholine receptors) are particularly responsive to muscarine.
Nicotinic and muscarinic are two main kinds of "cholinergic" receptors.
Receptor types
Molecular biology has shown that the nicotinic and muscarinic receptors belong to distinct protein superfamilies.
ACh and its receptors
Drug |
Nm |
Nn |
M1 |
M2 |
M3 |
ACh, Carbachol, Methacholine, AChEi (Physostigmine, Galantamine, Neostigmine, Pyridostigmine) |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
Nicotine, Varenicline |
+ |
+ |
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Succinylcholine |
+/- |
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Atracurium, Vecuronium, Tubocurarine, Pancuronium |
- |
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Epibatidine, DMPP |
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+ |
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Trimethaphan, Mecamylamine, Bupropion, Dextromethophan, Hexamethonium |
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- |
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Muscarine, Oxotremorine, Bethanechol, Pilocarpine |
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+ |
+ |
+ |
Atropine, Tolterodine, Oxybutynin |
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- |
- |
- |
Vedaclidine, Talsaclidine, Xanomeline, Ipatropium |
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+ |
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Pirenzepine, Telenzepine |
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- |
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Methoctramin |
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- |
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Darifenacin, 4-DAMP, Darifenacin, Solifenacin |
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- |
Nicotinic receptors are of two types: Nm and Nn. Nm is located in the neuromuscular junction which causes the contraction of skeletal muscles by way of end-plate potential (EPPs). Nn causes depolarization in autonomic ganglia resulting in post ganglionic impulse. Nicotinic receptors cause the release of catecholamine from the adrenal medulla, and also site specific excitation or inhibition in brain. Both Nm and Nn are Na+ and Ca++ channel linked but Nn is also linked with an extra K+ channel.
nAChR
Main article: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
The nAChRs are ligand-gated ion channels, and, like other members of the "cys-loop" ligand-gated ion channel superfamily, are composed of five protein subunits symmetrically arranged like staves around a barrel. The subunit composition is highly variable across different tissues. Each subunit contains four regions which span the membrane and consist of approximately 20 amino acids. Region II which sits closest to the pore lumen, forms the pore lining.[1]
Binding of acetylcholine to the N termini of each of the two alpha subunits results in the 15° rotation of all M2 helices.[2] The cytoplasm side of the nAChR receptor has rings of high negative charge that determine the specific cation specificity of the receptor and remove the hydration shell often formed by ions in aqueous solution. In the intermediate region of the receptor, within the pore lumen, valine and leucine residues (Val 255 and Leu 251) define a hydrophobic region through which the dehydrated ion must pass.[3]
The nAChR is found at the edges of junctional folds at the neuromuscular junction on the postsynaptic side; it is activated by acetylcholine release across the synapse. The diffusion of Na+ and K+ across the receptor causes depolarization, the end-plate potential, that opens voltage-gated sodium channels, which allows for firing of the action potential and potentially muscular contraction.
mAChR
Main article: Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
In contrast, the mAChRs are not ion channels, but belong instead to the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors that activate other ionic channels via a second messenger cascade. The muscarine cholinergic receptor activates a G-protein when bound to extracellular ACh. The alpha subunit of the G-protein deactivates adenylate cyclase while the beta-gamma subunit activates the K-channels and therefore hyperpolarize the cell. This causes a decrease in cardiac activity.
Role in health and disease
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors can be blocked by curare, hexamethonium and toxins present in the venoms of snakes and shellfishes, like α-bungarotoxin. Drugs such as the neuromuscular blocking agents bind reversibly to the nicotinic receptors in the neuromuscular junction and are used routinely in anaesthesia.
Nicotinic receptors are the primary mediator of the effects of nicotine. In myasthenia gravis, the receptor at the neuromuscular junction is targeted by antibodies, leading to muscle weakness. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors can be blocked by the drugs atropine and scopolamine.
Congenital myasthenic syndrome (CMS) is an inherited neuromuscular disorder caused by defects of several types at the neuromuscular junction. Postsynaptic defects are the most frequent cause of CMS and often result in abnormalities in nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The majority of mutations causing CMS are found in the AChR subunits genes.[4]
Out of all mutations associated with CMS, more than half are mutations in one of the four genes encoding the adult acetylcholine receptor subunits. Mutations of the AChR often result in endplate deficiency. Most of the mutations of the AChR are mutations of the CHRNE gene. The CHRNE gene codes for the epsilon subunit of the AChR. Most mutations are autosomal recessive loss-of-function mutations and as a result there is endplate AChR deficiency. CHRNE is associated with changing the kinetic properties of the AChR.[5] One type of mutation of the epsilon subunit of the AChR introduces an Arg into the binding site at the α/ε subunit interface of the receptor. The addition of a cationic Arg into the anionic environment of the AChR binding site greatly reduces the kinetic properties of the receptor. The result of the newly introduced ARG is a 30-fold reduction of agonist affinity, 75-fold reduction of gating efficiency, and an extremely weakened channel opening probability. This type of mutation results in an extremely fatal form of CMS.[6]
See also
- Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M5
- Nicotinic agonists
References
- ^ Pohanka, M (2012). "Alpha7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Is a Target in Pharmacology and Toxicology". International Journal of Molecular Sciences 13 (2): 2219–2238. doi:10.3390/ijms13022219. PMC 3292018. PMID 22408449.
- ^ Doyle DA (2004). "Structural changes during ion channel gating". Trends Neurosci. 27 (6): 298–302. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2004.04.004. PMID 15165732.
- ^ Miyazawa A, Fujiyoshi Y, Unwin N (2003). "Structure and gating mechanism of the acetylcholine receptor pore". Nature 423 (6943): 949–55. doi:10.1038/nature01748. PMID 12827192.
- ^ Cossins, J.; Burke, G.; Maxwell, S.; Spearman, H.; Man, S.; Kuks, J.; Vincent, A.; Palace, J.; Fuhrer, C.; Beeson, D. (2006). "Diverse molecular mechanisms involved in AChR deficiency due to rapsyn mutations". Brain 129 (10): 2773–2783. doi:10.1093/brain/awl219. PMID 16945936.
- ^ Abicht, A.; Dusl, M.; Gallenmüller, C.; Guergueltcheva, V.; Schara, U.; Della Marina, A.; Wibbeler, E.; Almaras, S.; Mihaylova, V.; Von Der Hagen, M.; Huebner, A.; Chaouch, A.; Müller, J. S.; Lochmüller, H. (2012). "Congenital myasthenic syndromes: Achievements and limitations of phenotype-guided gene-after-gene sequencing in diagnostic practice: A study of 680 patients". Human Mutation 33 (10): 1474–1484. doi:10.1002/humu.22130. PMID 22678886.
- ^ Shen, X. -M.; Brengman, J. M.; Edvardson, S.; Sine, S. M.; Engel, A. G. (2012). "Highly fatal fast-channel syndrome caused by AChR subunit mutation at the agonist binding site". Neurology 79 (5): 449–454. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31825b5bda. PMC 3405251. PMID 22592360.
External links
- Acetylcholine receptor: PMAP The Proteolysis Map-animation
- Acetylcholine Receptors at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
- Acetlycholine Receptor: Molecule of The Month by David Goodsell
- Acetylcholine receptors: muscarinic and nicotinic by Flavio Guzman
- ANS receptors-overview
Ion channel, cell surface receptor: ligand-gated ion channels
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Cys-loop receptors |
5-HT/serotonin
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GABA
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- GABAA
- α1
- α2
- α3
- α4
- α5
- α6
- β1
- β2
- β3
- γ1
- γ2
- γ3
- δ
- ε
- π
- θ
- GABAA-ρ
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Glycine
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Nicotinic acetylcholine
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- monomers: α1
- α2
- α3
- α4
- α5
- α6
- α7
- α9
- α10
- β1
- β2
- β3
- β4
- δ
- ε
- pentamers: (α3)2(β4)3
- (α4)2(β2)3
- (α7)5
- (α1)2(β4)3 - Ganglion type
- (α1)2β1δε - Muscle type
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Zinc
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Ionotropic glutamates |
Ligand-gated only
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Voltage- and ligand-gated
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- NMDA
- 1
- 2A
- 2B
- 2C
- 2D
- 3A
- 3B
- L1A
- L1B
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‘Orphan’
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ATP-gated channels |
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Cell surface receptor: G protein-coupled receptors
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Class B: Secretin like
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Adhesion |
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Orphan |
- GPR (56
- 64
- 97
- 98
- 110
- 111
- 112
- 113
- 114
- 115
- 116
- 123
- 124
- 125
- 126
- 128
- 133
- 143
- 144
- 155
- 157)
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Other |
- Brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor (1
- 2
- 3)
- Cadherin (1
- 2
- 3)
- Calcitonin
- CALCRL
- CD97
- Corticotropin-releasing hormone (1
- 2)
- EMR (1
- 2
- 3)
- Glucagon (GR
- GIPR
- GLP1R
- GLP2R)
- Growth hormone releasing hormone
- PACAPR1
- GPR
- Latrophilin (1
- 2
- 3
- ELTD1)
- Methuselah-like proteins
- Parathyroid hormone (1
- 2)
- Secretin
- Vasoactive intestinal peptide (1
- 2)
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Class C: Metabotropic glutamate / pheromone
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Taste |
- TAS1R (1
- 2
- 3)
- TAS2R (1
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 7
- 8
- 9
- 10
- 13
- 14
- 16
- 19
- 20
- 30
- 31
- 38
- 39
- 40
- 41
- 42
- 43
- 45
- 46
- 50
- 60)
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Other |
- Calcium-sensing receptor
- GABA B (1
- 2)
- Glutamate receptor (Metabotropic glutamate (1
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 8))
- GPRC6A
- GPR (156
- 158
- 179)
- RAIG (1
- 2
- 3
- 4)
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Class F: Frizzled / Smoothened
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Frizzled |
- Frizzled (1
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 8
- 9
- 10)
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Smoothened |
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Cholinergics
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Receptor ligands
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mACh |
- Agonists: 77-LH-28-1
- AC-42
- AC-260,584
- Aceclidine
- Acetylcholine
- AF30
- AF150(S)
- AF267B
- AFDX-384
- Alvameline
- AQRA-741
- Arecoline
- Bethanechol
- Butyrylcholine
- Carbachol
- CDD-0034
- CDD-0078
- CDD-0097
- CDD-0098
- CDD-0102
- Cevimeline
- Choline
- cis-Dioxolane
- Ethoxysebacylcholine
- Itameline
- LY-593,039
- L-689,660
- LY-2,033,298
- McNA343
- Methacholine
- Milameline
- Muscarine
- NGX-267
- Ocvimeline
- Oxotremorine
- PD-151,832
- Pilocarpine
- RS86
- Sabcomeline
- SDZ 210-086
- Sebacylcholine
- Suberyldicholine
- Talsaclidine
- Tazomeline
- Thiopilocarpine
- Vedaclidine
- VU-0029767
- VU-0090157
- VU-0152099
- VU-0152100
- VU-0238429
- WAY-132,983
- Xanomeline
- YM-796
- Antagonists: 3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate
- 4-DAMP
- Aclidinium bromide
- Anisodamine
- Anisodine
- Antihistamines (first-generation) (e.g., brompheniramine, chlorphenamine, cyproheptadine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine, doxylamine, mepyramine (pyrilamine), phenindamine, pheniramine, promethazine, tripelennamine, triprolidine)
- Atropine
- Atropine methonitrate
- Atypical antipsychotics (e.g., clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, zotepine)
- Benactyzine
- Benzatropine (benztropine)
- Benzilylcholine mustard
- Benzydamine
- BIBN 99
- Biperiden
- Bornaprine
- CAR-226,086
- CAR-301,060
- CAR-302,196
- CAR-302,282
- CAR-302,368
- CAR-302,537
- CAR-302,668
- Caramiphen
- Cloperastine
- CS-27349
- Cyclobenzaprine
- Cyclopentolate
- Darifenacin
- DAU-5884
- Dimethindene
- Dexetimide
- DIBD
- Dicyclomine (dicycloverine)
- Ditran
- EA-3167
- EA-3443
- EA-3580
- EA-3834
- Etanautine
- Etybenzatropine (ethybenztropine)
- Flavoxate
- Himbacine
- HL-031,120
- Ipratropium bromide
- J-104,129
- Hyoscyamine
- Mamba toxin 3
- Mamba toxin 7
- Mazaticol
- Mebeverine
- Methoctramine
- Metixene
- N-Ethyl-3-piperidyl benzilate
- N-Methyl-3-piperidyl benzilate
- Orphenadrine
- Otenzepad
- Oxybutynin
- PBID
- PD-102,807
- PD-0298029
- Phenglutarimide
- Phenyltoloxamine
- Pirenzepine
- Piroheptine
- Procyclidine
- Profenamine
- Revefenacin
- RU-47,213
- SCH-57,790
- SCH-72,788
- SCH-217,443
- Scopolamine (hyoscine)
- Solifenacin
- Telenzepine
- Tetracyclic antidepressants (e.g., amoxapine, maprotiline, mianserin, mirtazapine)
- Tiotropium bromide
- Tolterodine
- Tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline, butriptyline, clomipramine, desipramine, dosulepin (dothiepin), doxepin, imipramine, lofepramine, nortriptyline, protriptyline, trimipramine)
- Trihexyphenidyl
- Tripitamine
- Tropatepine
- Tropicamide
- Typical antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine, loxapine, thioridazine)
- WIN-2299
- Xanomeline
- Zamifenacin
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nACh |
- Agonists: 5-HIAA
- A-84,543
- A-366,833
- A-582,941
- A-867,744
- ABT-202
- ABT-418
- ABT-560
- ABT-894
- Acetylcholine
- Altinicline
- Anabasine
- Anatoxin-a
- AR-R17779
- Butinoline
- Butyrylcholine
- Carbachol
- Choline
- Cotinine
- Cytisine
- Decamethonium
- Desformylflustrabromine
- Dianicline
- Dimethylphenylpiperazinium
- Epibatidine
- Epiboxidine
- Ethanol
- Ethoxysebacylcholine
- EVP-4473
- EVP-6124
- Galantamine
- GTS-21
- Ispronicline
- Ivermectin
- Levamisole
- Lobeline
- MEM-63,908 (RG-3487)
- Morantel
- Nicotine (tobacco)
- NS-1738
- PHA-543,613
- PHA-709,829
- PNU-120,596
- PNU-282,987
- Pozanicline
- Rivanicline
- RJR-2429
- Sazetidine A
- SB-206553
- Sebacylcholine
- SIB-1508Y
- SIB-1553A
- SSR-180,711
- Suberyldicholine
- Suxamethonium (succinylcholine)
- TC-1698
- TC-1734
- TC-1827
- TC-2216
- TC-5214
- TC-5619
- TC-6683
- Tebanicline
- Tropisetron
- UB-165
- Varenicline
- WAY-317,538
- XY-4083
- Antagonists: 18-MAC
- 18-MC
- α-Neurotoxins (e.g., α-bungarotoxin, α-cobratoxin, α-conotoxin, many others)
- ABT-126
- Alcuronium
- Allopregnanolone
- Amantadine
- Anatruxonium
- AQW051
- Atracurium
- Barbiturates (e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental)
- Bungarotoxins (e.g., α-bungarotoxin, κ-bungarotoxin)
- Bupropion
- Chandonium
- Chlorisondamine
- Cisatracurium
- Coclaurine
- Coronaridine
- Cyclopropane
- Dacuronium
- Decamethonium
- Dehydronorketamine
- Desflurane
- Dextromethorphan
- Dextropropoxyphene
- Dextrorphan
- Diadonium
- DHβE
- Dihydrochandonium
- Dimethyltubocurarine (metocurine)
- Dipyrandium
- Dizocilpine (MK-801)
- Doxacurium
- Encenicline
- Enflurane
- Esketamine
- Fazadinium
- Gallamine
- Halothane
- Hexafluronium
- Hexamethonium (benzohexonium)
- Hydroxybupropion
- Hydroxynorketamine
- Ibogaine
- Isoflurane
- Ketamine
- Kynurenic acid
- Laudexium (laudolissin)
- Levacetylmethadol
- Levomethadone
- Malouetine
- ME-18-MC
- Mecamylamine
- Memantine
- Methadone
- Methorphan (racemethorphan)
- Methyllycaconitine
- Metocurine
- Mivacurium
- Morphanol (racemorphan)
- Neramexane
- Nitrous oxide
- Norketamine
- Pancuronium bromide
- Pempidine
- Pentamine
- Pentolinium
- Phencyclidine
- Pipecuronium
- Progesterone
- Promegestone
- Radafaxine
- Rapacuronium
- Reboxetine
- Rocuronium
- Sevoflurane
- Surugatoxin
- Thiocolchicoside
- Toxiferine
- Tramadol
- Trimetaphan camsilate (trimethaphan camsylate)
- Tropeinium
- Tubocurarine
- Vanoxerine
- Vecuronium
- Xenon
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Transporter ligands
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CHT |
- Inhibitors: Hemicholinium-3 (hemicholine)
- Triethylcholine
- Enhancers: Coluracetam
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VAChT |
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Enzyme modulators
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ChAT |
- Inhibitors: 1-(-Benzoylethyl)pyridinium
- 2-(α-Naphthoyl)ethyltrimethylammonium
- 3-Chloro-4-stillbazole
- 4-(1-Naphthylvinyl)pyridine
- Acetylseco hemicholinium-3
- Acryloylcholine
- AF64A
- B115
- BETA
- CM-54,903
- N,N-Dimethylaminoethylacrylate
- N,N-Dimethylaminoethylchloroacetate
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AChE |
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BChE |
- Inhibitors: Cymserine
- Many of the AChE inhibitors listed above
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Release modulators
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Inhibitors |
- SNAP-25 inactivators: Botulinum toxin (A, C, E)
- VAMP inactivators: Botulinum toxin (B, D, F, G)
- Others: Bungarotoxins (β-bungarotoxin, γ-bungarotoxin)
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Enhancers |
- LPHN agonists: α-Latrotoxin
- Others: Atracotoxin (e.g., robustoxin, versutoxin)
- Crotoxin
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Others
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Precursors |
- Choline (lecithin)
- Citicoline
- Cyprodenate
- Dimethylethanolamine
- Glycerophosphocholine
- Meclofenoxate (centrophenoxine)
- Phosphatidylcholine
- Phosphatidylethanolamine
- Phosphorylcholine
- Pirisudanol
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Cofactors |
- Acetic acid
- Acetylcarnitine
- Acetyl-coA
- Vitamin B5
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