needs

　

WordNet

1. have or feel a need for; "always needing friends and money"
2. a condition requiring relief; "she satisfied his need for affection"; "God has no need of men to accomplish His work"; "there is a demand for jobs" (同)demand
3. anything that is necessary but lacking; "he had sufficient means to meet his simple needs"; "I tried to supply his wants" (同)want
4. (meaning literally `born'

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 《直ちに, 当面》 必要なもの[こと], 要求, 要望されるもの
2. 〈U〉《時にa~》『必要』,入用 / 〈C〉《しばしば複数形で》『必要なもの』,(…の)必要品《+『for』+『名』》 / 〈C〉(…に対する)欲求,切望《+『for』+『名』》 / 〈U〉(…の)『困窮』,欠乏,不足《+『of』(『for』)+『名』》 / 〈U〉『困った時』(『事態』),まさかの時 / …‘を'必要とする,要する / 《疑問文・否定文,また疑問・否定の内容を表す文で》…『する必要がある』,しなければならない / 《need not have doneの形で》…する必要はなかったのに
3. 旧姓は(既婚夫人の結婚前の姓を示すのに用いる)

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/07/23 00:39:13」(JST)

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[Wiki en表示]

For other uses, see Need (disambiguation).

A need is something that is necessary for organisms to live a healthy life. Needs are distinguished from wants because a deficiency would cause a clear negative outcome, such as dysfunction or death. Needs can be objective and physical, such as food, or they can be subjective and psychological, such as the need for self-esteem. On a social level, needs are sometimes controversial. Understanding needs and wants is an issue in the fields of politics, social science, and philosophy.

Psychological definition

To most psychologists, need is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a goal, giving purpose and direction to behavior.

The most widely known academic model of needs was proposed by psychologist Abraham Maslow. In his theory, he proposed that people have a hierarchy of psychological needs, which range from security to self-actualization. However, while this model is intuitively appealing, it has been difficult to operationalize it experimentally. It was further developed by Clayton Alderfer.

The academic study of needs was at its zenith in the 1950s. It receives less attention among psychologists today. One exception is Richard Sennett's work on the importance of respect.

One of the problems with a psychological theory of needs is that conceptions of "need" may vary radically between different cultures or different parts of the same society. One person's view of need may easily be seen as paternalistic by another.

Doyal and Gough's definition

A second view of need is represented by the work of political economy professor Ian Gough. He has published on the subject of human needs in the context of social assistance provided by the welfare state. With medical ethics professor Len Doyal, he also published A Theory of Human Need.

Their view goes beyond the emphasis on psychology: it might be said that an individual's needs are representative of the costs of being human within society. A person who does not have his or her needs fulfilled—i.e., a "needy" person—will function poorly in society.

In the view of Gough and Doyal, each person has an objective interest in avoiding serious harm that prevents the endeavor to attain his or her vision of what's good, no matter what that is exactly. This attempt requires the ability to participate in the societal setting in which an individual lives. More specifically, each person needs to have both physical health and personal autonomy. The latter refers to the capacity to make informed choices about what should be done and how to implement that. This requires mental health, cognitive skills, and chances to participate in society's activities and collective decision-making.

How are such needs satisfied? Doyal and Gough point to eleven broad categories of "intermediate needs" that define how the need for physical health and personal autonomy are fulfilled:

1. Adequate nutritional food and water
2. Adequate protective housing
3. A safe environment for working
4. A supply of clothing
5. A safe physical environment
6. Appropriate health care
7. Security in childhood
8. Significant primary relationships with others
9. Physical security
10. Economic security
11. Safe birth control and child-bearing
12. Appropriate basic and cross-cultural education.

How are the details of needs satisfaction determined? The authors point to rational identification of needs using the most up-to-date scientific knowledge; the use of the actual experience of individuals in their everyday lives; and democratic decision-making. The satisfaction of human needs cannot be imposed "from above".

This theory should be compared to the capability approach developed by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum. Those with more internal "assets" or "capacities" (e.g., education, sanity, physical strength, etc.) have more capabilities (i.e., more available choices, more positive freedom). They are thus more able to escape or avoid poverty. Those with more capabilities fulfill more of their needs.

Other views

The concept of intellectual need has been studied in education.

In his 1844 Paris Manuscripts, Karl Marx famously defined humans as "creatures of need" or "needy creatures" who experienced suffering in the process of learning and working to meet their needs. These needs were both physical needs as well as moral, emotional and intellectual needs. According to Marx, human development is characterized by the fact that in the process of meeting their needs, humans develop new needs, implying that at least to some extent they make and remake their own nature. This idea is discussed in more detail by the Hungarian philosopher Ágnes Heller in A Theory of Need in Marx (London: Allison and Busby, 1976). Political economy professor Michael Lebowitz has developed the Marxian interpretation of needs further in two editions of his book Beyond Capital.

Professor György Márkus systematized Marx's ideas about needs as follows: humans are different from other animals because their vital activity, work, is mediated to the satisfaction of needs (an animal who manufactures tools to produce other tools or his/her satisfactors), which makes a human being a universal natural being capable to turn the whole nature into the subject of his/her needs and his/her activity, and develops his/her needs and abilities (essential human forces) and develops himself/herself, a historical-universal being. Work generates the breach of the animal subject-object fusion, thus generating the possibility of human conscience and self-conscience, which tend to universality (the universal conscious being). A human being's conditions as a social being are given by work, but not only by work as it is not possible to live a human being without a relationship with others: work is social because human beings work for each other with means and abilities produced by prior generations. Human beings are also free entities able to accomplish, during their lifetime, the objective possibilities generated by social evolution, on the basis of their conscious decisions. Freedom should be understood both in a negative (freedom to decide and to establish relationships) and a positive sense (dominion over natural forces and development of human creativity, of the essential human forces. To sum up, the essential interrelated traits of human beings are: a) work is their vital activity; b) human beings are conscious beings; c) human beings are social beings; d) human beings tend to universality, which manifests in the three previous traits and make human beings natural-historical-universal, social-universal and universal conscious entities, and e) human beings are free.

In his texts about what he calls "moral economics", professor Julio Boltvinik Kalinka asserts that the ideas exposed by David Wiggins about needs are correct but insufficient: needs are of a normative nature but they are also factual. These "gross ethical concepts" (as stated by Hilary Putnam) should also include an evaluation: Ross Fitzgerald's criticism of Maslow's ideas rejects the concept of objective human needs and uses instead the concept of preferences. They assume, just like many other logical positivists, that values cannot be rational and assert, therefore, that the definition of poverty threshold, a task charged with values, is an arbitrary action of researchers, an assumption which implies a narrow view of poverty.

Marshall Rosenberg's model of Compassionate Communication, also known as Nonviolent Communication (NVC) makes the distinction between universal human needs (what sustains and motivates human life) and specific strategies used to meet these needs. Feelings are seen as neither good nor bad, right nor wrong, but as indicators of when human needs are met or unmet. Life-sustaining and life-denying needs are especially highlighted. In contrast to Maslow, Rosenberg's model does not place needs in a hierarchy.

Rosenberg's model supports people developing awareness of feelings as indicators, of what needs are alive within them and others, moment by moment; to forefront needs, to make it more likely and possible for two or more people, to arrive at mutually agreed upon strategies to meet the needs of all parties. Rosenberg diagrams this sequence in part like this: Feelings > Needs > Requests where identifying needs is most significant to the process.

People also talk about the needs of a community or organization. Such needs might include demand for a particular type of business, for a certain government program or entity, or for individuals with particular skills. This is an example of metonymy in language and presents with the logical problem of reification.

See also

• Fundamental human needs
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs
• Need theory (McClelland)
• Want
• Murray's system of needs
• Simple living

Notes

References

• Ian Gough (1994) Economic Institutions and the Satisfaction of Human Needs. Journal of Economic Issues. vol. 28, no. 1 (March 9), pp. 25–66.

UpToDate Contents

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• 1. 特別な医療が必要な小児 children with special health care needs
• 2. 小児における知的障害（精神遅滞）：定義、診断、およびニーズの評価 intellectual disability mental retardation in children definition diagnosis and assessment of needs
• 3. 幼児および小児における視覚の発達および視力評価 visual development and vision assessment in infants and children
• 4. 里親により養育された小児の包括的健康管理 comprehensive health care for children in foster care
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English Journal

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• Oomen AG, Bos PM, Fernandes TF, Hund-Rinke K, Boraschi D, Byrne HJ, Aschberger K, Gottardo S, von der Kammer F, Kühnel D, Hristozov D, Marcomini A, Migliore L, Scott-Fordsmand J, Wick P, Landsiedel R.Author information IVM, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment , Bilthoven , The Netherlands.AbstractAbstract Bringing together topic-related European Union (EU)-funded projects, the so-called "NanoSafety Cluster" aims at identifying key areas for further research on risk assessment procedures for nanomaterials (NM). The outcome of NanoSafety Cluster Working Group 10, this commentary presents a vision for concern-driven integrated approaches for the (eco-)toxicological testing and assessment (IATA) of NM. Such approaches should start out by determining concerns, i.e., specific information needs for a given NM based on realistic exposure scenarios. Recognised concerns can be addressed in a set of tiers using standardised protocols for NM preparation and testing. Tier 1 includes determining physico-chemical properties, non-testing (e.g., structure-activity relationships) and evaluating existing data. In tier 2, a limited set of in vitro and in vivo tests are performed that can either indicate that the risk of the specific concern is sufficiently known or indicate the need for further testing, including details for such testing. Ecotoxicological testing begins with representative test organisms followed by complex test systems. After each tier, it is evaluated whether the information gained permits assessing the safety of the NM so that further testing can be waived. By effectively exploiting all available information, IATA allow accelerating the risk assessment process and reducing testing costs and animal use (in line with the 3Rs principle implemented in EU Directive 2010/63/EU). Combining material properties, exposure, biokinetics and hazard data, information gained with IATA can be used to recognise groups of NM based upon similar modes of action. Grouping of substances in return should form integral part of the IATA themselves.
• Nanotoxicology.Nanotoxicology.2014 May;8:334-48. doi: 10.3109/17435390.2013.802387. Epub 2013 May 28.
• Abstract Bringing together topic-related European Union (EU)-funded projects, the so-called "NanoSafety Cluster" aims at identifying key areas for further research on risk assessment procedures for nanomaterials (NM). The outcome of NanoSafety Cluster Working Group 10, this commentary presents a vis
• PMID 23641967

• Antioxidant activity of Cod (Gadus morhua) protein hydrolysates: In vitro assays and evaluation in 5% fish oil-in-water emulsion.

• Sabeena Farvin KH, Andersen LL, Nielsen HH, Jacobsen C, Jakobsen G, Johansson I, Jessen F.Author information Division for Industrial Food Research, National Food Institute (DTU-Food), Technical University of Denmark, B. 221, Søltofts Plads, DK-2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark. Electronic address: sabeenafarvin@gmail.com.AbstractCod protein hydrolysates were fractionated according to the molecular mass into three fractions of >5kDa, 3-5kDa and <3kDa using an ultrafiltration membrane system. The antioxidative activity of the crude hydrolysates and the fractions were investigated, both in in vitro assays (DPPH radical scavenging activity, reducing power, Fe(2+) chelating activity and inhibition of lipid oxidation in liposome model system), and in 5% fish oil-in-water emulsions. The <3kDa fractions had very good radical scavenging activity, Fe(2+)chelating activity and reducing power while the fraction 3-5kDa resulted in higher protection against oxidation in the liposome model system. When tested in 5% oil-in-water emulsions, all the fractions, including the crude protein hydrolysate, were able to protect fish oil against oxidation in an iron induced oxidation system. However, none of the peptide fractions were effective in preventing tocopherol loss and showed no tocopherol sparing property. Volatile oxidation products showed an interaction between the aldehydes and the protein/peptides added in the emulsions, and this needs further investigation.
• Food chemistry.Food Chem.2014 Apr 15;149:326-34. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.03.075. Epub 2013 Apr 3.
• Cod protein hydrolysates were fractionated according to the molecular mass into three fractions of >5kDa, 3-5kDa and <3kDa using an ultrafiltration membrane system. The antioxidative activity of the crude hydrolysates and the fractions were investigated, both in in vitro assays (DPPH radical s
• PMID 24295714

• Food adulteration analysis without laboratory prepared or determined reference food adulterant values.

• Kalivas JH, Georgiou CA, Moira M, Tsafaras I, Petrakis EA, Mousdis GA.Author information Department of Chemistry, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID 83209, USA. Electronic address: kalijohn@isu.edu.AbstractQuantitative analysis of food adulterants is an important health and economic issue that needs to be fast and simple. Spectroscopy has significantly reduced analysis time. However, still needed are preparations of analyte calibration samples matrix matched to prediction samples which can be laborious and costly. Reported in this paper is the application of a newly developed pure component Tikhonov regularization (PCTR) process that does not require laboratory prepared or reference analysis methods, and hence, is a greener calibration method. The PCTR method requires an analyte pure component spectrum and non-analyte spectra. As a food analysis example, synchronous fluorescence spectra of extra virgin olive oil samples adulterated with sunflower oil is used. Results are shown to be better than those obtained using ridge regression with reference calibration samples. The flexibility of PCTR allows including reference samples and is generic for use with other instrumental methods and food products.
• Food chemistry.Food Chem.2014 Apr 1;148:289-93. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.10.065. Epub 2013 Oct 23.
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• PMID 24262559

Japanese Journal

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• 助詞(否定・疑問文で)

• (英正式)～する必要がある
• [need not have done](主に英)～する必要はなかったのに(実際にはした)
• (英正式)[need not do]必ずしも～でない

furthermore, aneurysms need not always be present, and angiographic findings may be limited to stenotic segments and obliteration of vessels.(HIM.2125)(さらに、動脈瘤はいつも存在するわけでないし、血管造影所見は血管の狭窄や閉塞に限られるかもしれない。)

• vt.
• vi.
• n.

関

ask for, call, claim, demand, desire, entail, essential, fundamental, necessary, necessitate, necessity, order, prerequisite, request, require, requirement