WordNet

a common nonmetallic element belonging to the halogens; best known as a heavy yellow irritating toxic gas; used to purify water and as a bleaching agent and disinfectant; occurs naturally only as a salt (as in sea water) (同)Cl, atomic number 17
the 3rd letter of the Roman alphabet (同)c
(music) the keynote of the scale of C major
a general-purpose programing language closely associated with the UNIX operating system

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塩素(化学記号は『CL』)
carbonの化学記号
chlorineの化学記号

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/01/17 09:04:14」(JST)

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[Wiki ja表示]

塩素（えんそ、英: chlorine）は原子番号17の元素。元素記号は Cl。原子量は 35.45。ハロゲン元素の一つ。

一般に「塩素」という場合は、塩素の単体である塩素分子（Cl₂、二塩素、塩素ガス）を示すことが多い。ここでも合わせて述べる。塩素分子は常温常圧では特有の臭いを持つ黄緑色の気体で、毒性と腐食性を持つ。

性質

塩素原子の電子親和力は非常に大きく、通常イオン化する際は1価の陰イオンとなる。EA = 3.617 eV^[2]

単体（塩素ガス）は、常温常圧では特有の臭いを有する黄緑色の気体。分子量 70.90。融点 -101 ℃、沸点 -34.1 ℃、比重 2.49。非常に反応性が高く、多くの金属や有機物と反応し塩化物を形成する。

強い漂白・殺菌作用をもつため、パルプや衣類の漂白剤や、水道水やプールの殺菌剤として使用される。ただし、気体を扱うのは困難であり、また保存性の点から水酸化ナトリウム水溶液と反応させた次亜塩素酸ナトリウムの形で利用されることが多い^[3]。

地球上の塩素の存在

地球上において、92ある天然元素のうち18番目に多く存在し、鉱物やイオン、気体などとしてマントルに99.6 %、地殻に0.3 %、海水に0.1 %が保有されている^[4]。

マントル - アルステア・キャメロンによる隕石の分析で、ケイ素10,000原子に対し塩素190原子が含まれていると考えられていることから、地球の質量約6,000 Ygに対し22 Yg (22×10²⁴ g) の塩素が存在すると推測される。
地殻 - 塩素が地殻の総重量の0.19 %を占めると考えられていることから、約60 Zg (60×10²¹ g) の塩素が地殻に存在すると推測される。火山噴火により毎年0.4 - 11 Tg (0.4 - 11×10¹² g) の塩素が主に塩化水素の形で対流圏に放出され、その大部分が地表や海洋に降下する。
海水 - 約1.36×10⁸ km³の海水の総量のうち平均塩素濃度19.354 g/kgであることから、26 Zgが主に塩化ナトリウムとして存在すると推測される。海面上で生じる波により、年間6 - 18 Pg (6 - 18×10¹⁵ g) が大気中に放出される。大部分が海洋に戻るが、一部は揮発性塩素となる。
河川水・湖水 - 河川・湖の水の総量は約1×10⁵ km³であり、河川水には約5.8 mg/L含まれていることから、河川・湖水総量に対し580 Tgが含まれていると推測される。
地下水 - 帯水層および土壌中の地下水は地球の水量のおよそ8 %であり、標準的塩素濃度が40 mg/Lであることから、地下水中の塩素含有総量は320 Pgと推測される。
雪氷圏 - 極地や大陸の氷原には、0.5 Gg (0.5×10⁹ g) の塩素が存在すると推測される。
対流圏 - 大気中では主に塩化水素やクロロメタンの状態で存在し、塩化水素は地表近くでは100 - 300 pptv（1 pptvは1兆分の1）、都市部の高濃度域では3,000 pptvが測定される。クロロメタンや、より高層の塩化水素、海水からのエアロゾルなどを含めると、5.3 Tgが存在していると推測される。対流圏から成層圏へは年間約0.03 Tgが放出され、成層圏から対流圏へもほぼ同量が移動する。
成層圏 - 成層圏には約3 pptvの塩素が含まれ、約0.4 Tgの塩素が存在すると推測される。

生産

現在では一般的に塩化ナトリウム水溶液からイオン交換と電気分解とを併用するイオン交換膜法によって水酸化ナトリウムと共に生産される^[5]。塩素ガスの2008年度日本国内生産量は3,911,492トン、消費量は3,497,936トン、液体塩素の2008年度日本国内生産量は519,817トン、消費量は243,098トンである^[6]。高圧ガス保安法に基づく容器保安規則により、黄色いボンベに保管するように決められている^[7]。また液化塩素専用タンク車のタキ5450形も塗装は黄色である。

塩酸やクロロホルムなど各種塩化物の原料、ポリ塩化ビニルやポリ塩化ビニリデンなどの合成樹脂原料として多方面で使用されるほか、合成中間体としてシリコーンやポリウレタン、各種ポリマーなど塩素を含まない製品の製造にも用いられる^[8]。

人体・環境への影響

消毒

塩素は水道水の消毒に使用されており、水道法の規定で、各家庭の蛇口で1リットル当たり0.1 mg以上の濃度を保つように規定されている。一方、有機物と塩素が反応することにより、塩素臭（カルキ臭）が発生するほか^[9]発癌性が疑われるトリハロメタンを生成するといわれ、同様に塩素で汚水処理を行うと水路に塩素化有機物が流れ出てしまうのではないかという懸念の声もある。ただし、コレラなどの病気がほとんどの国で駆逐されたのは塩素を含んだ水道水のおかげでもある。近年は水道水の高度処理が進み、塩素臭は以前に比べて弱まっている^[9]。

単体の毒性

塩素は強い毒性を持つため、人類初の本格的な化学兵器としても使われた。第一次世界大戦中の1915年4月22日、イープル戦線でのことである。この時にドイツ軍の化学兵器部隊の司令官を務めていたのは後年（1918年）ノーベル化学賞を受賞するフリッツ・ハーバーである。また塩素ガスは、色がついて重いのですぐにばれたり、周りへの被害が少ない。支給されたマスクは中和液を含ませたガーゼマスクだった

塩素を吸引するとまず呼吸器に損傷を与える。空気中である程度以上の濃度では、皮膚の粘膜を強く刺激する。目や呼吸器の粘膜を刺激して咳や嘔吐を催し、重大な場合には呼吸不全で死に至る場合もある。液体塩素の場合には、塩素に直接触れた部分が炎症を起こす。

塩素を浴びてしまった場合、直ちにその場から離れ、着ていた衣服を脱ぎ、毛布に包まるなどして体を温めなければならない。直ちに医療機関での処置を要する。呼吸が停止している場合には一刻も早く人工呼吸による蘇生を行わなければならない。呼吸が苦しい場合には酸素マスクの着用を要する。

特に塩素を含む漂白剤（次亜塩素酸ナトリウム）と酸性の物質（主にトイレ用の洗剤）を混合すると、有毒な単体の塩素ガスが遊離し危険な状態となる。このため、漂白剤や酸性のトイレ用の洗剤には「混ぜるな危険」との大きく目立つ表示がある（しかしこれだけの表示では、具体的に何と混ぜると危険なのかが示されていない）。このような表示がされる前（当時も小さな注意書き自体は存在した）には1986年には徳島県で、1989年には長野県で、実際に塩素系漂白剤と酸性洗浄剤を混ぜたことにより、塩素ガスが発生し死亡した事故が起こっている。

毒物及び劇物取締法により劇物に指定されている^[10]。

オゾン層への影響

「一酸化塩素」も参照

塩素はオゾンホールの原因物質としても指摘されている。フロンなどの塩素原子を含む化合物が紫外線に当たると、結合が切断され塩素ラジカルが生じる。塩素ラジカルは周囲のオゾンと反応して触媒的にオゾンを酸素分子へと分解するため、オゾン層の破壊効果が大きい。

歴史

1774年にスウェーデンのカール・ヴィルヘルム・シェーレが、海塩酸（塩酸）と二酸化マンガンを加熱させることによって単体を分離し、｢脱フロギストン海塩酸気｣と命名。1810年にハンフリー・デービーが元素であると認め、気体が黄緑色である点から、ギリシャ語で「黄緑色」を意味する χλωρος (Chloros) を取って chlorine と命名した。日本語に直訳すれば緑気（りょっき）である。

日本語の「塩素」は、食塩の主成分である点による命名である。

塩素の化合物

塩化物イオンあるいは置換基として塩素を含む化合物は塩化物あるいは塩素化合物と呼ばれる。塩素はほとんどすべての元素と安定な化合物を形成し、また有機化合物にも塩素を含むものが多く知られている（記事塩化物に詳しい）。個々の化合物については、「塩化物のカテゴリ」及び「有機ハロゲン化合物のカテゴリ」を参照されたい。

有機塩素化合物は、安定で、かつ安価に合成できるために、クロロホルムやジクロロメタンのような代表的な有機溶媒として、あるいはポリ塩化ビニルなどのプラスチックとして、大量に生産・使用されている。

反面、多くは毒性を持ち、環境中に放出された際に化学分解され難い点、更に焼却時にはダイオキシンを発生する点から、法令等で規制されている物質も多い。

塩素のオキソ酸

塩素のオキソ酸は慣用名をもつ。次にそれらを挙げる。

オキソ酸の名称	化学式（酸化数）	オキソ酸塩の名称	備考
次亜塩素酸 (hypochlorous acid)	HClO (+I)	次亜塩素酸塩 ( - hypochlorite)	次亜塩素酸塩は塩基性を示し、遊離酸よりも安定で漂白剤、殺菌剤として使用される。
亜塩素酸 (chlorous acid)	HClO₂ (+III)	亜塩素酸塩 ( - chlorite)	亜塩素酸は中程度の酸 (pKa 2.31)。亜塩素酸塩は危険物第1類。
塩素酸 (chloric acid)	HClO₃ (+V)	塩素酸塩 ( - chlorate)	塩素酸は強酸。塩素酸塩は危険物第1類でマッチや火薬などの酸化剤として用いられる。
過塩素酸 (perchloric acid)	HClO₄ (+VII)	過塩素酸塩 ( - perchlorate)	過塩素酸は強酸で危険物第6類。過塩素酸塩は危険物第1類。

※オキソ酸塩名称の '-' にはカチオン種の名称が入る。

塩素のオキソ酸はいずれも酸化力が強い。代表的な化合物に次のようなものがある。

次亜塩素酸ナトリウム (NaClO)
さらし粉（CaCl(ClO)•H₂O) - 不純物として原料の Ca(OH)₂ を含む

同位体

詳細は「塩素の同位体」を参照

出典

^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.), Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-0486-5
^ 日本化学会編　『化学便覧基礎編　改訂4版』　丸善、1993年
^ 『化学大辞典』　共立出版、1993年
^ 『塩素白書』p10-21
^ F.A. コットン, G. ウィルキンソン著, 中原勝儼訳　『コットン・ウィルキンソン無機化学』　培風館、1987年
^ 化学工業統計月報 - 経済産業省
^ 容器保安規則（法令データ提供システム）
^ 『塩素白書』p45
^ ^a ^b 尼崎市水道局
^ 毒物及び劇物指定令昭和四十年一月四日政令第二号第二条十七の三

参考文献

IUPAC編、宮本純之監訳『塩素白書』化学工業日報社、2000年。ISBN 4-87326-346-8。

外部リンク

塩素 - 「健康食品」の安全性・有効性情報（国立健康・栄養研究所）
『舎密開宗』からたどる，和名「塩酸」｢塩素｣の名称の起源について

ハロゲン間化合物
	フッ素	塩素	臭素	ヨウ素
フッ素	F₂
塩素	ClF　ClF₃　ClF₅	Cl₂
臭素	BrF　BrF₃　BrF₅	BrCl　BrCl₃	Br₂
ヨウ素	IF　IF₃　IF₅　IF₇	ICl　I₂Cl₆	IBr　IBr₃	I₂

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

Chlorine is a chemical element with symbol Cl and atomic number 17. It also has a relative atomic mass of 35.5. Chlorine is in the halogen group (17) and is the second lightest halogen following fluorine. The element is a yellow-green gas under standard conditions, where it forms diatomic molecules. Chlorine has the highest electron affinity and the third highest electronegativity of all the reactive elements. For this reason, chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent. Free chlorine is rare on Earth, and is usually a result of direct or indirect oxidation by oxygen.

The most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride (common salt), has been known since ancient times. Around 1630, chlorine gas was first synthesized in a chemical reaction, but not recognized as a fundamentally important substance. Characterization of chlorine gas was made in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who supposed it to be an oxide of a new element. In 1809, chemists suggested that the gas might be a pure element, and this was confirmed by Sir Humphry Davy in 1810, who named it from Ancient Greek: χλωρóς (khlôros) "pale green".

Nearly all chlorine in the Earth's crust occurs as chloride in various ionic compounds, including table salt. It is the second most abundant halogen and 21st most abundant chemical element in Earth's crust. Elemental chlorine is commercially produced from brine by electrolysis. The high oxidizing potential of elemental chlorine led commercially to free chlorine's bleaching and disinfectant uses, as well as its many uses of an essential reagent in the chemical industry. Chlorine is used in the manufacture of a wide range of consumer products, about two-thirds of them organic chemicals such as polyvinyl chloride, as well as many intermediates for production of plastics and other end products which do not contain the element. As a common disinfectant, elemental chlorine and chlorine-generating compounds are used more directly in swimming pools to keep them clean and sanitary.

In the form of chloride ions, chlorine is necessary to all known species of life. Other types of chlorine compounds are rare in living organisms, and artificially produced chlorinated organics range from inert to toxic. In the upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing organic molecules such as chlorofluorocarbons have been implicated in ozone depletion. Small quantities of elemental chlorine are generated by oxidation of chloride to hypochlorite in neutrophils, as part of the immune response against bacteria. Elemental chlorine at high concentrations is extremely dangerous and poisonous for all living organisms, and was used in World War I as the first gaseous chemical warfare agent.

1 Characteristics
- 1.1 Physical characteristics of chlorine and its compounds
- 1.2 Chemical characteristics
  - 1.2.1 Compounds
  - 1.2.2 Hydrolysis of free chlorine or disproportionation in water
    - 1.2.2.1 Chlorides
    - 1.2.2.2 Chlorine oxides
    - 1.2.2.3 Interhalogen compounds
    - 1.2.2.4 Organochlorine compounds
- 1.3 Occurrence
- 1.4 Isotopes
2 History
- 2.1 Bleaching and disinfection
- 2.2 Historically important chlorine compounds
3 Production
- 3.1 Oxidation of HCl
- 3.2 Laboratory methods
4 Applications
- 4.1 Production of industrial and consumer products
- 4.2 Sanitation, disinfection, and antisepsis
  - 4.2.1 Combating putrefaction
  - 4.2.2 Against infection and contagion
  - 4.2.3 Semmelweis and experiments with antisepsis
  - 4.2.4 Public sanitation
- 4.3 Use as a weapon
  - 4.3.1 World War I
  - 4.3.2 Iraq War
  - 4.3.3 Syrian Civil War
  - 4.3.4 Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL/ISIS)
5 Health effects and hazards
- 5.1 Chlorine-induced cracking in structural materials
- 5.2 Chlorine-iron fire
6 Organochlorine compounds as pollutants
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links

Characteristics

Physical characteristics of chlorine and its compounds

Chlorine, liquefied under a pressure of 7.4 bar at room temperature, displayed in a quartz ampule embedded in acrylic glass.

At standard temperature and pressure, two chlorine atoms form the diatomic molecule Cl₂.^[5] This is a yellow-green gas that has a distinctive strong odor, familiar to most from common household bleach.^[6] The bonding between the two atoms is relatively weak (only 242.580 ± 0.004 kJ/mol), which makes the Cl₂ molecule highly reactive. The boiling point at standard pressure is around −34 ˚C, but it can be liquefied at room temperature with pressures above 740 kPa (107 psi).^[7]

Elemental chlorine is yellow-green, but the chloride ion, in common with other halide ions, has no color in either minerals or solutions (example, table salt). Similarly, (again as with other halogens) chlorine atoms impart no color to organic chlorides when they replace hydrogen atoms in colorless organic compounds, such as tetrachloromethane. The melting point and density of these compounds is increased by substitution of chlorine in place of hydrogen. Compounds of chlorine with other halogens, as well as many chlorine oxides, are colored.

Chemical characteristics

Along with fluorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine, chlorine is a member of the halogen series that forms the group 17 (formerly VII, VIIA, or VIIB) of the periodic table. Chlorine forms compounds with almost all of the elements to give compounds that are usually called chlorides. Chlorine gas reacts with most organic compounds, and will even sluggishly support the combustion of hydrocarbons.^[8]

Compounds

Chlorine exists in all odd numbered oxidation states from −1 to +7, as well as the elemental state and +4 in chlorine dioxide, with respective oxidation states of 0 and 4+ (see table below, and also structures in chlorite).^[9] Chlorine typically has a −1 oxidation state in compounds, except for compounds containing fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen, all of which are even more electronegative than chlorine. Progressing through the states, hydrochloric acid can be oxidized using manganese dioxide, or hydrogen chloride gas oxidized catalytically by air to form elemental chlorine gas.^[10]

Oxidation state	Name	Formula	Characteristic compounds
−1	chlorides	Cl⁻	ionic chlorides, organic chlorides, hydrochloric acid
0	chlorine	Cl₂	elemental chlorine
+1	hypochlorites	ClO⁻	sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, dichlorine monoxide
+3	chlorites	ClO− 2	sodium chlorite
+4	chlorine(IV)	ClO 2	chlorine dioxide
+5	chloryl, chlorates	ClO− 3 ClO+ 2	potassium chlorate, chloric acid, dichloryl trisulfate [ClO2]₂[S₃O₁₀].
+6	chlorine(VI)	Cl 2O 6	dichlorine hexoxide (gas). In liquid or solid disproportionates to mix of +5 and +7 oxidation states, as ionic chloryl perchlorate [ClO 2]+ [ClO 4]−
+7	perchlorates	ClO− 4	perchloric acid, perchlorate salts such as magnesium perchlorate, dichlorine heptoxide

Hydrolysis of free chlorine or disproportionation in water

At 25 °C and atmospheric pressure, one liter of water dissolves 3.26 g or 1.125 L of gaseous chlorine.^[11] Solutions of chlorine in water contain chlorine (Cl₂), hydrochloric acid, and hypochlorous acid:

Cl₂ + H₂O HCl + HClO

This conversion to the right is called disproportionation, because the ingredient chlorine both increases and decreases in formal oxidation state. The solubility of chlorine in water is increased if the water contains dissolved alkali hydroxide, and in this way, chlorine bleach is produced.^[12]

Cl₂ + 2 OH⁻ → ClO⁻ + Cl⁻ + H₂O

Chlorine gas only exists in a neutral or acidic solution.

Chlorides

Chlorine combines with almost all elements to give derivatives called chlorides. Compounds with oxygen, nitrogen, xenon, and krypton are known, but do not form by direct reaction of the elements.^[13] Chloride is one of the most common anions in nature. Hydrogen chloride and its aqueous solution, hydrochloric acid, are produced on megaton scale annually both as valued intermediates but sometimes as undesirable pollutants.

Chlorine oxides

Chlorine forms a variety of oxides, as seen above: chlorine dioxide (ClO₂), dichlorine monoxide (Cl₂O), dichlorine hexoxide (Cl₂O₆), dichlorine heptoxide (Cl₂O₇). The anionic derivatives of these same oxides are also well known including chlorate (ClO−
3), chlorite (ClO−
2), hypochlorite (ClO⁻), and perchlorate (ClO−
4). The acid derivatives of these anions are hypochlorous acid (HOCl), chloric acid (HClO₃) and perchloric acid (HClO₄). The chloroxy cation chloryl (ClO₂⁺) is known and has the same structure as chlorite but with a positive charge and chlorine in the +5 oxidation state.^[14] The compound "chlorine trioxide" does not occur, but rather in gas form is found as the dimeric dichlorine hexoxide (Cl₂O₆) with a +6 oxidation state. This compound in liquid or solid form disproportionates to a mixture of +5 and +7 oxidation states, occurring as the ionic compound chloryl perchlorate, [ClO
2]+
[ClO
4]−
.^[15]

In hot concentrated alkali solution hypochlorite disproportionates:

2 ClO⁻ → Cl⁻ + ClO−
2

ClO⁻ + ClO−
2 → Cl⁻ + ClO−
3

Sodium chlorate and potassium chlorate can be crystallized from solutions formed by the above reactions. If their crystals are heated to a high temperature, they undergo a further, final disproportionation:

4 ClO−
3 → Cl⁻ + 3 ClO−
4

This same progression from chloride to perchlorate can be accomplished by electrolysis. The anode reaction progression is:^[16]

Reaction	Electrode potential
Cl⁻ + 2 OH⁻ → ClO⁻ + H₂O + 2 e⁻	+0.89 volts
ClO⁻ + 2 OH⁻ → ClO− 2 + H₂O + 2 e⁻	+0.67 volts
ClO− 2 + 2 OH⁻ → ClO− 3 + H₂O + 2 e⁻	+0.33 volts
ClO− 3 + 2 OH⁻ → ClO− 4 + H₂O + 2 e⁻	+0.35 volts

Each step is accompanied at the cathode by

2 H₂O + 2 e⁻ → 2 OH⁻ + H₂ (−0.83 volts)

Interhalogen compounds

Chlorine forms a variety of interhalogen compounds, such as the chlorine fluorides, chlorine monofluoride (ClF), chlorine trifluoride (ClF
3), chlorine pentafluoride (ClF
5). Chlorides of bromine and iodine are also known. Chlorine oxidizes bromide and iodide salts to bromine and iodine, respectively, but cannot oxidize fluoride salts to fluorine.^[17]

Organochlorine compounds

Chlorine often imparts many desired properties to an organic compound, in part owing to the relative inertness of the C-Cl bond. Organic chloride compounds tend to be less reactive in nucleophilic substitution reactions than the corresponding bromide or iodide derivatives, but they tend to be cheaper. Chlorine is used extensively in polymers and in organic chemistry.

Several general approaches exist for the formation of C-Cl bonds. Like the other halogens, chlorine undergoes electrophilic addition reactions. Notable is the chlorination of alkenes and aromatic compounds with a Lewis acid catalyst. Often industry avoids the direct use of chlorine, preferring cheaper reagents such as hydrogen chloride, as deployed in hydrohalogenation and oxychlorination. The organochlorine compound produced on the largest scale is polyvinyl chloride, 23 billion kilograms of which were produced in 2000.^[18]

Occurrence

Essentially no chlorine was created in the Big Bang. Chlorine in the universe is created and distributed through the interstellar medium from nucleosynthesis in supernovae, via the r-process.^[19] This chlorine provides the supply found in the Solar System.

In meteorites and on Earth, chlorine is found primarily as the chloride ion which occurs in minerals. In the Earth's crust, chlorine is present at average concentrations of about 126 parts per million,^[20] predominantly in such minerals as halite (sodium chloride), sylvite (potassium chloride), and carnallite (potassium magnesium chloride hexahydrate).

Chloride is a component of the salt that is deposited in the earth or dissolved in the oceans — about 1.9% of the mass of seawater is chloride ions. Even higher concentrations of chloride are found in the Dead Sea and in underground brine deposits. Most chloride salts are soluble in water, thus, chloride-containing minerals are usually only found in abundance in dry climates or deep underground.

Over 2000 naturally occurring organic chlorine compounds are known.^[21]

Isotopes

Chlorine has a wide range of isotopes. The two stable isotopes are ³⁵Cl (75.77%) and ³⁷Cl (24.23%).^[22] Together they give chlorine a relative atomic mass of 35.4527 g/mol. The half-integer value for chlorine's weight caused some confusion in the early days of chemistry, when it had been postulated that atoms were composed of even units of hydrogen (see Proust's law), and the existence of isotopes was unsuspected.^[23]

Trace amounts of radioactive ³⁶Cl exist in the environment, in a ratio of about 7x10⁻¹³ to 1 with stable isotopes. ³⁶Cl is produced in the atmosphere by spallation of ³⁶Ar by interactions with cosmic ray protons. In the subsurface environment, ³⁶Cl is generated primarily as a result of neutron capture by ³⁵Cl or muon capture by ⁴⁰Ca. ³⁶Cl decays to ³⁶S and to ³⁶Ar, with a combined half-life of 308,000 years. The half-life of this isotope makes it suitable for geologic dating in the range of 60,000 to 1 million years. Large amounts of ³⁶Cl were produced by irradiation of seawater during atmospheric detonations of nuclear weapons between 1952 and 1958. The residence time of ³⁶Cl in the atmosphere is about 1 week. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in soil and groundwater, ³⁶Cl is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the present. ³⁶Cl has seen other uses in the geological sciences, including dating ice and sediments.^[22]

History

The most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride, has been known since ancient times; archaeologists have found evidence that rock salt was used as early as 3000 BC and brine as early as 6000 BC.^[24] Around 1630, chlorine was recognized as a gas by the Flemish chemist and physician Jan Baptist van Helmont.^[25]

Carl Wilhelm Scheele

Elemental chlorine was first prepared and studied in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and, therefore, he is credited for its discovery.^[26] He called it "dephlogisticated muriatic acid air" since it is a gas (then called "airs") and it came from hydrochloric acid (then known as "muriatic acid").^[26] He failed to establish chlorine as an element, mistakenly thinking that it was the oxide obtained from the hydrochloric acid (see phlogiston theory).^[26] He named the new element within this oxide as muriaticum.^[26] Regardless of what he thought, Scheele did isolate chlorine by reacting MnO₂ (as the mineral pyrolusite) with HCl:^[25]

4 HCl + MnO₂ → MnCl₂ + 2 H₂O + Cl₂

Scheele observed several of the properties of chlorine: the bleaching effect on litmus, the deadly effect on insects, the yellow green color, and the smell similar to aqua regia.^[27]

At the time, common chemical theory was: any acid is a compound that contains oxygen (still sounding in the German and Dutch names of oxygen: sauerstoff or zuurstof, both translating into English as acid substance), so a number of chemists, including Claude Berthollet, suggested that Scheele's dephlogisticated muriatic acid air must be a combination of oxygen and the yet undiscovered element, muriaticum.^[28]^[29]^[30]

In 1809, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard tried to decompose dephlogisticated muriatic acid air by reacting it with charcoal to release the free element muriaticum (and carbon dioxide).^[26] They did not succeed and published a report in which they considered the possibility that dephlogisticated muriatic acid air is an element, but were not convinced.^[31]

In 1810, Sir Humphry Davy tried the same experiment again, and concluded that it is an element, and not a compound.^[26] He named this new element as chlorine, from the Greek word χλωρος (chlōros), meaning green-yellow.^[32] The name "halogen", meaning "salt producer", was originally used for chlorine in 1811 by Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger. This term was later used as a generic term to describe all the elements in the chlorine family (fluorine, bromine, iodine), after a suggestion by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1842.^[33]^[34] In 1823, Michael Faraday liquefied chlorine for the first time,^[35]^[36] and demonstrated that what was then known as "solid chlorine" had a structure of chlorine hydrate (Cl₂·H₂O).^[25]

Bleaching and disinfection

Chlorine gas was first used by French chemist Claude Berthollet to bleach textiles in 1785.^[37]^[38] Modern bleaches resulted from further work by Berthollet, who first produced sodium hypochlorite in 1789 in his laboratory in the town of Javel (now part of Paris, France), by passing chlorine gas through a solution of sodium carbonate. The resulting liquid, known as "Eau de Javel" ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. This process was not very efficient, and alternative production methods were sought. Scottish chemist and industrialist Charles Tennant first produced a solution of calcium hypochlorite ("chlorinated lime"), then solid calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder).^[37] These compounds produced low levels of elemental chlorine, and could be more efficiently transported than sodium hypochlorite, which remained as dilute solutions because when purified to eliminate water, it became a dangerously powerful and unstable oxidizer. Near the end of the nineteenth century, E. S. Smith patented a method of sodium hypochlorite production involving electrolysis of brine to produce sodium hydroxide and chlorine gas, which then mixed to form sodium hypochlorite.^[39] This is known as the chloralkali process, first introduced on an industrial scale in 1892, and now the source of essentially all modern elemental chlorine and sodium hydroxide production (a related low-temperature electrolysis reaction, the Hooker process, is now responsible for bleach and sodium hypochlorite production).

Elemental chlorine solutions dissolved in chemically basic water (sodium and calcium hypochlorite) were first used as anti-putrification agents and disinfectants in the 1820s, in France, long before the establishment of the germ theory of disease. This work is mainly due to Antoine-Germain Labarraque, who adapted Berthollet's "Javel water" bleach and other chlorine preparations for the purpose (for a more complete history, see below). Elemental chlorine has since served a continuous function in topical antisepsis (wound irrigation solutions and the like) as well as public sanitation (especially of swimming and drinking water).

Chlorine gas was first introduced as a weapon on April 22, 1915, at Ypres by the German Army.^[40]^[41] The effects of this weapon on the allies were disastrous because gas masks had not been mass distributed and were tricky to get on quickly.

Historically important chlorine compounds

In 1826, silver chloride was used to produce photographic images for the first time.^[42] Chloroform was first used as an anesthetic in 1847.^[42]

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was invented in 1912, initially without a purpose.^[42]

Production

Liquid chlorine analysis

In industry, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water. This method, the chloralkali process industrialized in 1892, now provides essentially all industrial chlorine gas.^[43] Along with chlorine, the method yields hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide (with sodium hydroxide actually being the most crucial of the three industrial products produced by the process). The process proceeds according to the following chemical equation:^[10]

2 NaCl + 2 H₂O → Cl₂ + H₂ + 2 NaOH

The electrolysis of chloride solutions all proceed according to the following equations:

Cathode: 2 H⁺_(aq) + 2 e⁻ → H_2(g)

Anode: 2 Cl⁻_(aq) → Cl_2(g) + 2 e⁻

Overall process: 2 NaCl (or KCl) + 2 H₂O → Cl₂ + H₂ + 2 NaOH (or KOH)

In diaphragm cell electrolysis, an asbestos (or polymer-fiber) diaphragm separates a cathode and an anode, preventing the chlorine forming at the anode from re-mixing with the sodium hydroxide and the hydrogen formed at the cathode.^[44] The salt solution (brine) is continuously fed to the anode compartment and flows through the diaphragm to the cathode compartment, where the caustic alkali is produced and the brine is partially depleted. Diaphragm methods produce dilute and slightly impure alkali but they are not burdened with the problem of preventing mercury discharge into the environment and they are more energy efficient. Membrane cell electrolysis employ permeable membrane as an ion exchanger. Saturated sodium (or potassium) chloride solution is passed through the anode compartment, leaving at a lower concentration.^[45] This method is more efficient than the diaphragm cell and produces very pure sodium (or potassium) hydroxide at about 32% concentration, but requires very pure brine.

Membrane cell process for chloralkali production

Oxidation of HCl

In the Deacon Process, hydrogen chloride recovered from the production of organochlorine compounds is recovered as chlorine. The process relies on oxidation using oxygen:

4 HCl + O₂ → 2 Cl₂ + 2 H₂O

The reaction requires a catalyst. As introduced by Deacon, early catalysts were based on copper. Commercial processes, such as the Mitsui MT-Chlorine Process, have switched to chromium and ruthenium-based catalysts.^[46]

Laboratory methods

Small amounts of chlorine gas can be made in the laboratory by combining hydrochloric acid and manganese dioxide. Alternatively a strong acid such as sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hypochlorite solution to release chlorine gas but reacts with sodium chlorate to produce chlorine gas and chlorine dioxide gas as well. In the home, accidents occur when hypochlorite bleach solutions are combined with certain acidic drain-cleaners.

Applications

Production of industrial and consumer products

Principal applications of chlorine are in the production of a wide range of industrial and consumer products.^[47]^[48] For example, it is used in making plastics, solvents for dry cleaning and metal degreasing, textiles, agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals, insecticides, dyestuffs, household cleaning products, etc.

Many important industrial products are produced via organochlorine intermediates. Examples include polycarbonates, polyurethanes, silicones, polytetrafluoroethylene, carboxymethyl cellulose, and propylene oxide. Like the other halogens, chlorine participates in free-radical substitution reactions with hydrogen-containing organic compounds. When applied to organic substrates, reaction is often—but not invariably—non-regioselective, and, hence, may result in a mixture of isomeric products. It is often difficult to control the degree of substitution as well, so multiple substitutions are common. If the different reaction products are easily separated, e.g., by distillation, substitutive free-radical chlorination (in some cases accompanied by concurrent thermal dehydrochlorination) may be a useful synthetic route. Industrial examples of this are the production of methyl chloride, methylene chloride, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride from methane, allyl chloride from propylene, and trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene from 1,2-dichloroethane.

Quantitatively, about 63% and 18% of all elemental chlorine produced is used in the manufacture of organic and inorganic chlorine compounds, respectively.^[43] About 15,000 chlorine compounds are being used commercially.^[27] The remaining 19% is used for bleaches and disinfection products.^[43] The most significant of organic compounds in terms of production volume are 1,2-dichloroethane and vinyl chloride, intermediates in the production of PVC. Other particularly important organochlorines are methyl chloride, methylene chloride, chloroform, vinylidene chloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, allyl chloride, epichlorohydrin, chlorobenzene, dichlorobenzenes, and trichlorobenzenes. The major inorganic compounds include HCl, Cl₂O, HOCl, NaClO₃, chlorinated isocyanurates, AlCl₃, SiCl₄, SnCl₄, PCl₃, PCl₅, POCl₃, AsCl₃, SbCl₃, SbCl₅, BiCl₃, S₂Cl₂, SCl₂, SOCI₂, ClF₃, ICl, ICl₃, TiCl₃, TiCl₄, MoCl₅, FeCl₃, ZnCl₂, etc.^[43]^[49]

Pulp bleaching was done often with elemental chlorine in the past. This tends to produce organochlorine pollution, and today environmental laws make it prohibitive. Chlorine is used either in chlorine dioxide and sodium hypochlorite stages in elemental chlorine free (ECF) bleaching, or not at all (total chlorine free or TCF bleaching).

Sanitation, disinfection, and antisepsis

Combating putrefaction

Antoine-Germain Labarraque

In France (as elsewhere) there was a need to process animal guts in order to make musical instrument strings, Goldbeater's skin and other products. This was carried out in "gut factories" (boyauderies) as an odiferous and unhealthy business. In or about 1820, the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale offered a prize for the discovery of a method, chemical or mechanical, that could be used to separate the peritoneal membrane of animal intestines without causing putrefaction.^[50]^[51] It was won by Antoine-Germain Labarraque, a 44-year-old French chemist and pharmacist who had discovered that Berthollet's chlorinated bleaching solutions ("Eau de Javel") not only destroyed the smell of putrefaction of animal tissue decomposition, but also retarded the decomposition process itself.^[51]^[52]

Labarraque's research resulted in chlorides and hypochlorites of lime (calcium hypochlorite) and of sodium (sodium hypochlorite) being employed not only in the boyauderies but also for the routine disinfection and deodorisation of latrines, sewers, markets, abattoirs, anatomical theatres and morgues.^[53] They were also used, with success, in hospitals, lazarets, prisons, infirmaries (both on land and at sea), magnaneries, stables, cattle-sheds, etc.; and for exhumations,^[54] embalming, during outbreaks of epidemic illness, fever, blackleg in cattle, etc.^[50]

Against infection and contagion

Labarraque's chlorinated lime and soda solutions have been advocated since 1828 to prevent infection (called "contagious infection", and presumed to be transmitted by "miasmas") and also to treat putrefaction of existing wounds, including septic wounds.^[55] In this 1828 work, Labarraque recommended for the doctor to breathe chlorine, wash his hands with chlorinated lime, and even sprinkle chlorinated lime about the patient's bed, in cases of "contagious infection". In 1828, it was well known that some infections were contagious, even though the agency of the microbe was not to be realized or discovered for more than half a century.

During the Paris cholera outbreak of 1832, large quantities of so-called chloride of lime were used to disinfect the capital. This was not simply modern calcium chloride, but contained chlorine gas dissolved in lime-water (dilute calcium hydroxide) to form calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime). Labarraque's discovery helped to remove the terrible stench of decay from hospitals and dissecting rooms, and, by doing so, effectively deodorised the Latin Quarter of Paris.^[56] These "putrid miasmas" were thought by many to be responsible for the spread of "contagion" and "infection" – both words used before the germ theory of infection. The use of chloride of lime was based on destruction of odors and "putrid matter". One source has claimed that chloride of lime was used by Dr. John Snow to disinfect water from the cholera-contaminated well feeding the Broad Street pump in 1854 London.^[57] Three reputable sources that described the famous Broad Street pump cholera epidemic do not mention Snow performing any disinfection of water from that well.^[58]^[59]^[60] Instead, one reference makes it clear that chloride of lime was used to disinfect the offal and filth in the streets surrounding the Broad Street pump—a common practice in mid-nineteenth century England.^[58]^:296

Semmelweis and experiments with antisepsis

Ignaz Semmelweis

Perhaps the most famous application of Labarraque's chlorine and chemical base solutions was in 1847, when Ignaz Semmelweis used (first) chlorine-water (simply chlorine dissolved in pure water), then cheaper chlorinated lime solutions, to deodorize the hands of Austrian doctors, which Semmelweis noticed still carried the stench of decomposition from the dissection rooms to the patient examination rooms. Semmelweis, still long before the germ theory of disease, had theorized that "cadaveric particles" were somehow transmitting decay from fresh medical cadavers to living patients, and he used the well-known "Labarraque's solutions" as the only known method to remove the smell of decay and tissue decomposition (which he found that soap did not). The solutions proved to be far more effective germicide antiseptics than soap (Semmelweis was also aware of their greater efficacy, but not the reason), and this resulted in Semmelweis's (later) celebrated success in stopping the transmission of childbed fever ("puerperal fever") in the maternity wards of Vienna General Hospital in Austria in 1847.^[61]

Much later, during World War I in 1916, a standardized and diluted modification of Labarraque's solution, containing hypochlorite (0.5%) and boric acid as an acidic stabilizer, was developed by Henry Drysdale Dakin (who gave full credit to Labarraque's prior work in this area). Called Dakin's solution, the method of wound irrigation with chlorinated solutions allowed antiseptic treatment of a wide variety of open wounds, long before the modern antibiotic era. A modified version of this solution continues to be employed in wound irrigation in the modern era, where it remains effective against multiply antibiotic resistant bacteria (see Century Pharmaceuticals).

Public sanitation

Liquid Pool Chlorine

By 1918, the US Department of Treasury called for all drinking water to be disinfected with chlorine. Chlorine is presently an important chemical for water purification (such as in water treatment plants), in disinfectants, and in bleach. Chlorine in water is more than three times as effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and is more than six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of iodine.^[62]

Chlorine is usually used (in the form of hypochlorous acid) to kill bacteria and other microbes in drinking water supplies and public swimming pools. In most private swimming pools, chlorine itself is not used, but rather sodium hypochlorite, formed from chlorine and sodium hydroxide, or solid tablets of chlorinated isocyanurates. The drawback of using chlorine in swimming pools is that the chlorine reacts with the proteins in human hair and skin (see Hypochlorous acid). Once the chlorine reacts with the hair and skin, it becomes chemically bonded. Even small water supplies are now routinely chlorinated.^[8]

It is often impractical to store and use poisonous chlorine gas for water treatment, so alternative methods of adding chlorine are used. These include hypochlorite solutions, which gradually release chlorine into the water, and compounds like sodium dichloro-s-triazinetrione (dihydrate or anhydrous), sometimes referred to as "dichlor", and trichloro-s-triazinetrione, sometimes referred to as "trichlor". These compounds are stable while solid and may be used in powdered, granular, or tablet form. When added in small amounts to pool water or industrial water systems, the chlorine atoms hydrolyze from the rest of the molecule forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which acts as a general biocide, killing germs, micro-organisms, algae, and so on.^[63]^[64]

Use as a weapon

World War I

Chlorine gas, also known as bertholite, was first used as a weapon in World War I by Germany on April 22, 1915 in the Second Battle of Ypres.^[65] As described by the soldiers it had a distinctive smell of a mixture between pepper and pineapple. It also tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest. Chlorine can react with water in the mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid, an irritant that can be lethal. The damage done by chlorine gas can be prevented by the activated charcoal commonly found in gas masks, or other filtration methods, which makes the overall chance of death by chlorine gas much lower than those of other chemical weapons. It was pioneered by a German scientist later to be a Nobel laureate, Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, in collaboration with the German chemical conglomerate IG Farben, who developed methods for discharging chlorine gas against an entrenched enemy. It is alleged that Haber's role in the use of chlorine as a deadly weapon drove his wife, Clara Immerwahr, to suicide.^[66] After its first use, chlorine was utilized by both sides as a chemical weapon, but it was soon replaced by the more deadly phosgene and mustard gas.^[67] Theodore Gray wrote in his book The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Atom in the Universe "Chlorine was used as a poison gas during the grueling trench-warfare phase. Soldiers would position a line of gas cylinders at the front lines, wait for the wind to shift towards the enemy, then open the valves and run like hell. This practice---sometimes overseen personally by Fritz Haber, a man whose positive contributions to humanity are listed under nitrogen (7)--- was slowly phased out as experience showed that roughly equal numbers of soldiers on both sides died regardless of who set off the gas."^[68]

Iraq War

Chlorine gas has also been used by insurgents against the local population and coalition forces in the Iraq War in the form of chlorine bombs. On March 17, 2007, for example, three chlorine-filled trucks were detonated in the Anbar province killing two and sickening over 350.^[69] Other chlorine bomb attacks resulted in higher death tolls, with more than 30 deaths on two separate occasions.^[70] Most of the deaths were caused by the force of the explosions rather than the effects of chlorine, since the toxic gas is readily dispersed and diluted in the atmosphere by the blast. The Iraqi authorities have tightened security for elemental chlorine, which is essential for providing safe drinking water to the population.

Syrian Civil War

There have been allegations of chlorine gas attacks during the Syrian Civil War such as the 2014 Kafr Zita chemical attack.

Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL/ISIS)

On October 24, 2014 it was reported that the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant had used chlorine gas in the town of Duluiyah, Iraq.^[71]

Laboratory analysis of clothing and soil samples confirmed the use of chlorine gas against Kurdish Peshmerga Forces in a vehicle-borne improvised explosive device attack on January 23, 2015 at the Highway 47 Kiske Junction near Mosul.^[72]

Health effects and hazards

Chlorine is a toxic gas that irritates the respiratory system. Because it is denser than air, it tends to accumulate at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Chlorine gas is a strong oxidizer, which may react with flammable materials.^[73]^[74]

Chlorine is detectable with measuring devices in concentrations of as low as 0.2 parts per million (ppm), and by smell at 3 ppm. Coughing and vomiting may occur at 30 ppm and lung damage at 60 ppm. About 1000 ppm can be fatal after a few deep breaths of the gas.^[27] The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) concentration is 10 ppm.^[75] Breathing lower concentrations can aggravate the respiratory system, and exposure to the gas can irritate the eyes.^[76] The toxicity of chlorine comes from its oxidizing power. When chlorine is inhaled at concentrations above 30 ppm, it begins to react with water and cells, which change it into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HClO).

When used at specified levels for water disinfection, the reaction of chlorine with water is not a major concern for human health. Other materials present in the water may generate disinfection by-products that are associated with negative effects on human health.^[77]^[78]

In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit for elemental chlorine at 1 ppm, or 3 mg/m³. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has designated a recommended exposure limit of 0.5 ppm over 15 minutes.^[75]

Chlorine-induced cracking in structural materials

Chlorine "attack" on an acetal resin plumbing joint.

The element is widely used for purifying water owing to its powerful oxidizing properties, especially potable water supplies and water used in swimming pools. Several catastrophic collapses of swimming pool ceilings have occurred owing to chlorine induced stress corrosion cracking of stainless steel rods used to suspend them.^[79] Some polymers are also sensitive to attack, including acetal resin and polybutene. Both materials were used in hot and cold water domestic supplies, and stress corrosion cracking caused widespread failures in the USA in the 1980s and 1990s. The picture on the right shows a fractured acetal joint in a water supply system. The cracks started at injection molding defects in the joint and slowly grew until finally triggered. The fracture surface shows iron and calcium salts that were deposited in the leaking joint from the water supply before failure.^[80]

Chlorine-iron fire

The element iron can combine with chlorine at high temperatures in a strong exothermic reaction, creating a chlorine-iron fire.^[81]^[82] Chlorine-iron fires are a risk in chemical process plants, where much of the pipework used to carry chlorine gas is made of steel.^[81]^[82]

Organochlorine compounds as pollutants

Some organochlorine compounds are serious pollutants. These are produced either as by-products or end products of industrial processes which are persistent in the environment, such as certain chlorinated pesticides and chlorofluorocarbons. Chlorine is added both to pesticides and pharmaceuticals to make the molecules more resistant to enzymatic degradation by bacteria, insects, and mammals, but this property also has the effect of prolonging the residence time of these compounds when they enter the environment. In this respect chlorinated organics have some resemblance to fluorinated organics.

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^ "What is chlorine used for?". Euro Chlor. October 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
^ "Chlorine Tree". Chlorine Tree. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
^ Wiberg 2001, p. 412.
^ ^a ^b Hoefer, Jean Chrétien Ferdinand (ed.). "Labarraque, Antoine-Germain". Nouvelle biographie universelle 28. pp. 323–324. OL 24229911M.
^ ^a ^b Knight, Charles (1867). Arts and sciences 1. Bradbury, Evans & Co. p. 427.
^ Bouvet, Maurice (1950). "Les grands pharmaciens: Labarraque (1777–1850)" [The great pharmacists: Labarraque (1777-1850)]. Revue d'histoire de la pharmacie (in French) 38 (128): 97–107. doi:10.3406/pharm.1950.8662.
^ Gédéon, Andras (2006). Science and technology in medicine. Springer. pp. 181–2. ISBN 9780387278742.
^ Labarraque, Antoine Germain (1828). On the disinfecting properties of Labarraque's preparations of chlorine. Translated by James Scott. p. 8.
^ Scott, James (trans.). On the disinfecting properties of Labarraque's preparations of chlorine (S. Highley, 1828) Accessed Nov 1, 2011.
^ Corbin, Alain. The Foul and the Fragrant: Odor and the French Social Imagination (Harvard University Press, 1988) pp. 121–2.
^ Black and Veatch Corp. (2010). White's Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley. first page, Chapter 9.
^ ^a ^b Vinten-Johansen, Peter, Howard Brody, Nigel Paneth, Stephen Rachman and Michael Rip. (2003). Cholera, Chloroform, and the Science of Medicine. New York:Oxford University.
^ Hemphill, Sandra. (2007). The Strange Case of the Broad Street Pump: John Snow and the Mystery of Cholera. Los Angeles:University of California
^ Johnson, Steven. (2006). The Ghost Map: The Story of London's Most Terrifying Epidemic and How It Changed Science, Cities, and the Modern World. New York :Riverhead Books
^ "Chlorine Story". americanchemistry. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
^ Koski T. A.; Stuart L. S.; Ortenzio L. F. (1966). "Comparison of chlorine, bromine, iodine as disinfectants for swimming pool water". Applied Microbiology 14 (2): 276–279. PMC 546668. PMID 4959984.
^ Greenwood 1997, p. 860.
^ Wiberg 2001, p. 411.
^ "Battle of Ypres" The Canadian Encyclopedia
^ Smil, Vaclav (2004-04-01). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-262-69313-4.
^ "Weapons of War: Poison Gas". First World War.com. Retrieved 2007-08-12.
^ "The Elements". google.com. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
^ Mahdi, Basim (2007-03-17). "Iraq gas attack makes hundreds ill". CNN. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
^ "'Chlorine bomb' hits Iraq village". BBC News. 2007-05-17. Retrieved 2007-05-17.
^ "ISIS chlorine attack on security forces confirmed – Iraq officials". RT. October 24, 2014.
^ "Lab report on chlorine gas usage" (PDF). Kurdistan Region Security Council. March 14, 2015.
^ "Chlorine MSDS" (PDF). 1997-10-23. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-26.
^ NOAA Office of Response and Restoration, US GOV. "CHLORINE". noaa.gov. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
^ ^a ^b "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0115". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
^ Winder, Chris (2001). "The Toxicology of Chlorine". Environmental Research 85 (2): 105–114. Bibcode:2001ER.....85..105W. doi:10.1006/enrs.2000.4110. PMID 11161660.
^ "What's in your Water?: Disinfectants Create Toxic By-products". ACES News. College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences – University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2009-03-31. Retrieved 2009-03-31.
^ Richardson, Susan D.; Plewa, Michael J.; Wagner, Elizabeth D.; Schoeny, Rita; DeMarini, David M. (2007). "Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: A review and roadmap for research". Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research 636 (1–3): 178–242. doi:10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001. PMID 17980649.
^ Bertolini, Luca; Elsener, Bernhard; Pedeferri, Pietro; Polder, Rob B. (2004). Corrosion of steel in concrete: prevention, diagnosis, repair. Wiley-VCH. p. 148. ISBN 3-527-30800-8.
^ Lewis, P.R. (1 January 2000). Polymer Product Failure. iSmithers Rapra Publishing. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-1-85957-192-7. Retrieved 2011-04-30.
^ ^a ^b "Chlorine: Product Datasheet" (PDF). Bayer MaterialScience AG. 2008-04-21. Retrieved 2013-12-17.
^ ^a ^b Sanders, Roy E. (2004). Chemical Process Safety: Learning from Case Histories, 3rd Revised edition. Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology. p. 92. ISBN 9780750677493.

Bibliography

Greenwood, Norman N; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.
Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.

External links

Chlorine at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: Chlorine
Electrolytic production
Production and liquefaction of chlorine
Chlorine Production Using Mercury, Environmental Considerations and Alternatives
National Pollutant Inventory – Chlorine^{[dead link]}
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Chlorine Page
Chlorine Institute – Trade association representing the chlorine industry
Chlorine Online – the web portal of Eurochlor – the business association of the European chlor-alkali industry

English Journal

Chlorination of tramadol: Reaction kinetics, mechanism and genotoxicity evaluation.

Cheng H1, Song D2, Chang Y3, Liu H4, Qu J5.
Chemosphere.Chemosphere.2015 Dec;141:282-9. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.06.034. Epub 2015 Aug 26.
Tramadol (TRA) is one of the most detected analgesics in environmental matrices, and it is of high significance to study the reactivity of TRA during chlorination considering its potential toxicity to the environment. The chlorine/TRA reaction is first order with respect to the TRA concentration, an
PMID 26291914

Antimalarial activity of ruthenium(ii) and osmium(ii) arene complexes with mono- and bidentate chloroquine analogue ligands.

Ekengard E1, Glans L, Cassells I, Fogeron T, Govender P, Stringer T, Chellan P, Lisensky GC, Hersh WH, Doverbratt I, Lidin S, de Kock C, Smith PJ, Smith GS, Nordlander E.
Dalton transactions (Cambridge, England : 2003).Dalton Trans.2015 Nov 28;44(44):19314-29. doi: 10.1039/c5dt02410b. Epub 2015 Oct 22.
Eight new ruthenium and five new osmium p-cymene half-sandwich complexes have been synthesized, characterized and evaluated for antimalarial activity. All complexes contain ligands that are based on a 4-chloroquinoline framework related to the antimalarial drug chloroquine. Ligands HL(1-8) are salic
PMID 26491831

Stereoretentive formylation of (S)-proline: new application of the self-regeneration of stereo-centres (SRS) principle via chelation to cobalt(iii).

Temizsoy M1, Sethi W, Reinholdt A, Schau-Magnussen M, Bendix J, Hammershøi A.
Dalton transactions (Cambridge, England : 2003).Dalton Trans.2015 Nov 14;44(42):18438-46. doi: 10.1039/c5dt02674a. Epub 2015 Oct 6.
In a Vilsmeier-Haack-type formylation reaction the α-(dihydroxymethyl)-(S)-prolinato complex (+)578-p-[Co(tren){(RC,SN)-Pro[CH(OH)2]O}]Cl2·2H2O (22) was produced stereoselectively (85% ee) from the (S)-prolinato complex, (+)578-p-[Co(tren){(SC,SN)-ProO}]2(H3O)2(HOEt2)(O3SCF3)7 (18). Similar reacti
PMID 26440587

Japanese Journal

Acceleration of Acid-Catalyzed Hydrolysis in a Biphasic System by Sodium Tetracyanocyclopentadienides

Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 64(7), 930-934, 2016
NAID 130005160081

Efficient N-Acyldopamine Synthesis

Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 64(7), 935-940, 2016
NAID 130005160071

Recovery of Dy from a Mixture of Nd, Fe, B and Dy by Electrolysis in Molten LiCl

MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS advpub(0), 2016
NAID 130005157320

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「chlorine」
拡張検索	「HgCl2」「CaCl2」「CdCl2」「BaCl2」
関連記事	「C」「Cl」

「chlorine」

NFPA 704; "fire diamond"
	0 3 0 OX

Chlorine, ₁₇Cl
	A glass container filled with chlorine gas
	Emission line spectra; 400–700 nm
General properties
Name, symbol	chlorine, Cl
Appearance	pale yellow-green gas
Pronunciation	/ˈklɔəriːn/ or /ˈklɔərɨn/; KLOHR-een or KLOHR-ən
Chlorine in the periodic table
	sulfur ← chlorine → argon
Atomic number (Z)	17
Group, block	group 17 (halogens), p-block
Period	period 3
Element category	diatomic nonmetal
Standard atomic weight (Ar)	35.45 (35.446–35.457)
Electron configuration	[Ne] 3s2 3p5
per shell	2, 8, 7
Physical properties
Phase	gas
Melting point	171.6 K (−101.5 °C, −150.7 °F)
Boiling point	239.11 K (−34.04 °C, −29.27 °F)
Density at stp (0 °C and 101.325 kPa)	3.2 g/L
when liquid, at b.p.	1.5625 g/cm3
Critical point	416.9 K, 7.991 MPa
Heat of fusion	(Cl2) 6.406 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	(Cl2) 20.41 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	(Cl2); 33.949 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, −1 (a strongly acidic oxide)
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 3.16
Ionization energies	1st: 1251.2 kJ/mol; 2nd: 2298 kJ/mol; 3rd: 3822 kJ/mol; (more)
Covalent radius	102±4 pm
Van der Waals radius	175 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	orthorhombic
Speed of sound	206 m/s (gas, at 0 °C)
Thermal conductivity	8.9×10−3 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity	>10 Ω·m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic
CAS Number	7782-50-5
History
Discovery and first isolation	Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1774)
Recognized as an element by	Humphry Davy (1808)
Most stable isotopes of chlorine
	view; talk; edit; · references

外見
	黄緑色気体;
一般特性
名称, 記号, 番号	塩素, Cl, 17
分類	ハロゲン
族, 周期, ブロック	17, 3, p
原子量	35.453(2)
電子配置	[Ne] 3s2 3p5
電子殻	2, 8, 7（画像）
物理特性
相	気体
密度	(0 °C, 101.325 kPa); 3.2 g/L
融点	171.6 K, -101.5 °C, -150.7 °F
沸点	239.11 K, -34.04 °C, -29.27 °F
臨界点	416.9 K, 7.991 MPa
融解熱	(Cl2) 6.406 kJ/mol
蒸発熱	(Cl2) 20.41 kJ/mol
熱容量	(25 °C) (Cl2) 33.949 J/(mol·K)
蒸気圧
原子特性
酸化数	7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1（強酸性酸化物）
電気陰性度	3.16（ポーリングの値）
イオン化エネルギー; （詳細）	第1： 1251.2 kJ/mol
	第2： 2298 kJ/mol
	第3： 3822 kJ/mol
共有結合半径	102±4 pm
ファンデルワールス半径	175 pm
その他
結晶構造	斜方晶系
磁性	反磁性
電気抵抗率	(20 °C) > 10Ω·m
熱伝導率	(300 K) 8.9×10-3 W/(m·K)
音の伝わる速さ	（気体、0 °C）206 m/s
CAS登録番号	7782-50-5
最安定同位体
	詳細は塩素の同位体を参照
	表示

　　[★]

塩素

関: Cl、Cl2

「HgCl2」

　　[★]

塩化第二水銀

関: corrosive sublimate、mercuric chloride、sublimate

「CaCl2」

　　[★]

塩化カルシウム

関: calcium chloride、calcium chloride hydrate

「CdCl2」

　　[★]

塩化カドミウム

関: cadmium chloride

「BaCl2」

　　[★]

塩化バリウム

関: barium chloride

「C」

　　[★]

炭素 carbon
シトシン cytosine
システイン cysteine
シチジン
セルシウス度摂氏 degrees Celsius degree C
産婦人科領域で「子宮外頚子宮外頚部 exocervix」を表現するための略語

「Cl」

　　[★]

塩素イオン chloride ion

[1] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.), Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-0486-5

[binran-2] 日本化学会編　『化学便覧基礎編　改訂4版』　丸善、1993年

[daijiten-3] 『化学大辞典』　共立出版、1993年

[4] 『塩素白書』p10-21

[Cotton-5] F.A. コットン, G. ウィルキンソン著, 中原勝儼訳　『コットン・ウィルキンソン無機化学』　培風館、1987年

[6] 化学工業統計月報 - 経済産業省

[7] 容器保安規則（法令データ提供システム）

[8] 『塩素白書』p45

[amagasaki-9] 尼崎市水道局

[10] 毒物及び劇物指定令昭和四十年一月四日政令第二号第二条十七の三

[CIAAW-1] Conventional Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights

[IUPAC-2] Standard Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights

[3] Chlorine, Gas Encyclopaedia, Air Liquide

[4] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.

[5] Barbalace, Kenneth (1995-10-22). "Chemical Database: Chlorine". EnvironmentalChemistry.com. Retrieved 2011-09-19.

[6] "Facts About Chlorine". Emergency Preparedness and Response. United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2011-09-19.

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[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997806-9] Greenwood 1997, p. 806.

[FOOTNOTEWiberg2001408-10] Wiberg 2001, p. 408.

[FOOTNOTEWiberg2001409-11] Wiberg 2001, p. 409.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997857.E2.80.93858-12] Greenwood 1997, pp. 857–858.

[13] Windholz, Martha; et al., eds. (1976). Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs (9th ed.). Rahway, N.J.: Merck & Co. ISBN 0-911910-26-3.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997844.E2.80.93850-14] Greenwood 1997, pp. 844–850.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997849-15] Greenwood 1997, p. 849.

[c_w-16] Cotton, F. Albert & Wilkinson, Geoffrey (1966). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed.). John Wiley & sons. p. 568.

[17] Emeléus, H. J (1961). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. pp. 133–143. ISBN 978-0-12-023603-9.

[ullmannPVC-18] Allsopp, M. W. and Vianello, G. (2012) "Poly(Vinyl Chloride)" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_717.

[19] Cameron, A.G.W. (June 1957). "Stellar Evolution, Nuclear Astrophysics, and Nucleogenesis" (PDF). CRL-41.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997795-20] Greenwood 1997, p. 795.

[Euro_Chlor-21] "Risk assessment and the cycling of natural organochlorines" (PDF). Euro Chlor. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2007-08-12.

[NUBASE-22] Georges, Audi; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A.H. (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729: 3–128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.

[Gamow-23] Gamow, George (1967). One Two Three... Infinity: Facts and Speculations of Science (Bantam Science and Mathematics ed.). Bantam. pp. 151–154.

[24] "The earliest salt production in the world: an early Neolithic exploitation in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania". Retrieved 2008-07-10.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997790-25] Greenwood 1997, p. 790.

[krogt-26] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "17 Chlorine". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 2008-09-12.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997793-27] Greenwood 1997, p. 793.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997792-28] Greenwood 1997, p. 792.

[29] Ihde, Aaron John (1984). The development of modern chemistry. Courier Dover Publications. p. 158. ISBN 0-486-64235-6.

[Weeks-30] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. XVII. The halogen family". Journal of Chemical Education 9 (11): 1915. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1915W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1915.

[31] Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis; Thénard, Louis-Jacques (1809). "On the nature and the properties of muriatic acid and of oxygenated muriatic acid". Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie de la Société d'Arcueil 2: 339–358. In fact, oxygenated muriatic acid is not decomposed by charcoal, and it might be supposed, from this fact and those that are communicated in this Memoir, that this gas is a simple body. The phenomena that it presents can be explained well enough on this hypothesis; we shall not seek to defend it, however, as it appears to us that they are still better explained by regarding oxygenated muriatic acid as a compound body.

[32] Sir Humphry Davy (1811). "On a Combination of Oxymuriatic Gas and Oxygene Gas". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 101: 155–162. doi:10.1098/rstl.1811.0008.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997789-33] Greenwood 1997, p. 789.

[34] Snelders, H. A. M. (1971). "J. S. C. Schweigger: His Romanticism and His Crystal Electrical Theory of Matter". Isis 62 (3): 328. doi:10.1086/350763. JSTOR 229946.

[35] Chodos, Alan (ed.). "This Month in Physics History September 4, 1821 and August 29, 1831: Faraday and Electromagnetism". American Physical Society. Retrieved 2010-05-08.

[36] O'Connor J. J.; Robertson E. F. "Michael Faraday". School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Retrieved 2010-05-08.

[encyc-37] "Bleaching". Encyclopædia Britannica (9th Edition (1875) and 10th Edition (1902) ed.). Retrieved 2012-05-02.

[Cotton-38] Aspin, Chris (1981). The Cotton Industry. Shire Publications Ltd. p. 24. ISBN 0-85263-545-1.

[39] "How Products Are Made". May 2011.

[40] "Chlorine – History" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-10.

[41] "Weaponry: Use of Chlorine Gas Cylinders in World War I". historynet.com. Retrieved 2008-07-10.

[history-42] Jacqueline Brazin. "Chlorine & its Consequences" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 18, 2006. Retrieved 2008-07-10.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997798-43] Greenwood 1997, p. 798.

[Euro_Chlor3-44] "The diaphragm cell process". Euro Chlor. Retrieved 2007-08-15.

[Euro_Chlor4-45] "The membrane cell process". Euro Chlor. Retrieved 2007-08-15.

[chlorine-46] Peter Schmittinger et al. "Chlorine," Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co, 2006, doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_399.pub2

[Euro_Chlor5-47] "What is chlorine used for?". Euro Chlor. October 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2007-08-20.

[Chlorine_Tree-48] "Chlorine Tree". Chlorine Tree. Retrieved 2007-08-20.

[FOOTNOTEWiberg2001412-49] Wiberg 2001, p. 412.

[nbu-50] Hoefer, Jean Chrétien Ferdinand (ed.). "Labarraque, Antoine-Germain". Nouvelle biographie universelle 28. pp. 323–324. OL 24229911M.

[knight-51] Knight, Charles (1867). Arts and sciences 1. Bradbury, Evans & Co. p. 427.

[bouvet-52] Bouvet, Maurice (1950). "Les grands pharmaciens: Labarraque (1777–1850)" [The great pharmacists: Labarraque (1777-1850)]. Revue d'histoire de la pharmacie (in French) 38 (128): 97–107. doi:10.3406/pharm.1950.8662.

[gedeon-53] Gédéon, Andras (2006). Science and technology in medicine. Springer. pp. 181–2. ISBN 9780387278742.

[54] Labarraque, Antoine Germain (1828). On the disinfecting properties of Labarraque's preparations of chlorine. Translated by James Scott. p. 8.

[55] Scott, James (trans.). On the disinfecting properties of Labarraque's preparations of chlorine (S. Highley, 1828) Accessed Nov 1, 2011.

[corbin-56] Corbin, Alain. The Foul and the Fragrant: Odor and the French Social Imagination (Harvard University Press, 1988) pp. 121–2.

[57] Black and Veatch Corp. (2010). White's Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley. first page, Chapter 9.

[Vinten-58] Vinten-Johansen, Peter, Howard Brody, Nigel Paneth, Stephen Rachman and Michael Rip. (2003). Cholera, Chloroform, and the Science of Medicine. New York:Oxford University.

[59] Hemphill, Sandra. (2007). The Strange Case of the Broad Street Pump: John Snow and the Mystery of Cholera. Los Angeles:University of California

[60] Johnson, Steven. (2006). The Ghost Map: The Story of London's Most Terrifying Epidemic and How It Changed Science, Cities, and the Modern World. New York :Riverhead Books

[61] "Chlorine Story". americanchemistry. Retrieved 2008-07-10.

[62] Koski T. A.; Stuart L. S.; Ortenzio L. F. (1966). "Comparison of chlorine, bromine, iodine as disinfectants for swimming pool water". Applied Microbiology 14 (2): 276–279. PMC 546668. PMID 4959984.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997860-63] Greenwood 1997, p. 860.

[FOOTNOTEWiberg2001411-64] Wiberg 2001, p. 411.

[65] "Battle of Ypres" The Canadian Encyclopedia

[66] Smil, Vaclav (2004-04-01). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-262-69313-4.

[First_World_War-67] "Weapons of War: Poison Gas". First World War.com. Retrieved 2007-08-12.

[68] "The Elements". google.com. Retrieved 25 August 2015.

[cnnchlorine-69] Mahdi, Basim (2007-03-17). "Iraq gas attack makes hundreds ill". CNN. Retrieved 2007-03-17.

[Chlorine_bomb_BBC-70] "'Chlorine bomb' hits Iraq village". BBC News. 2007-05-17. Retrieved 2007-05-17.

[71] "ISIS chlorine attack on security forces confirmed – Iraq officials". RT. October 24, 2014.

[72] "Lab report on chlorine gas usage" (PDF). Kurdistan Region Security Council. March 14, 2015.

[msds-cl-73] "Chlorine MSDS" (PDF). 1997-10-23. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-26.

[74] NOAA Office of Response and Restoration, US GOV. "CHLORINE". noaa.gov. Retrieved 25 August 2015.

[:0-75] "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0115". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).

[tox-76] Winder, Chris (2001). "The Toxicology of Chlorine". Environmental Research 85 (2): 105–114. Bibcode:2001ER.....85..105W. doi:10.1006/enrs.2000.4110. PMID 11161660.

[77] "What's in your Water?: Disinfectants Create Toxic By-products". ACES News. College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences – University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2009-03-31. Retrieved 2009-03-31.

[78] Richardson, Susan D.; Plewa, Michael J.; Wagner, Elizabeth D.; Schoeny, Rita; DeMarini, David M. (2007). "Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: A review and roadmap for research". Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research 636 (1–3): 178–242. doi:10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001. PMID 17980649.

[79] Bertolini, Luca; Elsener, Bernhard; Pedeferri, Pietro; Polder, Rob B. (2004). Corrosion of steel in concrete: prevention, diagnosis, repair. Wiley-VCH. p. 148. ISBN 3-527-30800-8.

[80] Lewis, P.R. (1 January 2000). Polymer Product Failure. iSmithers Rapra Publishing. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-1-85957-192-7. Retrieved 2011-04-30.

[bayerdatasheet2008-81] "Chlorine: Product Datasheet" (PDF). Bayer MaterialScience AG. 2008-04-21. Retrieved 2013-12-17.

[sanders2004-82] Sanders, Roy E. (2004). Chemical Process Safety: Learning from Case Histories, 3rd Revised edition. Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology. p. 92. ISBN 9780750677493.

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案内

Cl2