周辺症状 behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia
出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2017/08/09 14:40:29」(JST)
「認知障害」とは異なります。 |
認知症 Dementia |
|
---|---|
正常な高齢者(左)と、アルツハイマー病罹患高齢者(右)の脳比較。
|
|
分類および外部参照情報 | |
診療科・ 学術分野 |
神経学, 精神医学 |
ICD-10 | F00-F07 |
ICD-9-CM | 290-294 |
DiseasesDB | 29283 |
MedlinePlus | 000739 |
Patient UK | 認知症 |
MeSH | D003704 |
認知症(にんちしょう、英: Dementia、独: Demenz)は認知障害の一種であり、後天的な脳の器質的障害により、いったん正常に発達した知能が不可逆的に低下した状態である[1][2][3]。認知症は犬や猫などヒト以外でも発症する。狭義では「知能が後天的に低下した状態」の事を指すが、医学的には「知能」の他に「記憶」「見当識」を含む認知障害や「人格変化」などを伴った症候群として定義される[1][3]。これに比し、先天的に脳の器質的障害があり、運動の障害や知能発達面での障害などが現れる状態は知的障害、先天的に認知の障害がある場合は認知障害という。
従来、非可逆的な疾患にのみ使用されていたが、近年、正常圧水頭症など治療により改善する疾患に対しても認知症の用語を用いることがある。単に老化に伴って物覚えが悪くなるといった誰にでも起きる現象は含まず、病的に能力が低下するもののみをさす[4]。また統合失調症などによる判断力の低下は、認知症には含まれない。また、頭部の外傷により知能が低下した場合などは高次脳機能障害と呼ばれる。
日本ではかつては痴呆(ちほう)と呼ばれていた概念であるが、2004年に厚生労働省の用語検討会によって「認知症」への言い換えを求める報告がまとめられ、まず行政分野および高齢者介護分野において「痴呆」の語が廃止され「認知症」に置き換えられた。各医学会においても2007年頃までにほぼ言い換えがなされている(詳細については#名称変更の項を参照)。
認知症は70歳以上人口において2番目に多数を占める障害疾患である[5]。全世界で3,560万人が認知症を抱えて生活を送っており[4]、その経済的コストは全世界で毎年0.5-0.6兆米ドル以上とされ、これはスイスのGDPを上回る[6][4]。患者は毎年770万人ずつ増加しており[4]、世界の認知症患者は2030年には2012年時点の2倍、2050年には3倍以上になるとWHOは推測している[7]。
現在の医学において、認知症を治療する方法はまだ見つかっていない[8][9]。安全で効果的な治療法を模索する研究が行われているが、その歩みは難航している[9]。
以前よりも脳の機能が低下し、主に以下の様な各種症状を呈することとなる。
程度や発生順序の差はあれ、全ての認知症患者に普遍的に観察される症状を「中核症状」と表現する。 記憶障害と見当識障害(時間・場所・人物の失見当)、認知機能障害(計算能力の低下・判断力低下失語・失認・失行・実行機能障害)などから成る[11][12]。
これらは神経細胞の脱落によって発生する症状であり、患者全員に見られる。病気の進行とともに徐々に進行する。
全ての患者に普遍的に表れる中核症状に対し、患者によって出たり出なかったり、発現する種類に差が生じる症状を「周辺症状」、近年では特に症状の発生の要因に注目した表現として「BPSD(Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia:行動・心理障害)」「non-cognitive symptoms」と呼ぶ。
主な症状としては幻覚(20-30%[2])、妄想(30-40%[2])、徘徊、異常な食行動(異食症)、睡眠障害、抑うつと不安(40-50%)、焦燥、暴言・暴力(噛み付く)、性的羞恥心の低下(異性に対する卑猥な発言の頻出など)などがある[11][1]。
発生の原因としては中核症状の進行にともなって低下する記憶力・見当識・判断力の中で、不安な状況の打開を図るために第三者からは異常と思える行動におよび、それが周囲との軋轢を生むことで不安状態が進行し、さらに症状のエスカレートが発生することが挙げられる。前述の通り、中核症状と違い一定の割合の患者に見られ、必ずしも全ての患者に同一の症状が見られるとも限らない。またその症状は上記のもの以外にも非常に多岐にわたり、多数の周辺症状が同時に見られることも珍しくない。中核症状が認知症の初期・軽度・中等度・重度と段階を踏んで進行していくのに対し、周辺症状は初期と中等度では症状が急変することも大きな特徴である。初期では不安や気分の沈みといった精神症状が多く、中等度になると幻覚や妄想などが発現する。
かつては中等度になると激しい症状が現れ、患者は日常生活を行う能力を急速に喪失してゆき、周辺症状の発現と深刻化によって家族などの介護負担は増大の一途を辿るため、「周辺症状=中等度」との固定観念が存在したが、現在では軽度でも一定の症状が発生することが分かってきたため、その固定観念の払拭と、より原因に着目した表現としてBPSDが用いられるようになった。
Tier | 診断 | 有病率 | 症状 | 管理 |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 認知症なし | - | - | 予防に努める |
2 | BPSDのない認知症 | 40% | - | 予防・進行を遅らせる処置をする |
3 | 軽程度BPSDの認知症 | 30% | 夜間騒乱、徘徊、軽い抑うつ、無気力、反復質問、シャドーイング | プライマリケア管理 |
4 | 中程度BPSDの認知症 | 20% | 大うつ病、攻撃的言動、精神病、性的脱抑制、放浪 | 専門医受診のうえプライマリケア管理 |
5 | 重いBPSDの認知症 | 10% | 深刻な抑うつ、叫び、激しい錯乱 | 専門の認知症ケアが提供される施設 |
6 | 非常に重いBPSDの認知症 | 1%以下 | 物理的攻撃、深刻な抑うつ、自殺傾向 | 老年精神施設にて管理 |
7 | 激しいBPSDの認知症 | まれ | 物理的暴力 | 集約された特別治療施設 |
激しすぎる周辺症状が発生した場合、向精神薬等を用いて鎮静化させることもあるが第一選択としては推奨されず、前述の通り不安状態、および認知能力が低下した状態での不安の打開方法としての行動が原因であるため、まずその不安の原因となっている要素を取り除くことが対処の基本となる[14]。中核症状の進行を阻止する有効な方法は確立されていないが、適切な介護・ケア方法によって周辺症状の発生を抑え、明確な症状が見られないままターミナル期を迎えることも可能である。初期の状態での適切なケアが重要となる。
認知症の原因となる主な疾患には、脳血管障害、アルツハイマー病などの変性疾患、正常圧水頭症、ビタミンなどの代謝・栄養障害、甲状腺機能低下などがあり、これらの原因により生活に支障をきたすような認知機能障害が表出してきた場合に認知症と診断される。
以下は原因疾患による認知症のおおよその分類
また、認知症患者のおよそ10%程度は混合型認知症(mixed dementia)であり、一般的にアルツハイマー病とその他の認知症(前頭側頭型や血管性型)を併発している[18][19]。
脳血管障害の場合、画像診断で微小病変が見つかっているような場合でも、これらが認知症状の原因になっているかどうかの判別は難しく、これまでは脳血管性認知症(VaD)と診断されてきたが、実際はむしろアルツハイマー病が認知症の原因となっている、いわゆる、「脳血管障害を伴うアルツハイマー型認知症(混合型認知症)」である場合が少なくなく、純粋なVaDは7.3%と言われている[19]。
皮質性認知症と皮質下性認知症という分類がなされる事もある。血管障害性と変性性という分類もあり、Hachinskiの虚血スコアが両者の区別にある程度有用である。日本では従来より血管性認知症が最も多いといわれていたが、最近はアルツハイマー型認知症が増加している。
軽度認知障害(Mild Cognitive Impairment:MCI)とは、正常老化過程で予想されるよりも認知機能が低下しているが、認知症とはいえない状態。認知症の前段階にあたるが、認知機能低下よりも記憶機能低下が主兆候となる。主観的・客観的に記憶障害を認めるが、一般的な認知機能・日常生活能力はほぼ保たれる。「認知症」の診断ができる程度に進行するまで、通常5〜10年、平均で6〜7年かかる。医療機関を受診した軽度認知障害では、年間10%から15%が認知症に移行するとされる。さらに、単に軽度の記憶障害のみの例より、他の認知障害を合わせて持つ例の方が、認知症への進行リスクははるかに高い(4年後の認知症への移行率は、記憶障害のみの場合は24%、言語・注意・視空間認知の障害のいずれかの合併例では77%であった)。
認知症における疾患修飾治療(disease-modifying therapy)、いわゆる根治療法を企図した100以上の臨床試験がすべて失敗に終わり、少なくともMCIの段階からの治療開始が望ましいと考えられている。しかし、MCIから認知症への進行を確実に食い止める治療法はまだ見つかっていない。
MCIの段階では、軽症であるがゆえにその背景にある病気、つまりアルツハイマー病の前駆段階なのか、血管性認知症の前駆段階なのかを判定するのがしばしば困難であること、さらに最近の報告(Brain 2013)では、80歳以上のアルツハイマー病の方の実に8割が何らかの脳血管障害を伴っていることが明らかとなり、脳血管障害に対する介入が、血管性認知症はもちろんのこと、アルツハイマー病の前駆段階であるMCI(MCI due to ADと呼ばれる)に対しても有効なのではないかという期待が世界中で高まっている。我が国でも、脳血管障害に対する治療薬がMCIに対して有効かどうかを確かめようとする医師主導治験(COMCID Study)が平成27年5月より始まっている[20]。
国立長寿医療研究センターの研究班がまとめた発表によると、認知症の前段階と言われるMCIの高齢者を4年間追跡調査してみたところ、14%が認知症になったものの、46%は正常に戻った。研究は、認知症患者ではない65歳以上の住民約4200人を2011年から4間追跡、国際的なMCI判定基準に基づく150項目に回答する形での認知機能検査により、最初の時点で約740人(18%)がMCIと判定された。4年後に同じ検査を行ったところ、MCIと当初判定された人の46%は正常範囲に戻っていた。この認知機能検査は、記憶力・注意力・処理速度・実行機能の4項目を検査するが、MCIの中でも、1項目だけスコアが低いタイプが正常に戻った割合が39〜57%であるのに対し、複数の項目のスコアが低いタイプは20%台であった。MCIの中でも、問題のある項目が少ないほど回復率が高い傾向があった。また、4年の間に認知症と診断された人の割合は、当初MCIと判定された人では14%と、当初正常だった人の5%に比べ、大幅に高くなっていた。[21]
若年性認知症(Young onset dementia, YOD)とは、65歳未満で発症する認知症[22]。有病率は研究途中ではあるが、45-64歳の人口10万あたりの男性で101-120人、女性で61-77人というデータがある[22]。
アメリカ国立加齢研究所(NIA)縦断研究部門長ボルティモア加齢縦断研究責任者のLuigi Ferrucci博士らの研究で、難聴を有する成人はそうでない成人に比べて、認知症およびアルツハイマー病を発症するリスクが高く、難聴が重度であるほどリスクも高いことを突き止めた。この研究は、36-90歳の男女639人を対象に、難聴と認知症との関連性について調べたもので、1990年の研究開始時に認知症が認められた被験者はいなかった。研究グループは4年間にわたり、認知力と聴力検査を実施し、2008年まで平均約12年に及ぶ追跡調査を行い、認知症やアルツハイマー病の徴候をモニターした。その結果、125人の被験者が「軽度」、53人が「中等度」、6人が「重度」の難聴と診断された。最終的には、58例が認知症と診断され、そのうち37例はアルツハイマー病であった。軽度の難聴では認知症リスクがわずかに上昇し、中等度と重度の難聴を持つ患者ではリスクが大幅に増大していた。また、60歳以上の被験者では、認知症発症リスクの36%超が難聴と関連していることが分かった。難聴が悪化するほどアルツハイマー病のリスクは増大し、聴力が10デシベル低下するごとに、発症リスクは20%ずつ増大した。研究結果は、医学誌「Archives of Neurology(神経学)」2011年2月号に掲載された。この結果に関連して、アメリカのアルバート・アインシュタイン医科大学のリチャード・B・リプトン博士は『HealthDay News』2月14日付にて、「難聴は加齢の生物学的測定値の一種かもしれない。また、難聴は神経細胞の損傷の結果生じた可能性があり、仮に聴覚を介在するニューロンに障害があるなら、記憶やより高度の認知機能をつかさどる神経細胞の損傷マーカーにもなる」と述べた[26]。
意識障害時には診断できない。ICD-10とDSM-IVでさえ診断基準は異なるが、一般に、日常生活に支障が出る程度の記憶障害・認知機能の低下の2つの中核症状が見られる時に診断する。周辺症状の有無は問われない。機能が以前と比べて低下していることが必須であり、生まれつき低い場合は精神遅滞(知的障害)に分類される。
記憶・認知機能などの程度を客観的に数値評価する検査としてWAIS-R(ウェクスラー成人知能検査)などがあるが、施行に時間を要し日常診療で用いるには煩雑である。簡便なスクリーニング検査としては、世界的にはミニメンタルステート検査(MMS、MMSE)が頻用されている[27][28]。日本では聖マリアンナ医科大学の長谷川和夫らが開発した「長谷川式認知症スケール」(HDS-R)がよく利用される。
軽程度・疑わしい認知症患者については脳波検査も含めるべきである[29]。
英国国立医療技術評価機構(NICE)はアルツハイマー型認知症、脳血管性認知症の診断基準にはNINCDS-ADRDAアルツハイマー基準(英語版)、前頭側頭型認知症の診断基準にはLund–Manchester基準を推奨している[30]。
せん妄、FTD、クロイツフェルト・ヤコブ病が疑われる場合には、脳波検査を検討すべきである[29]。
うつ病、せん妄と間違われやすい[2][31]。難聴とも鑑別を要する。
知能検査をはじめとする神経心理学的検査が診断および重症度評価などに用いられる。記憶検査としてはウェクスラー記憶検査法(WMS-R)や日本語版リバーミード行動記憶(RBMT)が標準とされているが認知症診療では実際的ではないため、ここでは認知症で用いられる検査を中心に概説する。認知症の評価、スクリーニングでは記憶など中核症状、BPSD、ADLの3つの症候を扱う。それぞれ質問式の認知機能検査を用いたり観察式の行動評価尺度を用いたりする。それぞれの検査の特徴を以下にまとめる。
質問式 | 観察式 |
---|---|
最低限の情報で実施可能 | 十分に把握している家族、介護スタッフが必要 |
本人のみであっても実施可能 | 家族などからの情報のみで評価可能 |
本人が協力的でなければ実施不可能 | 本人が拒否的であっても評価可能 |
著しい視聴覚障害があると実施不可能 | 視聴覚障害の影響をほとんど受けない |
施行者によるばらつきは少ない | 結果のばらつきを減らすにはマニュアルによる訓練が必要 |
居宅、入院、入所を問わない | 評価項目によっては入院、入所では評価できない |
認知機能障害は評価できるがBPSDは評価できない | 認知機能障害もBPSDも評価できる |
General practitioner Assessment of Cognition(GPCOG)やMini-CogおよびMemory Impairment Screen(MIS)は日本語版が作成されていないため一般的ではない。
ベータアミロイド(Aβ)は脳脊髄液(CerebroSpinal Fluid、CSF)、血漿中にAβ40とAβ42として存在する。高齢者ではCSF Aβ42が低下するがAD患者ではAβ40が高度に低下しAβ40/Aβ42比は増加する。
タウ蛋白質はADで上昇するとされている。AD以外では血管性認知症、パーキンソン病、進行性核上性麻痺、HIV感染症では上昇は認められない。しかし前頭側頭型認知症、レビー小体型認知症、皮質基底核変性症、クロイツフェルトヤコブ病では上昇例が認められている。よりADに特異度が高い検査としてリン酸化タウが期待されている。
血漿AβもAD発症の危険因子や病態進行のマーカーとなりえる。
アルツハイマー型認知症の患者では脳波は以下のように推移することが知られている。コリネステラーぜ阻害薬によって徐波が減少することが知られている。
他疾患との鑑別、認知症タイプ判別のため、認知症の疑いのある場合は画像撮影を実施しなければならない[30]。
脳腫瘍、慢性硬膜下血腫、正常圧水頭症などの治療可能な疾患の検出が目的となる。脳萎縮の評価はMRIに比べて劣る。内側側頭部の萎縮の評価は間接所見として側脳室下角の拡大の程度で判定するが下角の拡大が常に海馬や海馬傍回の萎縮と合致するとは限らない。
statistical parametric mapping(SPM)やvoxel-based morphometry(VBM)が盛んである。認知症の鑑別としてDLBとADを比較すると、ADでは海馬や側頭頭頂葉皮質の萎縮が強い。無名質はADの方が、中脳被蓋はDLBの方が萎縮が強いことが示されている。ADでは高齢発症では内側側頭部萎縮が目立つが初老期発症では側頭頭頂葉皮質の萎縮が目立つ。
認知症疾患の鑑別として単一光子放射断層撮影(SPECT)は非常に重要視されている。AD,VaD,FTDかの診断が疑わしい場合はSPECTを実施すべきである[30]。シンチグラフィーも参照。血流は神経細胞数よりもシナプス活動を反映していると考えられており、ADではパペッツの回路として嗅内皮質と解剖学的に密接な繊維連絡を持つとされている帯状回後部や楔前部で血流低下が認められる。DLBでは後頭葉の血流低下が認められる。
アミロイド斑を検出できるPETトレーサーが開発されておりアミロイドイメージングとして注目されている。11C-PIBが最も研究されておりADでは前頭前野や楔前部などの大脳皮質に強い集積が認められるのに対して、正常例では大脳皮質の集積は乏しいとされている。
治療可能と判明しているタイプ以外の認知症以外について、治療法は存在しない[1]。AChE薬は初期状態の認知症に多く処方されているが、しかしその利益は大きくない[33]。
「治療可能な認知症(treatable dementia)」の場合は原因となる疾患の治療を速やかに行う。慢性硬膜下血腫または正常圧水頭症が原因の場合は手術で治す事ができる。
介護者には、認知症の介護はもどかしく非常にストレスになることを心理教育し、ネグレクトにならないよう陰性感情を認識させる[1]。介護者についてもうつ病を罹患している可能性を診察する[1]。
介護保険、障害年金、デイケア通所など社会資源の利用も有用である[1]。専門医(老年内科、精神科、神経内科など)、介護職(介護福祉士等)の協力・連携の元にチーム医療を行う事が望ましい[1]。
軽中程度の認知症患者(タイプを問わない)に対しては、NICEは投薬(認知機能改善を目的とする)の有無に関わらず、認知刺激グループ療法(Cognitive Stimulation Therapy)プログラムへの参加機会が与えられるべきであるとしている[34]。日中の散歩などで昼夜リズムを整える(光療法)[35]、思い出の品や写真を手元に置き安心させる回想法やテレビ回想法なども有効な場合がある。
患者の不安感など精神状態の影響を受ける周辺症状は、介護者がそれらを取り除く事で発症を抑制することが可能となることもある(ユマニチュード)。
アルツハイマー型認知症(AD)の認知機能改善薬には、アセチルコリンエステラーゼ阻害薬(AChE)としてドネペジル(商品名アリセプト)、ガランタミン、リバスチグミンが存在する。NICEの2006年のガイドラインはAChEを軽中度ADへの選択肢として推奨している[36]。
また全く異なる薬理機序に基づく治療薬にNMDA受容体拮抗薬としてメマンチンがあり、NICEは重度またはAChEが不適の中等度アルツハイマー病への管理のオプションとして推奨している[36]。
しかしこれらの薬剤は、診断が確定された場合のみに投与すべきであり、ルーチン的に用いてはならない[1]。NICEは、血管性認知症にAChEおよびメマンチンを処方してはならない、および軽度認知障害(MCI)にAChEを処方してはならないとしている[36]。
大うつ病を併発する認知症については、NICEは教育を受けた専門家によって抗うつ薬を投与すべきであるとしている[37]。
また認知症患者は認知機能低下のみならず、不眠、抑うつ、易怒性、幻覚(とくに幻視)、妄想といった周辺症状(BPSD)と呼ばれる症状を呈すことがある。これらには向精神薬の投与が有効でありえるが、第一に心理療法を試みるべきであり[1]、薬物の正しい利用に努め[40]、低用量にて副作用を監視しながら慎重に投与すべきである[39][14]。厚労省はBPSDに対して、向精神薬は原則使用すべきではないとしている[14]。
NICEの2006年ガイドラインは、BPSDに対して薬物介入を第一選択肢とするのは、深刻な苦痛または緊急性のある自害・他害リスクのある場合に限らなければならない[* 2]、2013年の厚労省のガイドラインでは第一選択は非薬物介入が原則であり処方時には患者・保護者に承諾を取るべきである[14]としている。
イギリス政府は、抗精神病薬が死亡につながるため使用の削減を国家戦略としており、2006年の約17%の使用率を5年後には約7%まで減らしたことを、2013年の認知症G8サミットにて報告した[41]。アメリカでは2016年末までに16%まで削減することを目標としている[42]。
ランダム化比較試験(RCT)では、抑肝散(TJ54,構成生薬:柴胡、釣藤鈎、蒼朮、伏苓、当帰、川芎、甘草)はBPSDを有意に抑制し、かつ患者のADLを改善し、さらに介護者の介護負担感を減少させると報告されている[44][45][46]。
認知症患者の多くは嚥下困難を抱えている。しかしAGSは高度の認知症患者に対し経管栄養法(胃瘻)は推奨せず、代わりに経口摂取援助を提案している[38]。胃瘻は患者の動揺と関連性があり、身体的・薬物的拘束の使用を増加させ、褥瘡の悪化をまねく[38]。 半夏厚朴湯(TJ16, 構成生薬 半夏、伏苓、厚朴、蘇葉、生姜)は脳血管性障害患者の嚥下反射、咳反射を改善し、障害を持つ高齢者における誤嚥性肺炎の発生を予防する。[47][48][49]
認知症有病率は、65歳未満の労働年齢層では2-10%とまれであるが[5]、80歳を超えると急に高まり、95歳以上になると欧州では約半数が罹患している[5]。OECDはもし年齢別有症率が現在のペースのままであれば、20年後の欧州は認知症患者数が現在の1.5倍になると予想している[5]。
年齢 | 60–64 | 65–69 | 70–74 | 75–79 | 80–84 | 85–89 | 90+ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
西ヨーロッパ[52] | 1.6% | 2.6 % | 4.3 % | 7.4 % | 12.9% | 21.7% | 43.1% |
中央ヨーロッパ | 0.9% | 1.3% | 3.3% | 5.8% | 12.2% | 24.7% | |
東ヨーロッパ | 0.9% | 1.3% | 3.2% | 5.8% | 11.8% | 24.5% | |
米国 | 1.1% | 1.9% | 3.4% | 6.3% | 11.9% | 21.7% | 47.5% |
ラテンアメリカ | 1.3% | 2.4% | 4.5% | 8.4% | 15.4% | 28.6% | 63.9% |
東アジア | 0.7% | 1.2% | 3.1% | 4.0% | 7.4% | 13.3% | 28.7$ |
南アジア | 1.3% | 2.1% | 3.5% | 6.1% | 10.6% | 17.8% | 35.4% |
東南アジア | 1.6% | 2.6% | 4.2% | 6.9% | 11.6% | 18.7% | 35.4% |
オーストラシア | 1.8% | 2.8% | 4.5% | 7.5% | 12.5% | 20.3% | 38.3% |
日本については、65歳以上高齢者の有病率は3.0〜8.8%(調査によってばらつきが大きい)とされ、OECDでは2009年では6.1%と報告されている[10]。2026年には10%に上昇するとの推計もある。
2010年には、日本での認知症患者数は約462万人(65歳以上人口の15%)、その前段階の軽度認知障害(MCI)は約400万人(13%)と推定された[53]。2014年では、日本の認知症患者数は約500万人、社会的費用は14.5兆円と、国民医療費全体の3分の1を占めていると推計された(厚労省認知症対策総合研究事業)[54]。また2035年には22.9兆円に膨らむ見込みとされる[54]。
認知症に対しての経済的コストは、オランダでは保健支出の5.5%、ドイツでは3.7%を占めている[5]。コストの総額は、全世界では推定6450億ドル(2010年、スイスのGDPと同額)、米国では1680-2300億ドル、欧州全体では2130億ドルに上ると試算されている[5]。
介護については、現在でも多くの家族が認知症患者を介護しているが、その負担の大きさから心中問題に発展する事もある。認知症患者の介護は、24時間の見守りが必要であり、これは地域ぐるみでないと対策は難しい。患者の多くは死ぬ場所に自宅を希望しているが、現状では大部分は病院で亡くなっている[9]。
しかし、この問題は家族や貧困の問題とされており、社会問題とされることはまだまだ少ない。日本においては、患者の9割近くが65歳以上であり65歳未満の初老期の認知症患者(若年性認知症)の対策が遅れているため、その患者の家族負担は65歳以上よりも重いとされている。介護保険においては、要支援2以上の患者が認知症高齢者グループホームを利用できる。
判断力が低下した認知症患者による自動車運転などの問題もある。各県の公安委員会は認知症にかかっている者の運転免許を取消しまたは停止することができる(道路交通法第103条)。認知症関連5医学会は連名でガイドラインを策定し、認知症が判断した際は、医師は患者および家族に対し自動車運転の中止ならびに運転免許証返納を行うよう説明し、かつその点をカルテに記載するよう勧告している[55]。
認知症患者(疑いがある場合も含む)が鉄道事故に巻き込まれるケースが、2005年度から2012年度までの8年間で149件発生していることが明らかになった。事故被害者のうち115人は死亡しているが、こうしたケースについて鉄道事業者が、事故被害者が認知症であることを考慮せずに賠償請求をするケースが多く見受けられており、安全対策や、誰が賠償責任を負うかなど、新たな課題として浮上している[56]。事故被害者の遺族らからは、四六時中の見守りは無理などとして、鉄道事業者の動きに反発する声が強い[57]。
2007年12月に認知症の男性がJR共和駅で線路内に下りて起こした事故でJR東海が親族に約720万円の賠償を求める訴えを起こしたが、2016年3月1日、最高裁はこの損害賠償請求を棄却し、認知症患者やその家族にとっては画期的な判決となったが、国の政策も含め、責任能力がない人が起こした事故の損害回復をどうすべきかという課題も浮かび上がった[58]。
警察庁のまとめによると、2013年、捜索願(行方不明者届)が出された認知症の人の数は1万322人であり[59]、2012年度と2013年度に届出のあった19,929人の不明者のうち、2014年4月現在所在が確認できていない人数が258人である[60]。一方で警察に保護されたものの住所や名前などの身元不明の人が13人(2013年5月現在)いた[61]。
既に、認知症患者を対象にした悪徳商法などが発生している。悪質リフォームや、金融機関による認知症患者の金融商品の無断解約[62]などは、発生・発覚時にはよく報じられるが、解決策について議論されることは少ない。このため、家族等や弁護士や司法書士に成年後見人制度による対策が求められている。
この節は更新が必要とされています。 この節には古い情報が掲載されています。編集の際に新しい情報を記事に反映させてください。反映後、このタグは除去してください。(2014年4月) |
日本老年医学会において、2004年3月に柴山漠人が「『痴呆』という言葉が差別的である」と問題提起したのを受け、6月から厚生労働省において、医療・福祉などの専門家を中心とした用語検討会で検討が始まった。その過程において、厚生労働省は、関係団体や有識者からヒアリングを行うとともに、「痴呆」に替わる用語として選定した複数の候補例等について広く国民の考えを問うため、ウェブページ等を通じて意見の募集を行った。この結果、一般的な用語や行政用語としての「痴呆」について、次のような結論に至った。
国民の人気投票では「認知障害」がトップであったが、従来の医学上の「認知障害」と区別できなくなるため、この呼称は見送られた。こうして2004年12月24日付で、法令用語を変更すべきだとの報告書(「痴呆」に替わる用語に関する検討会報告書)がまとめられた。厚生労働省老健局は同日付で行政用語を変更し、「老発第1224001号」により老健局長名で自治体や関係学会などに「認知症(にんちしょう)」を使用する旨の協力依頼の通知を出した。関連する法律上の条文は、2005年の通常国会で介護保険法の改正により行われた。
医学用語としては、まず日本老年精神医学会が「認知症」を正式な学術用語として定め、関係40学会にその旨通知した。現在の医学界では、「痴呆」はほぼ「認知症」と言い換えられている。
主に心理学や神経科学系の学会では、従来より「認知」という語を厳密に用いてきたため、学会として認知症という語に反対している[66]。
平成16年12月24日付け、厚生労働省老健局長通知による「痴呆」からの改正用語例は、以下のとおりである。
現在、第162回国会において審議されている「介護保険法等の一部を改正する法律案」による改正後の介護保険法では「脳血管疾患、アルツハイマー病その他の要因に基づく脳の器質的な変化により日常生活に支障が生じる程度にまで記憶機能およびその他の認知機能が低下した状態」として認知症を定義している。
「痴呆」という呼び名が差別的であるとされたのは、「痴」「呆」ともに「愚か」「馬鹿」という意味を持つ漢字だからである。実際、厚生労働省のアンケートでは、「痴呆」という呼称が一般的な用語や行政用語として用いられる場合、また病院等で診断名や疾病名として使用される場合でも、不快感や軽蔑した感じを「感じる」人は、「感じない」人を上回った。
「痴呆」の呼び名の代替案として「認知症」とする事とした事に関して、「認知」の意味が正しく伝わらず、適切ではないのではないか、また日本語として破綻しているのではないか、という議論が出ている。
心理学会関係(検討会には参加者なし)からは、「認知」は人間の知的機能をあらわす概念であり、それをそのまま病名として用いると意味が不明確で誤解が生じる危険があるとして異論もある。社団法人日本心理学会・日本基礎心理学会・日本認知科学会・日本認知心理学会から連名で出された意見書の中でその不適切さが指摘され、代案として「認知失調症」を提起する意見書が厚生労働省に提出されている。
また、「痴呆」と言う言葉は「一度獲得された知能が、後天的な大脳の器質的障害のため進行的に低下する状態」を指し、「認知症」と言う言葉より症状を的確に表しているという意見もある。
国際機関
診療ガイドライン
ウィキメディア・コモンズには、認知症に関連するカテゴリがあります。 |
|
|
Dementia | |
---|---|
Synonyms | Senility[1] |
Comparison of a normal aged brain (left) and the brain of a person with Alzheimer's (right). Differential characteristics are pointed out. | |
Specialty | Neurology, psychiatry |
Symptoms | Decreased ability to think and remember, emotional problems, problems with language, decreased motivation[2][3] |
Usual onset | Gradual[2] |
Duration | Long term[2] |
Causes | Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, frontotemporal dementia[2][3] |
Diagnostic method | Cognitive testing (mini mental state examination)[4][3] |
Similar conditions | Delirium[5] |
Prevention | Early education, prevent high blood pressure, prevent obesity, no smoking, exercise, social engagement[6] |
Treatment | Supportive care[2] |
Medication | Cholinesterase inhibitors (small benefit)[7][8] |
Frequency | 46 million (2015)[9] |
Deaths | 1.9 million (2015)[10] |
[edit on Wikidata]
|
Dementia is a broad category of brain diseases that cause a long term and often gradual decrease in the ability to think and remember that is great enough to affect a person's daily functioning.[2] Other common symptoms include emotional problems, problems with language, and a decrease in motivation.[2][3] A person's consciousness is usually not affected.[2] A dementia diagnosis requires a change from a person's usual mental functioning and a greater decline than one would expect due to aging.[2][11] These diseases also have a significant effect on a person's caregivers.[2]
The most common type of dementia is Alzheimer's disease, which makes up 50% to 70% of cases. Other common types include vascular dementia (25%), Lewy body dementia (15%), and frontotemporal dementia.[2][3] Less common causes include normal pressure hydrocephalus, Parkinson's disease, syphilis, and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease among others.[12] More than one type of dementia may exist in the same person.[2] A small proportion of cases run in families.[13] In the DSM-5, dementia was reclassified as a neurocognitive disorder, with various degrees of severity.[14] Diagnosis is usually based on history of the illness and cognitive testing with medical imaging and blood work used to rule out other possible causes.[4] The mini mental state examination is one commonly used cognitive test.[3] Efforts to prevent dementia include trying to decrease risk factors such as high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, and obesity.[2] Screening the general population for the disorder is not recommended.[15]
There is no cure for dementia.[2] Cholinesterase inhibitors such as donepezil are often used and may be beneficial in mild to moderate disorder.[16][17][7] Overall benefit, however, may be minor.[7][8] There are many measures that can improve the quality of life of people with dementia and their caregivers.[2] Cognitive and behavioral interventions may be appropriate.[2] Educating and providing emotional support to the caregiver is important.[2] Exercise programs may be beneficial with respect to activities of daily living and potentially improve outcomes.[18] Treatment of behavioral problems with antipsychotics is common but not usually recommended due to the little benefit and side effects, including an increased risk of death.[19][20]
Globally, dementia affected about 46 million people in 2015.[9] About 10% of people develop the disorder at some point in their lives.[13] It becomes more common with age.[21] About 3% of people between the ages of 65–74 have dementia, 19% between 75 and 84 and nearly half of those over 85 years of age.[22] In 2013 dementia resulted in about 1.7 million deaths up from 0.8 million in 1990.[23] As more people are living longer, dementia is becoming more common in the population as a whole.[21] For people of a specific age, however, it may be becoming less frequent, at least in the developed world, due to a decrease in risk factors.[21] It is one of the most common causes of disability among the old.[3] It is believed to result in economic costs of 604 billion USD a year.[2] People with dementia are often physically or chemically restrained to a greater degree than necessary, raising issues of human rights.[2] Social stigma against those affected is common.[3]
The symptoms of dementia vary across types and stages of the diagnosis.[24] The most common affected areas include memory, visual-spatial, language, attention and problem solving. Most types of dementia are slow and progressive. By the time the person shows signs of the disorder, the process in the brain has been happening for a long time. It is possible for a patient to have two types of dementia at the same time. About 10% of people with dementia have what is known as mixed dementia, which is usually a combination of Alzheimer's disease and another type of dementia such as frontotemporal dementia or vascular dementia.[25][26] Additional psychological and behavioral problems that often affect people who have dementia include:
When people with dementia are put in circumstances beyond their abilities, there may be a sudden change to crying or anger (a "catastrophic reaction").[30]
Psychosis (often delusions of persecution) and agitation/aggression also often accompany dementia.[31]
In the first stages of dementia, the signs and symptoms of the disorder may be subtle. Often, the early signs of dementia only become apparent when looking back in time. The earliest stage of dementia is called mild cognitive impairment (MCI). 70% of those diagnosed with MCI progress to dementia at some point.[11] In MCI, changes in the person's brain have been happening for a long time, but the symptoms of the disorder are just beginning to show. These problems, however, are not yet severe enough to affect the person’s daily function. If they do, it is considered dementia. A person with MCI scores between 27 and 30 on the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), which is a normal score. They may have some memory trouble and trouble finding words, but they solve everyday problems and handle their own life affairs well.
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |
In the early stage of dementia, the person begins to show symptoms noticeable to the people around them. In addition, the symptoms begin to interfere with daily activities. The person usually scores between a 20 and 25 on the MMSE. The symptoms are dependent on the type of dementia a person has. The person may begin to have difficulty with more complicated chores and tasks around the house. The person can usually still take care of him or herself but may forget things like taking pills or doing laundry and may need prompting or reminders.
The symptoms of early dementia usually include memory difficulty, but can also include some word-finding problems (anomia) and problems with planning and organizational skills (executive function). One very good way of assessing a person's impairment is by asking if he or she is still able to handle his/her finances independently. This is often one of the first things to become problematic. Other signs might be getting lost in new places, repeating things, personality changes, social withdrawal and difficulties at work.
When evaluating a person for dementia, it is important to consider how the person was able to function five or ten years earlier. It is also important to consider a person's level of education when assessing for loss of function. For example, an accountant who can no longer balance a checkbook would be more concerning than a person who had not finished high school or had never taken care of his/her own finances.[11]
In Alzheimer's dementia the most prominent early symptom is memory difficulty. Others include word-finding problems and getting lost. In other types of dementia, like dementia with Lewy bodies and fronto-temporal dementia, personality changes and difficulty with organization and planning may be the first signs.
As dementia progresses, the symptoms first experienced in the early stages of the dementia generally worsen. The rate of decline is different for each person. A person with moderate dementia scores between 6–17 on the MMSE. For example, people with Alzheimer's dementia in the moderate stages lose almost all new information very quickly. People with dementia may be severely impaired in solving problems, and their social judgment is usually also impaired. They cannot usually function outside their own home, and generally should not be left alone. They may be able to do simple chores around the house but not much else, and begin to require assistance for personal care and hygiene other than simple reminders.[11]
People with late-stage dementia typically turn increasingly inward and need assistance with most or all of their personal care. Persons with dementia in the late stages usually need 24-hour supervision to ensure personal safety, as well as to ensure that basic needs are being met. If left unsupervised, a person with late-stage dementia may wander or fall, may not recognize common dangers around them such as a hot stove, may not realize that they need to use the bathroom or become unable to control their bladder or bowels (incontinent).
Changes in eating frequently occur. Caregivers of people with late-stage dementia often provide pureed diets, thickened liquids, and assistance in eating, to prolong their lives, to cause them to gain weight, to reduce the risk of choking, and to make feeding the person easier.[32] The person's appetite may decline to the point that the person does not want to eat at all. He or she may not want to get out of bed, or may need complete assistance doing so. Commonly, the person no longer recognizes familiar people. He or she may have significant changes in sleeping habits or have trouble sleeping at all.[11]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |
There are four main causes of easily reversible dementia: hypothyroidism, vitamin B12 deficiency, Lyme disease, and neurosyphillis. All people with memory difficulty should be checked for hypothyroidism and B12 deficiency. For Lyme disease and neurosyphilis, testing should be done if there are risk factors for those diseases in the person. Because risk factors are often difficult to determine, testing for neurosyphillis and Lyme disease as well as the other mentioned factors may be undertaken as a matter of course in cases where dementia is suspected.[11]:31–32
Alzheimer's disease accounts for up to 50% to 70% of cases of dementia.[2][3] The most common symptoms of Alzheimer's disease are short-term memory loss and word-finding difficulties. People with Alzheimer's disease also have trouble with visual-spatial areas (for example, they may begin to get lost often), reasoning, judgment, and insight. Insight refers to whether or not the person realizes he/she has memory problems.
Common early symptoms of Alzheimer's include repetition, getting lost, difficulties keeping track of bills, problems with cooking especially new or complicated meals, forgetting to take medication, and word-finding problems.
The part of the brain most affected by Alzheimer's is the hippocampus. Other parts of the brain that show shrinking (atrophy) include the temporal and parietal lobes.[11] Although this pattern suggests Alzheimer's, the brain shrinkage in Alzheimer's disease is very variable, and a scan of the brain cannot actually make the diagnosis. The relationship between undergoing anesthesia and AD is unclear.[33]
Vascular dementia is the cause of at least 20% of dementia cases, making it the second most common cause of dementia.[34] It is caused by disease or injury affecting the blood supply to the brain, typically involving a series of minor strokes. The symptoms of this dementia depend on where in the brain the strokes have occurred and whether the vessels are large or small.[11] Multiple injuries can cause progressive dementia over time, while a single injury located in an area critical for cognition (i.e. hippocampus, thalamus) can lead to sudden cognitive decline.[34]
On scans of the brain, a person with vascular dementia may show evidence of multiple strokes of different sizes in various locations. People with vascular dementia tend to have risk factors for disease of the blood vessels, such as tobacco use, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, high cholesterol or diabetes, or other signs of vascular disease such as a previous heart attack or angina.
Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is a dementia that has the primary symptoms of visual hallucinations and "Parkinsonism". Parkinsonism is the symptoms of Parkinson's disease, which includes tremor, rigid muscles, and a face without emotion. The visual hallucinations in DLB are generally very vivid hallucinations of people and/or animals and they often occur when someone is about to fall asleep or just waking up. Other prominent symptoms include problems with attention, organization, problem solving and planning (executive function), and difficulty with visual-spatial function.[11]
Again, imaging studies cannot necessarily make the diagnosis of DLB, but some signs are particularly common. A person with DLB often shows occipital hypoperfusion on SPECT scan or occipital hypometabolism on a PET scan. Generally, a diagnosis of DLB is straightforward and unless it is complicated, a brain scan is not always necessary.[11]
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is characterized by drastic personality changes and language difficulties. In all FTD, the person has a relatively early social withdrawal and early lack of insight into the disorder. Memory problems are not a main feature of this disorder.[11]
There are three main types of FTD. The first has major symptoms in the area of personality and behavior. This is called behavioral variant FTD (bv-FTD) and is the most common. In bv-FTD, the person shows a change in personal hygiene, becomes rigid in their thinking, and rarely recognize that there is a problem, they are socially withdrawn, and often have a drastic increase in appetite. They may also be socially inappropriate. For example, they may make inappropriate sexual comments, or may begin using pornography openly when they had not before. One of the most common signs is apathy, or not caring about anything. Apathy, however, is a common symptom in many different dementias.[11]
The other two types of FTD feature language problems as the main symptom. The second type is called semantic dementia or temporal variant dementia (TV-FTD). The main feature of this is the loss of the meaning of words. It may begin with difficulty naming things. The person eventually may also lose the meaning of objects as well. For example, a drawing of a bird, dog, and an airplane in someone with FTD may all appear just about the same.[11] In a classic test for this, a patient is shown a picture of a pyramid and below there is a picture of both a palm tree and a pine tree. The person is asked to say which one goes best with the pyramid. In TV-FTD the person would not be able to answer that question.
The last type of FTD is called progressive non-fluent aphasia (PNFA). This is mainly a problem with producing speech. They have trouble finding the right words, but mostly they have a difficulty coordinating the muscles they need to speak. Eventually, someone with PNFA only uses one-syllable words or may become totally mute.
Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is a form of dementia that is characterized by problems with eye movements. Generally the problems begin with difficulty moving the eyes up and/or down (vertical gaze palsy). Since difficulty moving the eyes upward can sometimes happen in normal aging, problems with downward eye movements are the key in PSP. Other key symptoms of PSP include falls backwards, balance problems, slow movements, rigid muscles, irritability, apathy, social withdrawal, and depression. The person may also have certain "frontal lobe signs" such as perseveration, a grasp reflex and utilization behavior (the need to use an object once you see it). People with PSP often have progressive difficulty eating and swallowing, and eventually with talking as well. Because of the rigidity and slow movements, PSP is sometimes misdiagnosed as Parkinson's disease.
On scans of the brain, the midbrain of people with PSP is generally shrunken (atrophied), but there are no other common brain abnormalities visible on images of the person's brain.
Corticobasal degeneration is a rare form of dementia that is characterized by many different types of neurological problems that get progressively worse over time. This is because the disorder affects the brain in many different places, but at different rates. One common sign is difficulty with using only one limb. One symptom that is extremely rare in any condition other than corticobasal degeneration is the "alien limb." The alien limb is a limb of the person that seems to have a mind of its own, it moves without control of the person's brain. Other common symptoms include jerky movements of one or more limbs (myoclonus), symptoms that are different in different limbs (asymmetric), difficulty with speech that is due to not being able to move the mouth muscles in a coordinated way, numbness and tingling of the limbs and neglecting one side of the person's vision or senses. In neglect, a person ignores the opposite side of the body from the one that has the problem. For example, a person may not feel pain on one side, or may only draw half of a picture when asked. In addition, the person's affected limbs may be rigid or have muscle contractions causing strange repetitive movements (dystonia).[11]
The area of the brain most often affected in corticobasal degeneration is the posterior frontal lobe and parietal lobe. Still, many other part of the brain can be affected.[11]
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease typically causes a dementia that worsens over weeks to months, and is caused by prions. The common causes of slowly progressive dementia also sometimes present with rapid progression: Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, frontotemporal lobar degeneration (including corticobasal degeneration and progressive supranuclear palsy).
On the other hand, encephalopathy or delirium may develop relatively slowly and resemble dementia. Possible causes include brain infection (viral encephalitis, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, Whipple's disease) or inflammation (limbic encephalitis, Hashimoto's encephalopathy, cerebral vasculitis); tumors such as lymphoma or glioma; drug toxicity (e.g., anticonvulsant drugs[specify]); metabolic causes such as liver failure or kidney failure; and chronic subdural hematoma.
Chronic inflammatory conditions that may affect the brain and cognition include Behçet's disease, multiple sclerosis, sarcoidosis, Sjögren's syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, celiac disease, and non-celiac gluten sensitivity.[35][36] This type of dementias can rapidly progress, but usually have a good response to early treatment. This consists of immunomodulators or steroid administration, or in certain cases, the elimination of the causative agent.[36]
There are many other medical and neurological conditions in which dementia only occurs late in the illness. For example, a proportion of patients with Parkinson's disease develop dementia, though widely varying figures are quoted for this proportion.[37] When dementia occurs in Parkinson's disease, the underlying cause may be dementia with Lewy bodies or Alzheimer's disease, or both.[38] Cognitive impairment also occurs in the Parkinson-plus syndromes of progressive supranuclear palsy and corticobasal degeneration (and the same underlying pathology may cause the clinical syndromes of frontotemporal lobar degeneration). Although the acute porphyrias may cause episodes of confusion and psychiatric disturbance, dementia is a rare feature of these rare diseases.
Aside from those mentioned above, inherited conditions that can cause dementia (alongside other symptoms) include:[39]
Mild cognitive impairment means that the person exhibits memory or thinking difficulties, but those difficulties are not severe enough to meet criteria for a diagnosis of dementia.[40] He or she should score between 25–30 on the MMSE.[11] Around 70% of people with MCI go on to develop some form of dementia.[11] MCI is generally divided into two categories. The first is one that is primarily memory loss (amnestic MCI). The second category is anything that is not primarily memory difficulties (non-amnestic MCI). People with primarily memory problems generally go on to develop Alzheimer's disease. People with the other type of MCI may go on to develop other types of dementia.
Diagnosis of MCI is often difficult, as cognitive testing may be normal. Often, more in-depth neuropsychological testing is necessary to make the diagnosis. the most commonly used criteria are called the Peterson criteria and include:
Various types of brain injury may cause irreversible cognitive impairment that remains stable over time. Traumatic brain injury may cause generalized damage to the white matter of the brain (diffuse axonal injury), or more localized damage (as also may neurosurgery). A temporary reduction in the brain's supply of blood or oxygen may lead to hypoxic-ischemic injury. Strokes (ischemic stroke, or intracerebral, subarachnoid, subdural or extradural hemorrhage) or infections (meningitis and/or encephalitis) affecting the brain, prolonged epileptic seizures, and acute hydrocephalus may also have long-term effects on cognition. Excessive alcohol use may cause alcohol dementia, Wernicke's encephalopathy, and/or Korsakoff's psychosis.
Dementia that begins gradually and worsens progressively over several years is usually caused by neurodegenerative disease—that is, by conditions that affect only or primarily the neurons of the brain and cause gradual but irreversible loss of function of these cells. Less commonly, a non-degenerative condition may have secondary effects on brain cells, which may or may not be reversible if the condition is treated.
Causes of dementia depend on the age when symptoms begin. In the elderly population (usually defined in this context as over 65 years of age), a large majority of dementia cases are caused by Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, or both. Dementia with Lewy bodies is another commonly exhibited form, which again may occur alongside either or both of the other causes.[41][42][43] Hypothyroidism sometimes causes slowly progressive cognitive impairment as the main symptom, and this may be fully reversible with treatment. Normal pressure hydrocephalus, though relatively rare, is important to recognize since treatment may prevent progression and improve other symptoms of the condition. However, significant cognitive improvement is unusual.
Dementia is much less common under 65 years of age. Alzheimer's disease is still the most frequent cause, but inherited forms of the disorder account for a higher proportion of cases in this age group. Frontotemporal lobar degeneration and Huntington's disease account for most of the remaining cases.[44] Vascular dementia also occurs, but this in turn may be due to underlying conditions (including antiphospholipid syndrome, CADASIL, MELAS, homocystinuria, moyamoya, and Binswanger's disease). People who receive frequent head trauma, such as boxers or football players, are at risk of chronic traumatic encephalopathy[45] (also called dementia pugilistica in boxers).
In young adults (up to 40 years of age) who were previously of normal intelligence, it is very rare to develop dementia without other features of neurological disease, or without features of disease elsewhere in the body. Most cases of progressive cognitive disturbance in this age group are caused by psychiatric illness, alcohol or other drugs, or metabolic disturbance. However, certain genetic disorders can cause true neurodegenerative dementia at this age. These include familial Alzheimer's disease, SCA17 (dominant inheritance); adrenoleukodystrophy (X-linked); Gaucher's disease type 3, metachromatic leukodystrophy, Niemann-Pick disease type C, pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration, Tay-Sachs disease, and Wilson's disease (all recessive). Wilson's disease is particularly important since cognition can improve with treatment.
At all ages, a substantial proportion of patients who complain of memory difficulty or other cognitive symptoms have depression rather than a neurodegenerative disease. Vitamin deficiencies and chronic infections may also occur at any age; they usually cause other symptoms before dementia occurs, but occasionally mimic degenerative dementia. These include deficiencies of vitamin B12, folate, or niacin, and infective causes including cryptococcal meningitis, AIDS, Lyme disease, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, syphilis, and Whipple's disease.
As seen above, there are many specific types and causes of dementia, often showing slightly different symptoms. However, the symptoms are very similar and it is usually difficult to diagnose the type of dementia by symptoms alone. Diagnosis may be aided by brain scanning techniques. In many cases, the diagnosis cannot be absolutely sure except with a brain biopsy, but this is very rarely recommended (though it can be performed at autopsy). In those who are getting older, general screening for cognitive impairment using cognitive testing or early diagnosis of dementia has not been shown to improve outcomes.[46] However, it has been shown that screening exams are useful in those people over the age of 65 with memory complaints.[11]
Normally, symptoms must be present for at least six months to support a diagnosis.[47] Cognitive dysfunction of shorter duration is called delirium. Delirium can be easily confused with dementia due to similar symptoms. Delirium is characterized by a sudden onset, fluctuating course, a short duration (often lasting from hours to weeks), and is primarily related to a somatic (or medical) disturbance. In comparison, dementia has typically a long, slow onset (except in the cases of a stroke or trauma), slow decline of mental functioning, as well as a longer duration (from months to years).[48]
Some mental illnesses, including depression and psychosis, may produce symptoms that must be differentiated from both delirium and dementia.[49] Therefore, any dementia evaluation should include a depression screening such as the Neuropsychiatric Inventory or the Geriatric Depression Scale.[11] Physicians used to think that anyone who came in with memory complaints had depression and not dementia (because they thought that those with dementia are generally unaware of their memory problems). This is called pseudodementia. However, in recent years researchers have realized that many older people with memory complaints in fact have MCI, the earliest stage of dementia. Depression should always remain high on the list of possibilities, however, for an elderly person with memory trouble.
Changes in thinking, hearing, and vision are associated with normal ageing and can cause problems when diagnosing dementia due to the similarities.[50]
Test | Sensitivity | Specificity | Reference |
MMSE | 71%–92% | 56%–96% | [51] |
3MS | 83%–93.5% | 85%–90% | [52] |
AMTS | 73%–100% | 71%–100% | [52] |
There are some brief tests (5–15 minutes) that have reasonable reliability to screen for dementia. While many tests have been studied,[53][54][55] presently the mini mental state examination (MMSE) is the best studied and most commonly used. The MMSE is a useful tool for helping to diagnose dementia if the results are interpreted along with an assessment of a persons personality, their ability to perform activities of daily living, and their behaviour.[56] Other cognitive tests include the abbreviated mental test score (AMTS), the, Modified Mini-Mental State Examination (3MS),[57] the Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI),[58] the Trail-making test,[59] and the clock drawing test.[60] The MOCA (Montreal Cognitive Assessment) is a very reliable screening test and is available online for free in 35 different languages.[11] The MOCA has also been shown somewhat better at detecting mild cognitive impairment than the MMSE.[61]
Another approach to screening for dementia is to ask an informant (relative or other supporter) to fill out a questionnaire about the person's everyday cognitive functioning. Informant questionnaires provide complementary information to brief cognitive tests. Probably the best known questionnaire of this sort is the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE).[62] There is not sufficient evidence to determine how accurate the IQCODE is for diagnosing or predicting dementia.[63] The Alzheimer's Disease Caregiver Questionnaire is another tool. It is about 90% accurate for Alzheimer's and can be completed online or in the office by a caregiver.[11] On the other hand, the General Practitioner Assessment Of Cognition combines both, a patient assessment and an informant interview. It was specifically designed for the use in the primary care setting.
Clinical neuropsychologists provide diagnostic consultation following administration of a full battery of cognitive testing, often lasting several hours, to determine functional patterns of decline associated with varying types of dementia. Tests of memory, executive function, processing speed, attention, and language skills are relevant, as well as tests of emotional and psychological adjustment. These tests assist with ruling out other etiologies and determining relative cognitive decline over time or from estimates of prior cognitive abilities.
Routine blood tests are also usually performed to rule out treatable causes. These tests include vitamin B12, folic acid, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), C-reactive protein, full blood count, electrolytes, calcium, renal function, and liver enzymes. Abnormalities may suggest vitamin deficiency, infection, or other problems that commonly cause confusion or disorientation in the elderly.
A CT scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI scan) is commonly performed, although these tests do not pick up diffuse metabolic changes associated with dementia in a person that shows no gross neurological problems (such as paralysis or weakness) on neurological exam.[citation needed] CT or MRI may suggest normal pressure hydrocephalus, a potentially reversible cause of dementia, and can yield information relevant to other types of dementia, such as infarction (stroke) that would point at a vascular type of dementia.
The functional neuroimaging modalities of SPECT and PET are more useful in assessing long-standing cognitive dysfunction, since they have shown similar ability to diagnose dementia as a clinical exam and cognitive testing.[64] The ability of SPECT to differentiate the vascular cause (i.e., multi-infarct dementia) from Alzheimer's disease dementias, appears superior to differentiation by clinical exam.[65]
Recent research has established the value of PET imaging using carbon-11 Pittsburgh Compound B as a radiotracer (PIB-PET) in predictive diagnosis of various kinds of dementia, in particular Alzheimer's disease. Studies from Australia have found PIB-PET 86% accurate in predicting which patients with mild cognitive impairment will develop Alzheimer's disease within two years. In another study, carried out using 66 patients seen at the University of Michigan, PET studies using either PIB or another radiotracer, carbon-11 dihydrotetrabenazine (DTBZ), led to more accurate diagnosis for more than one-fourth of patients with mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia.[66]
A number of factors can decrease the risk of dementia.[6] A group of efforts is believed to be able to prevent a third of cases and include early education, treating high blood pressure, preventing obesity, preventing hearing loss, treating depression, being active, preventing diabetes, not smoking, and preventing social isolation.[6]
Among otherwise healthy older people, computerized cognitive training may improve memory. However it is not known if it prevents dementia.[67]
Except for the treatable types listed above, there is no cure. Cholinesterase inhibitors are often used early in the disorder course; however, benefit is generally small.[8][68] Cognitive and behavioral interventions may be appropriate. There is some evidence that educating and providing support for the person with dementia, as well as caregivers and family members, improves outcomes.[69] Exercise programs are beneficial with respect to activities of daily living and potentially improve dementia.[18]
Psychological therapies for dementia include music therapy with unclear evidence,[70][needs update] tentative evidence for reminiscence therapy,[71] some benefit for cognitive reframing for caretakers,[72] unclear evidence for validation therapy,[73] and tentative evidence for mental exercises, such as cognitive stimulation programs for people with mild to moderate dementia.[74] Adult daycare centers as well as special care units in nursing homes often provide specialized care for dementia patients. Adult daycare centers offer supervision, recreation, meals, and limited health care to participants, as well as providing respite for caregivers. In addition, home care can provide one-on-one support and care in the home allowing for more individualized attention that is needed as the disorder progresses. Psychiatric nurses can make a distinctive contribution to people's mental health.[75]
Since dementia impairs normal communication due to changes in receptive and expressive language, as well as the ability to plan and problem solve, agitated behaviour is often a form of communication for the person with dementia. Actively searching for a potential cause, such as pain, physical illness, or overstimulation can be helpful in reducing agitation.[76] Additionally, using an "ABC analysis of behaviour" can be a useful tool for understanding behavior in people with dementia. It involves looking at the antecedents (A), behavior (B), and consequences (C) associated with an event to help define the problem and prevent further incidents that may arise if the person's needs are misunderstood.[77]
No medications have been shown to prevent or cure dementia.[78] Medications may be used to treat the behavioural and cognitive symptoms but have no effect on the underlying disease process.[11][79]
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, such as donepezil, may be useful for Alzheimer disease[80] and dementia in Parkinson's, DLB, or vascular dementia.[79] The quality of the evidence however is poor[81] and the benefit is small.[8] No difference has been shown between the agents in this family.[82] In a minority of people side effects include bradycardia and syncope.[83]
As assessment for an underlying cause of the behavior is a needed before prescribing antipsychotic medication for symptoms of dementia.[84] Antipsychotic drugs should be used to treat dementia only if non-drug therapies have not worked, and the person's actions threaten themselves or others.[85][86] Aggressive behavior changes are sometimes the result of other solvable problems, that could make treatment with antipsychotics unnecessary.[85] Because people with dementia can be aggressive, resistant to their treatment, and otherwise disruptive, sometimes antipsychotic drugs are considered as a therapy in response.[85] These drugs have risky adverse effects, including increasing the patient's chance of stroke and death.[85] Generally, stopping antipsychotics for people with dementia does not cause problems, even in those who have been on them a long time.[87]
N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor blockers such as memantine may be of benefit but the evidence is less conclusive than for AChEIs.[88] Due to their differing mechanisms of action memantine and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors can be used in combination however the benefit is slight.[89][90]
While depression is frequently associated with dementia, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) do not appear to affect outcomes.[91][92]
The use of drugs to alleviate sleep disturbances that people with dementia often experience has not been well researched, even for medications that are commonly prescribed.[93] In 2012 the American Geriatrics Society recommended that benzodiazepines such as diazepam, and non-benzodiazepine hypnotics, be avoided for people with dementia due to the risks of increased cognitive impairment and falls.[94] In addition, there is little evidence for the effectiveness of benzodiazepines in this population.[93][95] There is no clear evidence that melatonin or ramelteon improves sleep for people with dementia due to alzheimers disease.[93] There is limited evidence that a low dose of trazodone may improve sleep, however more research is needed.[93]
There is no solid evidence that folate or vitamin B12 improves outcomes in those with cognitive problems.[96] Statins also have no benefit in dementia.[97] Medications for other health conditions may need to be managed differently for a person who also has a diagnosis of dementia. The MATCH-D criteria can help identify ways that a diagnosis of dementia changes medication management for other health conditions.[98] It is unclear if there is a link between blood pressure medication and dementia. There is a possibility that people may experience an increase in cardiovascular-related events if these medications are withdrawn.[99]
As people age, they experience more health problems, and most health problems associated with aging carry a substantial burden of pain; therefore, between 25% and 50% of older adults experience persistent pain. Seniors with dementia experience the same prevalence of conditions likely to cause pain as seniors without dementia.[100] Pain is often overlooked in older adults and, when screened for, often poorly assessed, especially among those with dementia since they become incapable of informing others that they're in pain.[100][101] Beyond the issue of humane care, unrelieved pain has functional implications. Persistent pain can lead to decreased ambulation, depressed mood, sleep disturbances, impaired appetite, and exacerbation of cognitive impairment,[101] and pain-related interference with activity is a factor contributing to falls in the elderly.[100][102]
Although persistent pain in the person with dementia is difficult to communicate, diagnose, and treat, failure to address persistent pain has profound functional, psychosocial, and quality of life implications for this vulnerable population. Health professionals often lack the skills and usually lack the time needed to recognize, accurately assess, and adequately monitor pain in people with dementia.[100][103] Family members and friends can make a valuable contribution to the care of a person with dementia by learning to recognize and assess their pain. Educational resources (such as the Understand Pain and Dementia tutorial) and observational assessment tools are available.[100][104][105]
Persons with dementia may have difficulty eating. Whenever it is available as an option, the recommended response to eating problems is having a caretaker do assisted feeding for the person.[106] A secondary option for people who cannot swallow effectively is to consider gastrostomy feeding tube placement as a way to give nutrition. However, in bringing person comfort and keeping functional status while lowering risk of aspiration pneumonia and death, assistance with oral feeding is at least as good as tube feeding.[106][107] Tube-feeding is associated with agitation, increased use of physical and chemical restraints, and worsening pressure ulcers. Tube feedings may also cause fluid overload, diarrhea, abdominal pain, local complications, less human interaction, and may increase the risk of aspiration.[108][109]
Benefits of this procedure in those with advanced dementia has not been shown.[110] The risks of using tube feeding include agitation, the person pulling out the tube or otherwise being physically or chemically immobilized to prevent them from doing this, or getting pressure ulcers.[106] There is about a 1% fatality rate directly related to the procedure[111] with a 3% major complication rate.[112] The percentage of people at the end of their life with dementia using feeding tubes in the USA has dropped from 12% in 2000 to 6% as of 2014.[113][114]
Aromatherapy and massage have unclear evidence.[115][116] There have been studies on the efficacy and safety of cannabinoids in relieving behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia.[117]
Omega-3 fatty acid supplements from plants or fish sources do not appear to benefit or harm people with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. It is unclear if taking omega-3 fatty acid supplements can improve other types of dementia.[118]
Given the progressive and terminal nature of dementia, palliative care can be helpful to patients and their caregivers by helping both people with the disorder and their caregivers understand what to expect, deal with loss of physical and mental abilities, plan out a patient’s wishes and goals including surrogate decision making, and discuss wishes for or against CPR and life support.[119][120] Because the decline can be rapid, and because most people prefer to allow the person with dementia to make his or her own decisions, palliative care involvement before the late stages of dementia is recommended.[121][122] Further research is required to determine the appropriate palliative care interventions and how well they help people with advanced dementia.[123]
Person-centered care helps maintain the dignity of people with dementia.[124]
The number of cases of dementia worldwide in 2010 was estimated at 35.6 million.[125] Rates increase significantly with age, with dementia affecting 5% of the population older than 65 and 20–40% of those older than 85.[126] Around two thirds of individuals with dementia live in low- and middle-income countries, where the sharpest increases in numbers are predicted.[127] Rates are slightly higher in women than men at ages 65 and greater.[126]
In 2013 dementia resulted in about 1.7 million deaths, up from 0.8 million in 1990.[23]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |
Until the end of the 19th century, dementia was a much broader clinical concept. It included mental illness and any type of psychosocial incapacity, including conditions that could be reversed.[128] Dementia at this time simply referred to anyone who had lost the ability to reason, and was applied equally to psychosis of mental illness, "organic" diseases like syphilis that destroy the brain, and to the dementia associated with old age, which was attributed to "hardening of the arteries".
Dementia has been referred to in medical texts since antiquity. One of the earliest known accounts was written by the 7th-century BC Greek physician and mathematician Pythagoras, who divided the human lifespan into six distinct phases, which were 0–6 (infancy), 7–21 (adolescence), 22–49 (young adulthood), 50–62 (middle age), 63–79 (old age), and 80–death (advanced age). The last two he described as the "senium", a period of mental and physical decay, and of the final phase being where "the scene of mortal existence closes after a great length of time that very fortunately, few of the human species arrive at, where the mind is reduced to the imbecility of the first epoch of infancy".[129] In 550 BC, the Greek Athenian statesman and poet Solon argued that the terms of a man's will might be invalidated if he exhibited loss of judgement due to advanced age. Chinese medical texts made allusions to the condition as well, and the characters for "dementia" translate literally to "foolish old person".[citation needed]
Aristotle and Plato from Ancient Greece spoke of the mental decay of advanced age, but apparently simply viewed it as an inevitable process that affected all old men, and which nothing could prevent. The latter stated that the elderly were unsuited for any position of responsibility because, "There is not much acumen of the mind that once carried them in their youth, those characteristics one would call judgement, imagination, power of reasoning, and memory. They see them gradually blunted by deterioration and can hardly fulfill their function."[citation needed]
For comparison, the Roman statesman Cicero held a view much more in line with modern-day medical wisdom that loss of mental function was not inevitable in the elderly and "affected only those old men who were weak-willed". He spoke of how those who remained mentally active and eager to learn new things could stave off dementia. However, Cicero's views on aging, although progressive, were largely ignored in a world that would be dominated by Aristotle's medical writings for centuries. Subsequent physicians during the time of Roman Empire such as Galen and Celsus simply repeated the beliefs of Aristotle while adding few new contributions to medical knowledge.
Byzantine physicians sometimes wrote of dementia, and it is recorded that at least seven emperors whose lifespans exceeded the age of 70 displayed signs of cognitive decline. In Constantinople, there existed special hospitals to house those diagnosed with dementia or insanity, but these naturally did not apply to the emperors who were above the law and whose health conditions could not be publicly acknowledged.
Otherwise, little is recorded about senile dementia in Western medical texts for nearly 1700 years. One of the few references to it was the 13th-century friar Roger Bacon, who viewed old age as divine punishment for original sin. Although he repeated existing Aristotelian beliefs that dementia was inevitable after a long enough lifespan, he did make the extremely progressive assertion that the brain was the center of memory and thought rather than the heart.
Poets, playwrights, and other writers however made frequent allusions to the loss of mental function in old age. Shakespeare notably mentions it in some of his plays including Hamlet and King Lear.
Dementia in the elderly was called senile dementia or senility, and viewed as a normal and somewhat inevitable aspect of growing old, rather than as being caused by any specific diseases. At the same time, in 1907, a specific organic dementing process of early onset, called Alzheimer's disease, had been described. This was associated with particular microscopic changes in the brain, but was seen as a rare disease of middle age because the first patient diagnosed with it was a 50-year-old woman.
During the 19th century, doctors generally came to believe that dementia in the elderly was the result of cerebral atherosclerosis, although opinions fluctuated between the idea that it was due to blockage of the major arteries supplying the brain or small strokes within the vessels of the cerebral cortex. This viewpoint remained conventional medical wisdom through the first half of the 20th century, but by the 1960s was increasingly challenged as the link between neurodegenerative diseases and age-related cognitive decline was established. By the 1970s, the medical community maintained that vascular dementia was rarer than previously thought and Alzheimer's disease caused the vast majority of mental impairments in old age. More recently however, it is believed that dementia is often a mixture of both conditions.
Much like other diseases associated with aging, dementia was comparatively rare before the 20th century, due to the fact that it is most common in people over 80, and such lifespans were uncommon in preindustrial times. Conversely, syphilitic dementia was widespread in the developed world until largely being eradicated by the use of penicillin after WWII. With significant increases in life expectancy following WWII, the number of people in developed countries over 65 started rapidly climbing. While elderly persons constituted an average of 3–5% of the population prior to 1945, by 2010 it was common in many countries to have 10–14% of people over 65 and in Germany and Japan, this figure exceeded 20%. Public awareness of Alzheimer's Disease was greatly increased in 1994 when former US president Ronald Reagan announced that he had been diagnosed with the condition.
By the period of 1913–20, schizophrenia had been well-defined in a way similar to today, and also the term dementia praecox had been used to suggest the development of senile-type dementia at a younger age. Eventually the two terms fused, so that until 1952 physicians used the terms dementia praecox (precocious dementia) and schizophrenia interchangeably. The term precocious dementia for a mental illness suggested that a type of mental illness like schizophrenia (including paranoia and decreased cognitive capacity) could be expected to arrive normally in all persons with greater age (see paraphrenia). After about 1920, the beginning use of dementia for what is now understood as schizophrenia and senile dementia helped limit the word's meaning to "permanent, irreversible mental deterioration". This began the change to the more recognizable use of the term today.
In 1976, neurologist Robert Katzmann suggested a link between senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease.[130] Katzmann suggested that much of the senile dementia occurring (by definition) after the age of 65, was pathologically identical with Alzheimer's disease occurring before age 65 and therefore should not be treated differently. He noted that "senile dementia" not being considered a disease, but rather part of aging, was keeping millions of aged patients experiencing what otherwise was identical with Alzheimer's disease from being diagnosed as having a disease process, rather than simply considered as aging normally.[131] Katzmann thus suggested that Alzheimer's disease, if taken to occur over age 65, is actually common, not rare, and was the fourth- or 5th-leading cause of death, even though rarely reported on death certificates in 1976.
This suggestion opened the view that dementia is never normal, and must always be the result of a particular disease process, and is not part of the normal healthy aging process, per se. The ensuing debate led for a time to the proposed disease diagnosis of "senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type" (SDAT) in persons over the age of 65, with "Alzheimer's disease" diagnosed in persons younger than 65 who had the same pathology. Eventually, however, it was agreed that the age limit was artificial, and that Alzheimer's disease was the appropriate term for persons with the particular brain pathology seen in this disorder, regardless of the age of the person with the diagnosis. A helpful finding was that although the incidence of Alzheimer's disease increased with age (from 5–10% of 75-year-olds to as many as 40–50% of 90-year-olds), there was no age at which all persons developed it, so it was not an inevitable consequence of aging, no matter how great an age a person attained. Evidence of this is shown by numerous documented supercentenarians (people living to 110 or more) that experienced no serious cognitive impairment. There is some evidence that dementia is most likely to develop between the ages of 80 and 84 and individuals who pass that point without being affected have a lower chance of developing it. Women account for a larger percentage of dementia cases than men, although this can be attributed to their longer overall lifespan and greater odds of attaining an age where the condition is likely to occur.[citation needed]
Also, after 1952, mental illnesses like schizophrenia were removed from the category of organic brain syndromes, and thus (by definition) removed from possible causes of "dementing illnesses" (dementias). At the same, however, the traditional cause of senile dementia – "hardening of the arteries" – now returned as a set of dementias of vascular cause (small strokes). These were now termed multi-infarct dementias or vascular dementias.
In the 21st century, a number of other types of dementia have been differentiated from Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementias (these two being the most common types). This differentiation is on the basis of pathological examination of brain tissues, by symptomatology, and by different patterns of brain metabolic activity in nuclear medical imaging tests such as SPECT and PETscans of the brain. The various forms of dementia have differing prognoses (expected outcome of illness), and also differing sets of epidemiologic risk factors. The causal etiology of many of them, including Alzheimer's disease, remains unclear, although many theories exist such as accumulation of protein plaques as part of normal aging, inflammation (either from bacterial pathogens or exposure to toxic chemicals), inadequate blood sugar, and traumatic brain injury.[citation needed]
The societal cost of dementia is high, especially for family caregivers.[132]
Many countries consider the care of people living with dementia a national priority and invest in resources and education to better inform health and social service workers, unpaid caregivers, relatives, and members of the wider community. Several countries have national plans or strategies.[133] In these national plans, there is recognition that people can live well with dementia for a number of years, as long as there is the right support and timely access to a diagnosis. The former British Prime Minister David Cameron has described dementia as being a "national crisis", affecting 800,000 people in the United Kingdom.[134]
In the United Kingdom, as with all mental disorders, where a person with dementia could potentially be a danger to themselves or others, they can be detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 for the purposes of assessment, care and treatment. This is a last resort, and usually avoided if the patient has family or friends who can ensure care.
Driving with dementia could lead to severe injury or even death to self and others. Doctors should advise appropriate testing on when to quit driving.[135] The United Kingdom DVLA (Driver & Vehicle Licensing Agency) states that people with dementia who specifically have poor short term memory, disorientation, or lack of insight or judgment are not fit to drive, and in these instances the DVLA must be informed so that the driving licence can be revoked. They do, however, acknowledge low-severity cases and those with an early diagnosis, and those drivers may be permitted to drive pending medical reports.
Many support networks are available to people with dementia and their families and caregivers. Several charitable organisations aim to raise awareness and campaign for the rights of people living with dementia. There is also support and guidance on assessing testamentary capacity in people who have dementia.[136]
In 2015, Atlantic Philanthropies announced a $177 million gift aimed at understanding and reducing dementia. The recipient was Global Brain Health Institute, a program co-led by the University of California, San Francisco and Trinity College Dublin. This donation is the largest non-capital grant Atlantic has ever made, and the biggest philanthropic donation in Irish history.[137]
Dementia Also called: Senility
Classification |
|
---|---|
External resources |
|
Media related to Dementia at Wikimedia Commons
Pathology of the nervous system, primarily CNS (G04–G47, 323–349)
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Inflammation |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
Brain/ encephalopathy |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
Spinal cord/ myelopathy |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
Both/either |
|
Mental and behavioral disorders (F 290–319)
|
|||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
Symptoms and signs: Speech and voice / Symptoms involving head and neck (R47–R49, 784)
|
|
---|---|
Aphasias |
|
Communication disorders |
|
Voice disturbances |
|
Nose |
|
Mouth |
|
Neck |
|
Other |
|
Authority control |
|
---|
関連記事 | 「BPS」「BP」 |
概要 | 検査内容 | 評価時間 | 正常(2) | 異常(0) | |
超音波検査で動きの評価 | 呼吸様運動 | 30 秒以上の呼吸様運動(横隔膜・胸壁の上下運動)が | 30分間 | 1 回以上 | 0 回 |
胎動 | 身体か四肢の動きが | 30分間 | 2 回以上 | 1 回以下 | |
筋緊張 | 四肢・体幹の伸展・屈曲運動,または手の開閉が | 30分間 | 1 回以上 | 0 回 | |
超音波検査で羊水ポケットを評価 | 羊水量 | 羊水ポケットが | 2cm 以上 | 2cm 未満 | |
胎児心拍陣痛図で評価 | NST | 一過性頻脈 accelerationが | 20分間 | 2 回以上 | 1 回以下 |
RMTAN → らむたん で覚える R:respiratory M:movement T:tone A:amniotic N:NST
BPS | 評価 | |
8 ~ 10 | 正常 | ・1 週ごとに再検(8:羊水量が少なければ分娩) |
6 | 胎児ジストレスの疑い | ・成熟胎児であれば分娩 |
・未熟胎児であれば24 時間以内に再検し6 点以下であれば分娩 | ||
・羊水量が少なければ分娩 | ||
4 | 胎児ジストレスを強く疑う | ・分娩 |
0 ~ 2 | 胎児ジストレスはほぼ確実 | ・分娩 |
.