チトクロムc、シトクロムc

関: cytochrome c

WordNet

the 3rd letter of the Roman alphabet (同)c
(music) the keynote of the scale of C major
a general-purpose programing language closely associated with the UNIX operating system

PrepTutorEJDIC

carbonの化学記号
case[s]

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/09/16 16:26:28」(JST)

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The cytochrome complex, or cyt c is a small hemeprotein found loosely associated with the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. It belongs to the cytochrome c family of proteins. Cytochrome c is highly water-soluble, unlike other cytochromes, and is an essential component of the electron transport chain, where it carries one electron. It is capable of undergoing oxidation and reduction, but does not bind oxygen. It transfers electrons between Complexes III (Coenzyme Q – Cyt C reductase) and IV (Cyt C oxidase). In humans, cytochrome c is encoded by the CYCS gene.^[4]^[5]

1 Species distribution
2 Structure
- 2.1 Classes
- 2.2 Heme c
- 2.3 Dipole moment
3 Function
- 3.1 Role in apoptosis
- 3.2 Inhibition of apoptosis
- 3.3 As an antioxidative enzyme
4 Extramitochondrial localization
5 Applications
- 5.1 Superoxide detection
- 5.2 Low-level laser therapy
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

Species distribution

Cytochrome c is a highly conserved protein across the spectrum of species, found in plants, animals, and many unicellular organisms. This, along with its small size (molecular weight about 12,000 daltons),^[6] makes it useful in studies of cladistics.^[7] The cytochrome c molecule has been studied for the glimpse it gives into evolutionary biology.

Its primary structure consists of a chain of about 100 amino acids. Many higher-order organisms possess a chain of 104 amino acids.^[8] The sequences of cytochrome c in humans is identical to that of chimpanzees (our closest relatives), but differs more from that of horses.^[9]

Its amino acid sequence is highly conserved in eukaryotes, differing by only a few residues. In more than thirty species, 34 of the 104 amino acids are conserved; identical at that position.^[10] For example, human cytochrome oxidase reacts with wheat cytochrome c, in vitro; this is true for all pairs of species tested.^[10] In addition the redox potential of +0.25 volts is the same in all cytochrome c molecules studied.^[10]

Structure

Tunafish cytochrome c crystals (~5 mm long) grown by liquid–liquid diffusion under microgravity conditions in outer space.^[11]

All cytochrome c proteins contain a characteristic CXXCH (cysteine-any-any-cysteine-histidine) amino acid motif that binds heme. However, there are four classes of cytochrome c, each possessing a different fold.^[12]

Classes

In 1991 R. P. Ambler recognized four classes of cytochrome c:^[13]

Class I includes the lowspin soluble cytochrome c of mitochondria and bacteria. It has the heme-attachment site towards the N terminus of histidine and the sixth ligand provided by a methionine residue towards the C terminus.
Class II includes the highspin cytochrome c'. It has the heme-attachment site closed to the N terminus of histidine.
Class III comprises the low redox potential multiple-heme cytochromes. The heme c groups are structurally and functionally nonequivalent and present different redox potentials in the range 0 to −400 mV.
Class IV was originally created to hold the complex proteins that have other prosthetic groups as well as heme c.

Heme c

Structure of heme c

While most heme proteins are attached to the prosthetic group through iron ion ligation and tertiary interactions, the heme group of cytochrome c makes thioether bonds with two cysteine side chains of the protein.^[14] One of the main properties of heme c, which allows cytochrome c to have variety of functions, is its ability to have different reduction potentials in nature. This property determines the kinetics and thermodynamics of an electron transfer reaction.^[15]

Dipole moment

The dipole moment has an important role in orienting proteins to the proper directions and enhancing their abilities to bind to other molecules.^[16]^[17] The dipole moment of cytochrome c is a result from a cluster of negatively charged amino acid side chains at the "back" of the enzyme.^[17] Despite variations in the number of bound heme groups and variations in sequence, the dipole moment of vertebrate cytochromes c is remarkably conserved. For examples, vertebrate cytochromes c all have dipole moment of approximately 320 debye while cytochromes c of plants and insects have dipole moment of approximately 340 debye.^[17]

Function

Cytochrome c is a component of the electron transport chain in mitochondria. The heme group of cytochrome c accepts electrons from the bc₁ complex and transfers electrons to the complex IV. Cytochrome c is also involved in initiation of apoptosis. Upon release of cytochrome c to the cytoplasm, the protein binds apoptotic protease activating factor-1 (Apaf-1).^[4]

Cytochrome c can also catalyze several redox reactions such as hydroxylation and aromatic oxidation, and shows peroxidase activity by oxidation of various electron donors such as 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), 2-keto-4-thiomethyl butyric acid and 4-aminoantipyrine.

A bacterial cytochrome c functions as a nitrite reductase.^[18]

Role in apoptosis

Cytochrome c is also an intermediate in apoptosis, a controlled form of cell death used to kill cells in the process of development or in response to infection or DNA damage.^[19]

Cytochrome c binds to cardiolipin in the inner mitochondrial membrane, thus anchoring its presence and keeping it from releasing out of the mitochondria and initiating apoptosis. While the initial attraction between cardiolipin and cytochrome c is electrostatic due to the extreme positive charge on cytochrome c, the final interaction is hydrophobic, where a hydrophobic tail from cardiolipin inserts itself into the hydrophobic portion of cytochrome c.

During the early phase of apoptosis, mitochondrial ROS production is stimulated, and cardiolipin is oxidized by a peroxidase function of the cardiolipin–cytochrome c complex. The hemoprotein is then detached from the mitochondrial inner membrane and can be extruded into the soluble cytoplasm through pores in the outer membrane.^[20]

The sustained elevation in calcium levels precedes cyt c release from the mitochondria. The release of small amounts of cyt c leads to an interaction with the IP3 receptor (IP3R) on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), causing ER calcium release. The overall increase in calcium triggers a massive release of cyt c, which then acts in the positive feedback loop to maintain ER calcium release through the IP3Rs.^[21] This explains how the ER calcium release can reach cytotoxic levels. This release of cytochrome c in turn activates caspase 9, a cysteine protease. Caspase 9 can then go on to activate caspase 3 and caspase 7, which are responsible for destroying the cell from within.

Inhibition of apoptosis

One of the ways cell apoptosis is activated is by release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria into cytosol. A study has shown that cells are able to protect themselves from apoptosis by blocking the release of cytochrome c using Bcl-x_L.^[22] Another way that cells can control apoptosis is by phosphorylation of Tyr48 which would turn cytochrome c into an anti-apoptotic switch.^[23]

As an antioxidative enzyme

Removal of O^2- and H₂O₂ by cytochrome c

Cytochrome c is known to play a role in the electron transport chain and cell apoptosis. However, a recent study has shown that it can also act as an antioxidative enzyme in the mitochondria; and it does so by removing superoxide (O₂^–) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) from mitochondria.^[24] Therefore, not only is cytochrome c required in the mitochondria for cell respiration, but it is also needed in the mitochondria to limit the production of O^2- and H₂O₂.^[24]

Extramitochondrial localization

Cytochrome c is widely believed to be localized solely in the mitochondrial intermembrane space under normal physiological conditions.^[25] The release of cytochrome-c from mitochondria to the cytosol, where it activates the caspase family of proteases is believed to be primary trigger leading to the onset of apoptosis.^[26] Measuring the amount of cytochrome c leaking from mitochondria to cytosol, and out of the cell to culture medium, is a sensitive method to monitor the degree of apoptosis.^[27]^[28] However, detailed immunoelectron microscopic studies with rat tissues sections employing cytochrome c-specific antibodies provide compelling evidence that cytochrome-c under normal cellular conditions is also present at extramitochondrial locations.^[29] In pancreatic acinar cells and the anterior pituitary, strong and specific presence of cytochrome-c was detected in zymogen granules and in growth hormone granules respectively. In the pancreas, cytochrome-c was also found in condensing vacuoles and in the acinar lumen. The extramitochondrial localization of cytochrome c was shown to be specific as it was completely abolished upon adsorption of the primary antibody with the purified cytochrome c.^[29] The presence of cytochrome-c outside of mitochondria at specific location under normal physiological conditions raises important questions concerning its cellular function and translocation mechanism.^[29] Besides cytochrome c, extramitochondrial localization has also been observed for large numbers of other proteins including those encoded by mitochondrial DNA.^[30]^[31]^[32] This raises the possibility about existence of yet-unidentified specific mechanisms for protein translocation from mitochondria to other cellular destinations.^[32]^[33]

Applications

Superoxide detection

Peroxynitrous acid

Cytochrome c has been used to detect peroxide production in biological systems. Throughout this process the number of cytochrome c³⁺ being reduced to cytochrome c²⁺ quantitatively shows the amount of superoxide being produced.^[34] However, superoxide is often produced with nitric oxide. In the presence of nitric oxide, the reduction of cytochrome c³⁺ is inhibited.^[35] This leads to the oxidization of cytochrome c²⁺ to cytochrome c³⁺ by peroxynitrous acid, an intermediate made through the reaction of nitric oxide and superoxide.^[35] Presence of peroxynitrite, H₂O₂, or nitrogen dioxide NO₂ in the mitochondria can be lethal since they nitrate tyrosine residues of cytochrome c which leads to disruption of cytochrome c’s function as an electron carrier in the electron transfer chain.^[36]

Low-level laser therapy

Cytochrome c is suspected to be the functional complex in so called LLLT: Low-level laser therapy. In LLLT, red light and some near infra-red wavelengths penetrate tissue in order to increase cellular regeneration. Light of this wavelength appears capable of increasing activity of cytochrome c, thus increasing metabolic activity and freeing up more energy for the cells to repair the tissue.^[37]

References

^ "chibi.ubc.ca/Gemma/phenotypes.html?phenotypeUrlId=DOID_10652&geneId=283904".
^ "Human PubMed Reference:".
^ "Mouse PubMed Reference:".
^ ^a ^b "Entrez Gene: cytochrome c".
^ Tafani M, Karpinich NO, Hurster KA, Pastorino JG, Schneider T, Russo MA, Farber JL (Mar 2002). "Cytochrome c release upon Fas receptor activation depends on translocation of full-length bid and the induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 277 (12): 10073–82. doi:10.1074/jbc.M111350200. PMID 11790791.
^ "Cytochrome c – Homo sapiens (Human)". P99999. UniProt Consortium. mass is 11,749 Daltons
^ Margoliash E (Oct 1963). "Primary structure and evolution of cytochrome c". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 50 (4): 672–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.50.4.672. PMC 221244. PMID 14077496.
^ Amino acid sequences in cytochrome c proteins from different species, adapted from Strahler, Arthur; Science and Earth History, 1997. page 348.
^ Lurquin PF, Stone L, Cavalli-Sforza LL (2007). Genes, culture, and human evolution: a synthesis. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-4051-5089-7.
^ ^a ^b ^c Stryer L (1975). Biochemistry (1st ed.). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-7167-0174-3.
^ McPherson A, Delucas LJ (2015). "Microgravity protein crystallization". Npj Microgravity. 1: 15010. doi:10.1038/npjmgrav.2015.10.
^ Mavridou DA, Ferguson SJ, Stevens JM (2013). "Cytochrome c assembly". IUBMB Life. 65 (3): 209–16. doi:10.1002/iub.1123. PMID 23341334.
^ Ambler RP (May 1991). "Sequence variability in bacterial cytochromes c". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1058 (1): 42–7. doi:10.1016/S0005-2728(05)80266-X. PMID 1646017.
^ Kang X, Carey J (Nov 1999). "Role of heme in structural organization of cytochrome c probed by semisynthesis". Biochemistry. 38 (48): 15944–51. doi:10.1021/bi9919089. PMID 10625461.
^ Zhao Y, Wang ZB, Xu JX (Jan 2003). "Effect of cytochrome c on the generation and elimination of O₂^– and H₂O₂ in mitochondria". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 278 (4): 2356–60. doi:10.1074/jbc.M209681200. PMID 12435729.
^ Koppenol WH, Margoliash E (Apr 1982). "The asymmetric distribution of charges on the surface of horse cytochrome c. Functional implications". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 257 (8): 4426–37. PMID 6279635.
^ ^a ^b ^c Koppenol WH, Rush JD, Mills JD, Margoliash E (Jul 1991). "The dipole moment of cytochrome c". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 8 (4): 545–58. PMID 1656165.
^ Schneider J, Kroneck PM (2014). "Chapter 9: The Production of Ammonia by Multiheme Cytochromes c". In Kroneck PM, Torres ME. The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 14. Springer. pp. 211–236. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_9.
^ Liu X, Kim CN, Yang J, Jemmerson R, Wang X (Jul 1996). "Induction of apoptotic program in cell-free extracts: requirement for dATP and cytochrome c". Cell. 86 (1): 147–57. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80085-9. PMID 8689682.
^ Orrenius S, Zhivotovsky B (Sep 2005). "Cardiolipin oxidation sets cytochrome c free". Nature Chemical Biology. 1 (4): 188–9. doi:10.1038/nchembio0905-188. PMID 16408030.
^ Boehning D, Patterson RL, Sedaghat L, Glebova NO, Kurosaki T, Snyder SH (Dec 2003). "Cytochrome c binds to inositol (1,4,5) trisphosphate receptors, amplifying calcium-dependent apoptosis". Nature Cell Biology. 5 (12): 1051–61. doi:10.1038/ncb1063. PMID 14608362.
^ Kharbanda S, Pandey P, Schofield L, Israels S, Roncinske R, Yoshida K, Bharti A, Yuan ZM, Saxena S, Weichselbaum R, Nalin C, Kufe D (Jun 1997). "Role for Bcl-xL as an inhibitor of cytosolic cytochrome C accumulation in DNA damage-induced apoptosis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94 (13): 6939–42. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.13.6939. PMC 21263. PMID 9192670.
^ García-Heredia JM, Díaz-Quintana A, Salzano M, Orzáez M, Pérez-Payá E, Teixeira M, De la Rosa MA, Díaz-Moreno I (Dec 2011). "Tyrosine phosphorylation turns alkaline transition into a biologically relevant process and makes human cytochrome c behave as an anti-apoptotic switch". Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry. 16 (8): 1155–68. doi:10.1007/s00775-011-0804-9. PMID 21706253.
^ ^a ^b Bowman SE, Bren KL (Dec 2008). "The chemistry and biochemistry of heme c: functional bases for covalent attachment". Natural Product Reports. 25 (6): 1118–30. doi:10.1039/b717196j. PMC 2654777. PMID 19030605.
^ Neupert W (1997). "Protein import into mitochondria". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 66: 863–917. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.66.1.863. PMID 9242927.
^ Kroemer G, Dallaporta B, Resche-Rigon M (1998). "The mitochondrial death/life regulator in apoptosis and necrosis". Annual Review of Physiology. 60: 619–42. doi:10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.619. PMID 9558479.
^ Loo JF, Lau PM, Ho HP, Kong SK (Oct 2013). "An aptamer-based bio-barcode assay with isothermal recombinase polymerase amplification for cytochrome-c detection and anti-cancer drug screening". Talanta. 115: 159–65. doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2013.04.051. PMID 24054573.
^ Waterhouse NJ, Trapani JA (Jul 2003). "A new quantitative assay for cytochrome c release in apoptotic cells". Cell Death and Differentiation. 10 (7): 853–5. doi:10.1038/sj.cdd.4401263. PMID 12815469.
^ ^a ^b ^c Soltys BJ, Andrews DW, Jemmerson R, Gupta RS (2001). "Cytochrome-C localizes in secretory granules in pancreas and anterior pituitary". Cell Biology International. 25 (4): 331–8. doi:10.1006/cbir.2000.0651. PMID 11319839.
^ Gupta RS, Ramachandra NB, Bowes T, Singh B (2008). "Unusual cellular disposition of the mitochondrial molecular chaperones Hsp60, Hsp70 and Hsp10". Novartis Foundation Symposium. Novartis Foundation Symposia. 291: 59–68; discussion 69–73, 137–40. doi:10.1002/9780470754030.ch5. ISBN 978-0-470-75403-0. PMID 18575266.
^ Sadacharan SK, Singh B, Bowes T, Gupta RS (Nov 2005). "Localization of mitochondrial DNA encoded cytochrome c oxidase subunits I and II in rat pancreatic zymogen granules and pituitary growth hormone granules". Histochemistry and Cell Biology. 124 (5): 409–21. doi:10.1007/s00418-005-0056-2. PMID 16133117.
^ ^a ^b Soltys BJ, Gupta RS (2000). "Mitochondrial proteins at unexpected cellular locations: export of proteins from mitochondria from an evolutionary perspective". International Review of Cytology. International Review of Cytology. 194: 133–96. doi:10.1016/s0074-7696(08)62396-7. ISBN 978-0-12-364598-2. PMID 10494626.
^ Soltys BJ, Gupta RS (May 1999). "Mitochondrial-matrix proteins at unexpected locations: are they exported?". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 24 (5): 174–7. doi:10.1016/s0968-0004(99)01390-0. PMID 10322429.
^ McCord JM, Fridovich I (Nov 1969). "Superoxide dismutase. An enzymic function for erythrocuprein (hemocuprein)". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 244 (22): 6049–55. PMID 5389100.
^ ^a ^b Thomson L, Trujillo M, Telleri R, Radi R (Jun 1995). "Kinetics of cytochrome c²⁺ oxidation by peroxynitrite: implications for superoxide measurements in nitric oxide-producing biological systems". Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 319 (2): 491–7. doi:10.1006/abbi.1995.1321. PMID 7786032.
^ Domazou AS, Gebicka L, Didik J, Gebicki JL, van der Meijden B, Koppenol WH (Apr 2014). "The kinetics of the reaction of nitrogen dioxide with iron(II)- and iron(III) cytochrome c". Free Radical Biology & Medicine. 69: 172–80. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.01.014. PMID 24447894.
^ Karu TI, Pyatibrat LV, Afanasyeva NI (Apr 2005). "Cellular effects of low power laser therapy can be mediated by nitric oxide". Lasers in Surgery and Medicine. 36 (4): 307–14. doi:10.1002/lsm.20148. PMID 15739174.

External links

The Cytochrome c Protein
Apoptosis & Caspase 3 – PMAP The Proteolysis Map-animation
UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-78 – Calculated orientations of cytochromes c in the lipid bilayer
Cytochrome c at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

BMP-2 Induced Expression of PLCβ1 That is a Positive Regulator of Osteoblast Differentiation.

Ramazzotti G1, Bavelloni A2,3, Blalock W4, Piazzi M1, Cocco L1, Faenza I1.
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Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) is a critical growth factor that directs osteoblast differentiation and bone formation. Phosphoinositide-phospholipase Cβ 1 (PLCβ1) plays a crucial role in the initiation of the genetic program responsible for muscle differentiation. Differentiation of C2C12 mo
PMID 26217938

Analysis of CDK Inhibitor Action on Mitochondria-Mediated Apoptosis.

Gortat A1.
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The role of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKIs) is to negatively regulate cyclin-dependent kinases as a mechanism of control of cell proliferation. As such, CDKIs are being used to induce apoptosis in cancer cells to prevent their excessive reproduction. This chapter describes procedures to s
PMID 26231711

Molecularly imprinted upconversion nanoparticles for highly selective and sensitive sensing of Cytochrome c.

Guo T1, Deng Q1, Fang G1, Liu C1, Huang X1, Wang S2.
Biosensors & bioelectronics.Biosens Bioelectron.2015 Dec 15;74:498-503. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.06.058. Epub 2015 Jun 30.
A novel method combined the high selectivity of molecular imprinting technology with the strong fluorescence property of upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) for sensing of Cytochrome c (Cyt c) was proposed. The molecularly imprinted material-coated upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs@MIP) were obtained
PMID 26176210

Japanese Journal

Characterization of the Cytochrome c Membrane-Binding Site Using Cardiolipin-Containing Bicelles with NMR

2016-10-10
NAID 120005850423

The N-terminal sequence of the extrinsic PsbP protein modulates the redox potential of Cyt b559 in photosystem II

Scientific Reports 6, 2016-02-18
NAID 120005818272

豚肉中のミオグロビン，ヘモグロビンならびにシトクロムcの同時定量法の検討

日本養豚学会誌 53(1), 10-16, 2016
NAID 130005156619

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「シトクロムc」
拡張検索	「cytochrome b5 reductase」「immunocytochemical」「cytochrome P-450 CYP3A」「acute myeloblastic leukemia, with granulocytic maturation」
関連記事	「C」「Cyt」「c」「cyt」

「シトクロムc」

CYCS
Available structures
PDB	Ortholog search: PDBe RCSB
List of PDB id codes
	1J3S, 3NWV, 3ZCF, 3ZOO, 2N9J, 2N9I
Identifiers
Aliases	CYCS, CYC, HCS, THC4, cytochrome c, somatic, Cytochrome c, cyt c
External IDs	OMIM: 123970 MGI: 88578 HomoloGene: 133055 GeneCards: 54205
Genetically Related Diseases
Disease Name	References
Gene ontology
Molecular function	• electron transporter, transferring electrons from CoQH2-cytochrome c reductase complex and cytochrome c oxidase complex activity; • protein serine/threonine phosphatase activity; • metal ion binding; • protein binding; • heme binding; • electron carrier activity;
Cellular component	• cytosol; • mitochondrial intermembrane space; • protein phosphatase type 2A complex; • mitochondrion; • mitochondrial inner membrane; • respiratory chain; • nucleus;
Biological process	• response to reactive oxygen species; • mitochondrion organization; • intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway; • activation of cysteine-type endopeptidase activity involved in apoptotic process by cytochrome c; • cellular respiration; • oxidation-reduction process; • protein dephosphorylation; • mitochondrial electron transport, cytochrome c to oxygen; • apoptotic process; • mitochondrial electron transport, ubiquinol to cytochrome c;
	Sources:Amigo / QuickGO
RNA expression pattern
	More reference expression data
Orthologs
	54205
	13063
	ENSG00000172115
	ENSMUSG00000063694
	P99999
	P62897
	NM_018947
	NM_007808
	NP_061820.1
	NP_031834.1
	Wikidata
View/Edit Human	View/Edit Mouse

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英: cytochrome c、cyt c
同: チトクロムc、シトクロームc、チトクロームc
関: シトクロム、電子伝達系

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