certainly

• adv.

• 確実に、確かに、必ず

関

by all means、certain、convincing、inevitably、necessarily、reliably、secure、sure、surely、undoubtedly

　

WordNet

1. not likely to fail or give way; "the lock was secure"; "a secure foundation"; "a secure hold on her wrist"
2. free from fear or doubt; easy in mind; "he was secure that nothing will be held against him" (同)unafraid, untroubled
3. assure payment of
4. free from danger or risk; "secure from harm"; "his fortune was secure"; "made a secure place for himself in his field"
5. physically secure or dependable; "a sure footing"; "was on sure ground"
6. (of persons) worthy of trust or confidence; "a sure (or trusted) friend" (同)trusted
7. certain not to fail; "a sure hand on the throttle"
8. infallible or unfailing; "a sure (or true) sign of ones commitment"
9. definitely or positively (`sure is sometimes used informally for `surely' (同)certainly, sure, for_sure, for certain, sure_enough, sure_as_shooting
10. causing one to believe the truth of something; "a convincing story"; "a convincing manner"
11. as a highly likely consequence; "we are necessarily bound for federalism in Europe"
12. in an essential manner; "such expenses are necessarily incurred" (同)needfully
13. showing lack of certainty; "he paused uncertainly"
14. established beyond doubt or question; definitely known; "what is certain is that every effect must have a cause"; "it is certain that they were on the bus"; "his fate is certain"; "the date for the invasion is certain"
15. certain to occur; destined or inevitable; "he was certain to fail"; "his fate is certain"; "In this life nothing is certain but death and taxes"- Benjamin Franklin; "he faced certain death"; "sudden but sure regret"; "he is sure to win" (同)sure
16. exercising or taking care great enough to bring assurance; "be certain to disconnect the iron when you are through"; "be sure to lock the doors" (同)sure
17. having or feeling no doubt or uncertainty; confident and assured; "felt certain of success"; "was sure (or certain) she had seen it"; "was very sure in his beliefs"; "sure of her friends" (同)sure
18. reliable in operation or effect; "a quick and certain remedy"; "a sure way to distinguish the two"; "wood dust is a sure sign of termites" (同)sure
19. definite but not specified or identified; "set aside a certain sum each week"; "to a certain degree"; "certain breeds do not make good pets"; "certain members have not paid their dues"; "a certain popular teacher"; "a certain Mrs. Jones"

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 『確かに』,確実;きっと,まちがいなく / 《問い答えて》『承知しました』,いいですとも,もちろん
2. 『安定した』,確実性のある,保証されている / 『安全な』 / 心配(疑い)のない / (土台などが)とっかりした,固定した / 《文》(特に努力して)…‘を'『手に入れる』,獲得する / (危険・被害・損失などから)…‘を'『守る』,保護する《+『名』+『from』(『against』)+『名』》 / (…に)‘を'『固定させる』,しっかり留める《+『名』+『to』+『名』》 / 〈結果など〉‘を'もたらす,確実にする
3. 《補語にのみ用いて》(人が)『確信して』,自信をもって / 《補語にのみ用いて》(物事が)『確実な』 / (修事が)『確固とした』,確実な / (人が)『信頼のおける』,安心のできる / 確かに,全く / (返答で)いいとも,もちろん(certainly)
4. 『確かに』,疑いもなく / 《否定文で用いて》まさか,よもや;《強意に用いて》きっと,絶対に / 着実に,安全に / 《おもに米》(返答で)いいとも,もちろん(certainly)
5. (人を)納得させる,説得力のある
6. 『必ず』,必然的に
7. 確信なく;疑わしく;変わりやすく;ぼんやりと
8. 《補語にのみ用いて》(主語となる人が)『碓信している』,信じて疑わない / (事が)『碓かな』,疑いのない(sure) / 《名詞の前にのみ用いて》ある一定の / 《名詞の前にのみ用いて》(ある程度わかっているがそれ以上ははっきりしない)『ある』…,例の… / 《名詞の前にのみ用いて》いくぶんかの,多少の,ある程度の / (…のうちの)ある人々(もの),いくつか《+『of』++『名』》

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/06/01 21:00:17」(JST)

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For statistical certainty, see Probability. For the film, see Certainty (film).

"Certain" redirects here. For the French footballer, see François Certain.

Part of a series on
Certainty
Agnosticism Approximation Belief Certainty Doubt Determinism Epistemology Fallibilism Fatalism Hypothesis Justification Nihilism Probability Scientific theory Skepticism Solipsism Theory Truth Uncertainty

Certainty is perfect knowledge that has total security from error, or the mental state of being without doubt.

Objectively defined, certainty is total continuity and validity of all foundational inquiry, to the highest degree of precision. Something is certain only if no skepticism can occur. Philosophy (at least, historical Cartesian philosophy) seeks this state.

It is widely held that certainty about the real world is a failed historical enterprise (that is, beyond deductive truths, tautology, etc.). This is in large part due to the power of David Hume's problem of induction. Physicist Carlo Rovelli adds that certainty, in real life, is useless or often damaging (the idea is that "total security from error" is impossible in practice, and a complete "lack of doubt" is undesirable).

History

Pyrrho – ancient Greece

Main article: Pyrrho

Pyrrho is credited as being the first Skeptic philosopher. The main principle of Pyrrho's thought is expressed by the word acatalepsia, which denotes the ability to withhold assent from doctrines regarding the truth of things in their own nature; against every statement its contradiction may be advanced with equal justification. Secondly, it is necessary in view of this fact to preserve an attitude of intellectual suspense, or, as Timon expressed it, no assertion can be known to be better than another.

Al-Ghazali – Islamic theologian

Main article: Al-Ghazali

Al-Ghazali was a professor of philosophy in the 11th century. His book titled The Incoherence of the Philosophers marks a major turn in Islamic epistemology, as Ghazali effectively discovered philosophical skepticism that would not be commonly seen in the West until Averroes, René Descartes, George Berkeley and David Hume. He described the necessity of proving the validity of reason—independently from reason. He attempted this and failed. The doubt that he introduced to his foundation of knowledge could not be reconciled using philosophy. Taking this very seriously, he resigned from his post at the university, and suffered serious psychosomatic illness. It was not until he became a religious sufi that he found a solution to his philosophical problems, which are based on Islamic religion; this encounter with skepticism led Ghazali to embrace a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God.

Ibn-Rushd - Averroes

Main article: Ibn Rushd

Latinized name Averroës

Averroes was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against Ash'ari theologians led by Al-Ghazali. Averroes' philosophy was considered controversial in Muslim circles. Averroes had a greater impact on Western European circles and he has been described as the "founding father of secular thought in Western Europe".

Descartes – 17th century

Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy is a book in which Descartes first discards all belief in things which are not absolutely certain, and then tries to establish what can be known for sure. Although the phrase "Cogito, ergo sum" is often attributed to Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy, it is actually put forward in his Discourse on Method. Due to the implications of inferring the conclusion within the predicate, however, he changed the argument to "I think, I exist"; this then became his first certainty.

Ludwig Wittgenstein – 20th century

On Certainty is a series of notes made by Ludwig Wittgenstein just prior to his death. The main theme of the work is that context plays a role in epistemology. Wittgenstein asserts an anti-foundationalist message throughout the work: that every claim can be doubted but certainty is possible in a framework. "The function [propositions] serve in language is to serve as a kind of framework within which empirical propositions can make sense".

Degrees of certainty

See also: Inductive reasoning, Probability interpretations and Philosophy of statistics

Physicist Lawrence M. Krauss suggests that identifying degrees of certainty is under-appreciated in various domains, including policy making and the understanding of science. This is because different goals require different degrees of certainty—and politicians are not always aware of (or do not make it clear) how much certainty we are working with.

Rudolf Carnap viewed certainty as a matter of degree (degrees of certainty) which could be objectively measured, with degree one being certainty. Bayesian analysis derives degrees of certainty which are interpreted as a measure of subjective psychological belief.

Alternatively, one might use the legal degrees of certainty. These standards of evidence ascend as follows: no credible evidence, some credible evidence, a preponderance of evidence, clear and convincing evidence, beyond reasonable doubt, and beyond any shadow of a doubt (i.e. undoubtable—recognized as an impossible standard to meet—which serves only to terminate the list).

Foundational crisis of mathematics

Main article: Foundations of mathematics

The foundational crisis of mathematics was the early 20th century's term for the search for proper foundations of mathematics.

After several schools of the philosophy of mathematics ran into difficulties one after the other in the 20th century, the assumption that mathematics had any foundation that could be stated within mathematics itself began to be heavily challenged.

One attempt after another to provide unassailable foundations for mathematics was found to suffer from various paradoxes (such as Russell's paradox) and to be inconsistent.

Various schools of thought on the right approach to the foundations of mathematics were fiercely opposing each other. The leading school was that of the formalist approach, of which David Hilbert was the foremost proponent, culminating in what is known as Hilbert's program, which sought to ground mathematics on a small basis of a formal system proved sound by metamathematical finitistic means. The main opponent was the intuitionist school, led by L.E.J. Brouwer, which resolutely discarded formalism as a meaningless game with symbols. The fight was acrimonious. In 1920 Hilbert succeeded in having Brouwer, whom he considered a threat to mathematics, removed from the editorial board of Mathematische Annalen, the leading mathematical journal of the time.

Gödel's incompleteness theorems, proved in 1931, showed that essential aspects of Hilbert's program could not be attained. In Gödel's first result he showed how to construct, for any sufficiently powerful and consistent finitely axiomatizable system—such as necessary to axiomatize the elementary theory of arithmetic—a statement that can be shown to be true, but that does not follow from the rules of the system. It thus became clear that the notion of mathematical truth can not be reduced to a purely formal system as envisaged in Hilbert's program. In a next result Gödel showed that such a system was not powerful enough for proving its own consistency, let alone that a simpler system could do the job. This dealt a final blow to the heart of Hilbert's program, the hope that consistency could be established by finitistic means (it was never made clear exactly what axioms were the "finitistic" ones, but whatever axiomatic system was being referred to, it was a weaker system than the system whose consistency it was supposed to prove). Meanwhile, the intuitionistic school had failed to attract adherents among working mathematicians, and floundered due to the difficulties of doing mathematics under the constraint of constructivism.

In a sense, the crisis has not been resolved, but faded away: most mathematicians either do not work from axiomatic systems, or if they do, do not doubt the consistency of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, generally their preferred axiomatic system. In most of mathematics as it is practiced, the various logical paradoxes never played a role anyway, and in those branches in which they do (such as logic and category theory), they may be avoided.

Quotes

“ Doubt is not a pleasant condition, but certainty is absurd. ”  

— Voltaire

“ In this world nothing can be said to be certain, except death and taxes. ”  

— Benjamin Franklin

“ There is no such thing as absolute certainty, but there is assurance sufficient for the purposes of human life. ”  

— John Stuart Mill

“ If you tried to doubt everything you would not get as far as doubting anything. The game of doubting itself presupposes certainty. ”  

— Ludwig Wittgenstein #115 from On Certainty

See also

• Uncertainty
• Almost surely
• Fideism
• Gut feeling
• Infallibility
• Justified true belief
• Neuroethological innate behavior, instinct
• Pascal's Wager
• Pragmatism
• Skeptical hypothesis
• As contrary concepts
  • Fallibilism
  • Indeterminism
  • Multiverse

References

External links

•  "Certitude". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. 
• certainty, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Bartleby.com
• "certainty vs. doubt". About.com. Retrieved 2008-02-23. 
• Certainty entry by Baron Reed in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• certainty.co.uk – The UK's National Will Register

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Related Links

• sure, certainly - 英単語の正しい使い分けを勉強してすっきり ...

英単語の正しい使い分けを勉強してすっきり英会話 単語の使い分けは中級への登竜門 ニュアンスの違いを ... トップ ＞ 副 詞 ＞ sure, certainly sure, certainly「いいよ」意味の違い、使い分け 何かを依頼されたり頼まれたりしたとき ...

• certainlyの意味・用例｜英辞郎 on the WEB：アルク

certainly 【副】 確実に、確かに、必ず【文例】【文例】 その通り、もちろんで... - アルクがお届けする進化するオンライン英和・和英辞書データベース。一般的な単語や連語から、イディオム、専門用語、スラングまで幅広く収録。

Related Pictures

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「convincing」「inevitably」「確か」「reliably」「necessarily」
拡張検索	「uncertainly」
関連記事	「certain」

「convincing」

　　[★]

• adj.

• 説得力のある、うなづける、なるほどと思わせる

関

convince, convincingly, convincingness

関

authentic、certain、certainly、conclusive、conclusively、confirmatory、powerful、reliably、sure、surely

　 　

「inevitably」

　　[★]

• adv.

• 回避不能で、必然的に、必ず

関

by all means、causal、causally、certainly、inescapable、inevitable、necessarily、necessary、surely

　 　

「確か」

　　[★]

英

certain、sure、convincing、certainly、reliably、surely

関

ある、確証的、確信、必ず、信頼、いくらか、確実、有力

「reliably」

　　[★]

• adv.

• 確かに、信頼して

関

certain、certainly、confidence、convincing、credibility、faith、rely、sure、surely、trust

　

「necessarily」

　　[★]

• adv.

• 必然的に、必ず

関

by all means、causal、causally、certainly、inevitable、inevitably、necessary、surely

　 　 　

「uncertainly」

　　[★]

• adv.

• 不確かに、不確定に

関

equivocal、inconclusive、indefinite、indefinitely、uncertain、unclear、unclearly

　 　

「certain」

　　[★]

• adj.

• 確信して、確実な、確かな、ある、いくらかの

関

certainly、certainty、confidence、confident、convince、convincing、exist、present、reliably、secure、some、somewhat、sure、surely、to some extent、undoubtedly