reality

• 現実性、現実

関

practically、real、really、substantive

　 　 　 　

WordNet

1. the state of being actual or real; "the reality of his situation slowly dawned on him" (同)realness, realism
2. the state of the world as it really is rather than as you might want it to be; "businessmen have to face harsh realities"
3. the quality possessed by something that is real
4. of, relating to, or representing an amount that is corrected for inflation; "real prices"; "real income"; "real wages"
5. an old small silver Spanish coin
6. the basic unit of money in Brazil; equal to 100 centavos
7. being or occurring in fact or actuality; having verified existence; not illusory; "real objects"; "real people; not ghosts"; "a film based on real life"; "a real illness"; "real humility"; "Life is real! Life is earnest!"- Longfellow (同)existent
8. capable of being treated as fact; "tangible evidence"; "his brief time as Prime Minister brought few real benefits to the poor" (同)tangible
9. (of property) fixed or immovable; "real property consists of land and buildings"
10. no less than what is stated; worthy of the name; "the real reason"; "real war"; "a real friend"; "a real woman"; "meat and potatoes--I call that a real meal"; "its time he had a real job"; "its no penny-ante job--hes making real money"
11. not to be taken lightly; "statistics demonstrate that poverty and unemployment are very real problems"; "to the man sleeping regularly in doorways homelessness is real"
12. in a practical manner; "practically orientated institutions such as business schools"; "a brilliant man but so practically inept that he needed help to cross the road safely"
13. almost; nearly; "practically the first thing I saw when I got off the train"; "he was practically the only guest at the party"; "there was practically no garden at all"
14. defining rights and duties as opposed to giving the rules by which rights and duties are established; "substantive law" (同)essential
15. any word or group of words functioning as a noun
16. the state of being insubstantial or imaginary; not existing objectively or in fact (同)irreality
17. the quality possessed by something that is unreal
18. an occasion on which one is reminded of the nature of things in the real world; "this program is intended as a reality check for CEOs"; "after all those elaborate productions, I felt in need of a reality check"
19. a hypothetical three-dimensional visual world created by a computer; user wears special goggles and fiber optic gloves etc., and can enter and move about in this world and interact with objects as if inside it
20. (psychoanalysis) the governing principle of the ego; the principle that as a child grows it becomes aware of the real environment and the need to accommodate to it

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 〈U〉現実[性],実在 / 〈C〉(個々の)現実,事実,現物
2. (想像でなく)『現実の』,実際の,真実の / (まがいものでなく)『本物の』 / 不動産の / ほんとうに,とても(very)
3. 『実質的には』,『事実上』,ほとんど(almost)・『実際的に』,実用的に,実際的な方法で
4. 名詞;名詞相当語句 / 名詞[相当語句]に用いられた / (動詞が)存在を示す / 現実の,実際の / 独立の,自立の
5. 『実際に』,現実に(actually) / 『本当に』,真に(truly) / 実に,全く / 《間投詞的に》そうですか,おやおや,へえ

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/10/05 14:51:46」(JST)

wiki ja

[Wiki ja表示]

現実（げんじつ、英: Reality, Actuality）は、いま目の前に事実として現れているもののこと。対語は虚構（フィクション）ないし理想。あるいは現実とは、個々の主体によって体験される出来事を、外部から基本的に制約し規定するもの、もしくはそうした出来事の基底となる一次的な場のことである。現実と区別されるのは、嘘や真実を組み合わせてできたものである。

現象と現実

個々の主体によって主観的に経験される現象は、幻想や錯誤や虚構の可能性があるため、ある種の普遍性や必然性をもつ現実とはイコールではない。とはいえ、もしこのようなそれ自体は常識的な立場を推し進めれば、ある現象を現実として認めるための根拠として、主観的な経験が役に立たないということになってしまい、一定の困難が生じる（たとえば荘子の「胡蝶の夢」）。また、根を同じくする問題として、「同じ現実を人々が共有している」ことをいかにして保証するかが懐疑主義的な議論においては問題となる（その根拠付けとしてのたとえばカントの超越論的主観性や物自体）。

そこで現象を現実として規定する主観としての理性や悟性、あるいは複数の人々の経験的現象の一致や、経験的現象それ自体の整合性や性質など、いくつかの基準が提案されてきた。とはいえ、この場合「同一の現実を共有している」とはどのような事態を意味するのか、ということにおいても、意見の一致が見られるわけではない。現実が主観的な経験によって定義されないとすれば、自己の経験している主観的な現実や、それについての言語的な報告の一致によっては、現実の共有を定義なり保障なりすることは難しいからである。

仮想と現実

仮想現実においては、「上位」あるいは「より基底的」とされた現実に対しては、「下位」あるいは「派生的」なシミュレートされた現実は虚構の側面を有することになる。これに対し、バーチャルリアリティ virtual realityという場合の現実は、機能面だけを実現したvirtual companyがあるように、少なくともその本質や効果においては実物と同等の、実質的な現実をあらわす。しかしながら、現実に起こることもある。

仮想と現実について西部邁（評論家）はこう述べている。「リアリティ、つまり「現実性」という言葉がある。仮想性と現実性の関係はどのようなものか。現実とは、長期的に安定している仮想のこと、つまり繰り返して再現される現象のことなのである。つまり、現実性とは、このような特殊な（というより慣習にもとづいているため極度に安定した）形態の仮想性なのだ。たとえば、自分の連れ合いや子供を親密な家族とみなすのは「仮想現実」にすぎない。しかしその仮想現実が日々反復されるなら、家族の人間関係が自分の周りに揺るぎない「現実」として在る、とその人は思うに至るだろう。」

虚構と現実

虚構（フィクション）は、現実ではないものとして「表現された」ものである。

理想と現実

虚構とともに現実と対比される理想は、現実であるべきものとされた虚構であるといっていい。それは原則的にはいまだ現実化していないことと、これから現実化しうるはずのことという二つの条件を持つ。また、派生性な虚構とは異なり、理想は、克服すべき矛盾と捉えられた現実に対する実践を主体に課す。そのため理想の実現に対する障害としての現実が強調される。外的な制約条件である現実は、行為する主体に対する外的な干渉と抵抗という側面に着目した概念でもある。この点、客観的な対象化を前提しており主体を除外した「事実」とは異なる。

言語と現実

言語（あるいは象徴記号）は、事態を、その現実のコンテキストから切り出すことによって独立に対象化するものである。しかし、書かれた言葉は、オリジナルなコンテキストの下でただ一度だけ語られる言葉とは異なり、別のコンスキストの下でも繰り返して引用される。

現実のコンテキストから切り出されることによって対象化された言語的・記号的存在は、別のコンテキストにおいても同一のものとして見出される可能性を獲得する。すなわち、言語的な存在は、再認および反復の可能性をもつ。この可能性は、記号が指示対象を十全に指定しない、言い換えれば情報を切り捨てることによって成り立つものであることに根拠を持つ。

しかし、まさにその特質によって、象徴記号、あるいは言語は、その表現の対象を、現実に成立しうるものだけに限定することができない。まさしく言語化・象徴化それ自身の効果として、記号それ自身、あるいは、文法の内部には、複数の記号の組み合わせが、「現実的」なものかどうかを判断する基準や、制約も、そもそも、その前提となる情報も欠けているからである。（そのためしばしば、このような自由度を持たない、虚偽・虚構を表現できない、理想的な人工言語が西欧においては構想されてきた）

思想史

現実という概念は元来、現世と来世の対立、および現在と過去や未来という対立、そして夢・虚構と現実との対立という、どれも歴史的には宗教的な含意をもっていた対立項に由来すると考えることができる。東洋に於いてはしかし、この「現に」という意味要素が、思想的に着目され、練り上げられることはほとんどなかった。

東洋思想

仏教においては、一切の作られたものとしての現実存在に自己同一的な本質が欠けていることが、諸行無常として説かれており、現実と現象・仮象との対立が否定され、すべてが関係性のなかにおける現象であると規定されたため、仏教的な思惟においては、そうした純粋な関係性である縁起や空が逆説的な意味で現実にあたるものである。だが、それは否定的に規定されたものであるので、現実性が固有の考察の対象にはならなかった。他方で、ままならない現実という側面は、苦や無我（非我）という概念でカバーされる。

中国哲学においては、一般に唯名論的傾向が強く、現象から現実は区別されない。むしろ現象と現実との区別は宗教的領域の問題であった。ことに老荘的な思想にあっては、相対的な個別の認識をこえた万物斉同というものが提出されるのであるが、この場合、個別の主観を超えた現実性というものが想定されているわけではなく、それらの認識の間の相対性が強調された。それに対して朱子学は知識の完成のためには実事求是、現実の世界の対象にあたらなければならない、というテーゼが存在し、主体と現実との対立関係が意識されているといえる。

西洋思想

古代哲学

ギリシア哲学においては、プラトンはこの現象世界を真の実在であるイデア界の影として規定した。すなわち、ちょうど現実と虚構との関係のように、経験される現象世界は、実在する世界であるイデア界の下位の現実であると理解されている。このように、かれは現象世界をすでに派生性をもつ虚構と見ていた。

アリストテレスは可能態（潜勢） dynamisと現実に活動している現実態（現勢） energeiaという様相的区別を考えた上、最高度に現実的であるものは純粋な現実態である神であるとしている。また個物における第一実体と普遍者としての第二実体を区別している。

中世哲学

この区別は、現実存在(existentia)と本質存在(essentia)との区別として継承されていくこととなり、中世哲学においては、普遍論争での唯名論(nominalism)と実念論(realism)との対立として現れている。類的概念の実在性を肯定する実念論では、アダムの犯した罪を全ての人間が負うという原罪の問題は解決される。これに対して唯名論では、類的概念の実在性は否定された。この立場は、のちにイギリス経験論などに継承されていくことになる。

近代哲学

ライプニッツは、各モナドの観点から見た異なった世界は、じつは唯一の現実世界の反映に他ならないとしている。これに対しヴォルテールは、現実世界は可能世界のうちの最善の世界であるとする楽天主義を唱えるパングロス博士を創作して（カンディード）、ライプニッツを揶揄している。

ドイツ観念論においては、唯名論を継承したイギリス経験論に対して、イマヌエル・カントは、さまざまな認識によって異なったように構成されうる現象の背後に要請される物自体という概念を考えた。また判断表においては様相判断としての実然性（現実性）を蓋然性（可能性）と区別した上、様相判断は対象の概念にはなにものも加えず、現実的な100ターレルと可能的な100ターレルとは概念内容は同一ではあるが、ただし我々に対しては異なった意味を有するとした（純粋理性批判）。

このようなカントの議論に対して、ヘーゲルは、カントが可能性・現実性・必然性を様態としたことを批判した上、偶然性にすぎない可能性とは対置されるところの、現実性としてのイデアを示すものとして、アリストテレスの現実態 energeiaの思想を評価している。また「現実的なものは理性的であり理性的なものは現実的である」という言葉を残しており、理念は抽象にすぎないsollenにとどまって現実的でないほど無力なものではないとして、理念と現実とを切り離す思想を退けた。この立場においては偶然的でしかない存在（現象）は、現存在existenzをもってはいるが、現実Wirklichkeitの名には価しないものとされる（小論理学）。

これに対し、後期シェリングの「実存哲学existenzial philosophie」を批判的に継承したキルケゴールでは、むしろ「現実的なものは個別的であり個別的なものは現実的である」と捉えられ、本質存在に対する現実存在（実存 existenz）の優位が説かれる。

現代思想

可能世界論においては、現実世界とは多くの可能世界のなかで私が存在する世界であるとする可能主義（ルイス）と、可能世界とは現実世界でのわれわれが想像した世界であるという現実主義（クリプキ）との対立がある。

脚注

関連項目

• 実在
• 理想
• 虚構
• 夢
• 幻
• 世界観
• 可能世界論
• 仮想世界
• 不条理

外部リンク

• 現実 - コトバンク
• 現実 - Weblio

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

For other uses, see Reality (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Realty.

Reality is the state of things as they actually exist, rather than as they may appear or might be imagined. In a wider definition, reality includes everything that is and has been, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible. A still broader definition includes everything that has existed, exists, or will exist.

Philosophers, mathematicians, and other ancient and modern thinkers, such as Aristotle, Plato, Frege, Wittgenstein, and Russell, have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality, coherent abstractions (thoughts of things that are imaginable but not real), and that which cannot even be rationally thought. By contrast existence is often restricted solely to that which has physical existence or has a direct basis in it in the way that thoughts do in the brain.

Reality is often contrasted with what is imaginary, delusional, (only) in the mind, dreams, what is false, what is fictional, or what is abstract. At the same time, what is abstract plays a role both in everyday life and in academic research. For instance, causality, virtue, life, and distributive justice are abstract concepts that can be difficult to define, but they are only rarely equated with pure delusions. Both the existence and reality of abstractions are in dispute: one extreme position regards them as mere words; another position regards them as higher truths than less abstract concepts. This disagreement is the basis of the philosophical problem of universals.

The truth refers to what is real, while falsity refers to what is not. Fictions are considered not real.

Related concepts

See also: Truth and Fact

World views and theories

Further information: World view

A common colloquial usage would have reality mean "perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes toward reality," as in "My reality is not your reality." This is often used just as a colloquialism indicating that the parties to a conversation agree, or should agree, not to quibble over deeply different conceptions of what is real. For example, in a religious discussion between friends, one might say (attempting humor), "You might disagree, but in my reality, everyone goes to heaven."

Reality can be defined in a way that links it to world views or parts of them (conceptual frameworks): Reality is the totality of all things, structures (actual and conceptual), events (past and present) and phenomena, whether observable or not. It is what a world view (whether it be based on individual or shared human experience) ultimately attempts to describe or map.

Certain ideas from physics, philosophy, sociology, literary criticism, and other fields shape various theories of reality. One such belief is that there simply and literally is no reality beyond the perceptions or beliefs we each have about reality. Such attitudes are summarized in the popular statement, "Perception is reality" or "Life is how you perceive reality" or "reality is what you can get away with" (Robert Anton Wilson), and they indicate anti-realism – that is, the view that there is no objective reality, whether acknowledged explicitly or not.

Many of the concepts of science and philosophy are often defined culturally and socially. This idea was elaborated by Thomas Kuhn in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). The Social Construction of Reality, a book about the sociology of knowledge written by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, was published in 1966. It explained how knowledge is acquired and used for the comprehension of reality. Out of all the realities, the reality of everyday life is the most important one since our consciousness requires us to be completely aware and attentive to the experience of everyday life.

Western philosophy

Philosophy addresses two different aspects of the topic of reality: the nature of reality itself, and the relationship between the mind (as well as language and culture) and reality.

On the one hand, ontology is the study of being, and the central topic of the field is couched, variously, in terms of being, existence, "what is", and reality. The task in ontology is to describe the most general categories of reality and how they are interrelated. If a philosopher wanted to proffer a positive definition of the concept "reality", it would be done under this heading. As explained above, some philosophers draw a distinction between reality and existence. In fact, many analytic philosophers today tend to avoid the term "real" and "reality" in discussing ontological issues. But for those who would treat "is real" the same way they treat "exists", one of the leading questions of analytic philosophy has been whether existence (or reality) is a property of objects. It has been widely held by analytic philosophers that it is not a property at all, though this view has lost some ground in recent decades.

On the other hand, particularly in discussions of objectivity that have feet in both metaphysics and epistemology, philosophical discussions of "reality" often concern the ways in which reality is, or is not, in some way dependent upon (or, to use fashionable jargon, "constructed" out of) mental and cultural factors such as perceptions, beliefs, and other mental states, as well as cultural artifacts, such as religions and political movements, on up to the vague notion of a common cultural world view, or Weltanschauung.

The view that there is a reality independent of any beliefs, perceptions, etc., is called realism. More specifically, philosophers are given to speaking about "realism about" this and that, such as realism about universals or realism about the external world. Generally, where one can identify any class of object, the existence or essential characteristics of which is said not to depend on perceptions, beliefs, language, or any other human artifact, one can speak of "realism about" that object.

One can also speak of anti-realism about the same objects. Anti-realism is the latest in a long series of terms for views opposed to realism. Perhaps the first was idealism, so called because reality was said to be in the mind, or a product of our ideas. Berkeleyan idealism is the view, propounded by the Irish empiricist George Berkeley, that the objects of perception are actually ideas in the mind. In this view, one might be tempted to say that reality is a "mental construct"; this is not quite accurate, however, since in Berkeley's view perceptual ideas are created and coordinated by God. By the 20th century, views similar to Berkeley's were called phenomenalism. Phenomenalism differs from Berkeleyan idealism primarily in that Berkeley believed that minds, or souls, are not merely ideas nor made up of ideas, whereas varieties of phenomenalism, such as that advocated by Russell, tended to go farther to say that the mind itself is merely a collection of perceptions, memories, etc., and that there is no mind or soul over and above such mental events. Finally, anti-realism became a fashionable term for any view which held that the existence of some object depends upon the mind or cultural artifacts. The view that the so-called external world is really merely a social, or cultural, artifact, called social constructionism, is one variety of anti-realism. Cultural relativism is the view that social issues such as morality are not absolute, but at least partially cultural artifact.

A correspondence theory of knowledge about what exists claims that "true" knowledge of reality represents accurate correspondence of statements about and images of reality with the actual reality that the statements or images are attempting to represent. For example, the scientific method can verify that a statement is true based on the observable evidence that a thing exists. Many humans can point to the Rocky Mountains and say that this mountain range exists, and continues to exist even if no one is observing it or making statements about it.

Being

The nature of being is a perennial topic in metaphysics. For, instance Parmenides taught that reality was a single unchanging Being, whereas Heraclitus wrote that all things flow. The 20th century philosopher Heidegger thought previous philosophers have lost sight the question of Being (qua Being) in favour of the questions of beings (existing things), so that a return to the Parmenidean approach was needed. An ontological catalogue is an attempt to list the fundamental constituents of reality. The question of whether or not existence is a predicate has been discussed since the Early Modern period, not least in relation to the ontological argument for the existence of God. Existence, that something is, has been contrasted with essence, the question of what something is. Since existence without essence seems blank, it associated with nothingness by philosophers such as Hegel. Nihilism represents an extremely negative view of being, the absolute a positive one.

Perception

The question of direct or "naïve" realism, as opposed to indirect or "representational" realism, arises in the philosophy of perception and of mind out of the debate over the nature of conscious experience; the epistemological question of whether the world we see around us is the real world itself or merely an internal perceptual copy of that world generated by neural processes in our brain. Naïve realism is known as direct realism when developed to counter indirect or representative realism, also known as epistemological dualism, the philosophical position that our conscious experience is not of the real world itself but of an internal representation, a miniature virtual-reality replica of the world.

Timothy Leary coined the influential term Reality Tunnel, by which he means a kind of representative realism. The theory states that, with a subconscious set of mental filters formed from their beliefs and experiences, every individual interprets the same world differently, hence "Truth is in the eye of the beholder". His ideas influenced the work of his friend Robert Anton Wilson.

Abstract objects and mathematics

The status of abstract entities, particularly numbers, is a topic of discussion in mathematics.

In the philosophy of mathematics, the best known form of realism about numbers is Platonic realism, which grants them abstract, immaterial existence. Other forms of realism identify mathematics with the concrete physical universe.

Anti-realist stances include formalism and fictionalism.

Some approaches are selectively realistic about some mathematical objects but not others. Finitism rejects infinite quantities. Ultra-finitism accepts finite quantities up to a certain amount. Constructivism and intuitionism are realistic about objects that can be explicitly constructed, but reject the use of the principle of the excluded middle to prove existence by reductio ad absurdum.

The traditional debate has focused on whether an abstract (immaterial, intelligible) realm of numbers has existed in addition to the physical (sensible, concrete) world. A recent development is the mathematical universe hypothesis, the theory that only a mathematical world exists, with the finite, physical world being an illusion within it.

An extreme form of realism about mathematics is the mathematical multiverse hypothesis advanced by Max Tegmark. Tegmark's sole postulate is: All structures that exist mathematically also exist physically. That is, in the sense that "in those [worlds] complex enough to contain self-aware substructures [they] will subjectively perceive themselves as existing in a physically 'real' world". The hypothesis suggests that worlds corresponding to different sets of initial conditions, physical constants, or altogether different equations should be considered real. The theory can be considered a form of Platonism in that it posits the existence of mathematical entities, but can also be considered a mathematical monism in that it denies that anything exists except mathematical objects.

Properties

Main article: Problem of universals

The problem of universals is an ancient problem in metaphysics about whether universals exist. Universals are general or abstract qualities, characteristics, properties, kinds or relations, such as being male/female, solid/liquid/gas or a certain colour, that can be predicated of individuals or particulars or that individuals or particulars can be regarded as sharing or participating in. For example, Scott, Pat, and Chris have in common the universal quality of being human or humanity.

The realist school claims that universals are real – they exist and are distinct from the particulars that instantiate them. There are various forms of realism. Two major forms are Platonic realism and Aristotelian realism. Platonic realism is the view that universals are real entities and they exist independent of particulars. Aristotelian realism, on the other hand, is the view that universals are real entities, but their existence is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them.

Nominalism and conceptualism are the main forms of anti-realism about universals.

Time and space

Main article: Philosophy of space and time

A traditional realist position in ontology is that time and space have existence apart from the human mind. Idealists deny or doubt the existence of objects independent of the mind. Some anti-realists whose ontological position is that objects outside the mind do exist, nevertheless doubt the independent existence of time and space.

Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori notion that, together with other a priori notions such as space, allows us to comprehend sense experience. Kant denies that either space or time are substance, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds rather that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of) events. Although space and time are held to be transcendentally ideal in this sense, they are also empirically real, i.e. not mere illusions.

Idealist writers such as J. M. E. McTaggart in The Unreality of Time have argued that time is an illusion.

As well as differing about the reality of time as a whole, metaphysical theories of time can differ in their ascriptions of reality to the past, present and future separately.

• Presentism holds that the past and future are unreal, and only an ever changing present is real.
• The block universe theory, also known as Eternalism, holds that past, present and future are all real, but the passage of time is an illusion. It is often said to have a scientific basis in relativity.
• The growing block universe theory holds that past and present are real, but the future is not.

Time, and the related concepts of process and evolution are central to the system-building metaphysics of A. N. Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne.

Possible worlds

The term "possible world" goes back to Leibniz's theory of possible worlds, used to analyse necessity, possibility, and similar modal notions. Modal realism is the view, notably propounded by David Kellogg Lewis, that all possible worlds are as real as the actual world. In short: the actual world is regarded as merely one among an infinite set of logically possible worlds, some "nearer" to the actual world and some more remote. Other theorists may use the Possible World framework to express and explore problems without committing to it ontologically. Possible world theory is related to alethic logic: a proposition is necessary if it is true in all possible worlds, and possible if it is true in at least one. The many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics is a similar idea in science.

Theories of everything (TOE) and philosophy

Main article: Theory of everything (philosophy)

The philosophical implications of a physical TOE are frequently debated. For example, if philosophical physicalism is true, a physical TOE will coincide with a philosophical theory of everything.

The "system building" style of metaphysics attempts to answer all the important questions in a coherent way, providing a complete picture of the world. Plato and Aristotle could be said to be early examples of comprehensive systems. In the early modern period (17th and 18th centuries), the system-building scope of philosophy is often linked to the ratioanlist method of philosophy,that is the technique of deducing the nature of the world by pure a priori reason. Examples from the early modern period include the Leibniz's Monadology, Descartes's Dualism, Spinoza's Monism. Hegel's Absolute idealism and Whitehead's Process philosophy were later systems.

Other philosophers do not believe its techniques can aim so high. Some scientists think a more mathematical approach than philosophy is needed for a TOE, for instance Stephen Hawking wrote in A Brief History of Time that even if we had a TOE, it would necessarily be a set of equations. He wrote, "What is it that breathes fire into the equations and makes a universe for them to describe?".

Phenomenological reality

On a much broader and more subjective level, private experiences, curiosity, inquiry, and the selectivity involved in personal interpretation of events shapes reality as seen by one and only one individual and hence is called phenomenological. While this form of reality might be common to others as well, it could at times also be so unique to oneself as to never be experienced or agreed upon by anyone else. Much of the kind of experience deemed spiritual occurs on this level of reality.

Phenomenology is a philosophical method developed in the early years of the twentieth century by Edmund Husserl and a circle of followers at the universities of Göttingen and Munich in Germany. Subsequently, phenomenological themes were taken up by philosophers in France, the United States, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's work.

The word phenomenology comes from the Greek phainómenon, meaning "that which appears", and lógos, meaning "study". In Husserl's conception, phenomenology is primarily concerned with making the structures of consciousness, and the phenomena which appear in acts of consciousness, objects of systematic reflection and analysis. Such reflection was to take place from a highly modified "first person" viewpoint, studying phenomena not as they appear to "my" consciousness, but to any consciousness whatsoever. Husserl believed that phenomenology could thus provide a firm basis for all human knowledge, including scientific knowledge, and could establish philosophy as a "rigorous science".

Husserl's conception of phenomenology has been criticised and developed not only by himself, but also by his student and assistant Martin Heidegger, by existentialists, such as Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Paul Sartre, and by other philosophers, such as Paul Ricoeur, Emmanuel Levinas, and Dietrich von Hildebrand.

Skeptical hypotheses

A brain in a vat that believes it is walking

Skeptical hypotheses in philosophy suggest that reality is very different from what we think it is; or at least that we cannot prove it is not. Examples include:

• The "Brain in a vat" hypothesis is cast in scientific terms. It supposes that one might be a disembodied brain kept alive in a vat, and fed false sensory signals, by a mad scientist.
• The "Dream argument" of Descartes and Zhuangzi supposes reality to be indistinguishable from a dream.
• Descarte's Evil demon is a being "as clever and deceitful as he is powerful, who has directed his entire effort to misleading me."
• The five minute hypothesis (or omphalos hypothesis or Last Thursdayism) suggests that the world was created recently together with records and traces indicating a greater age.
• The Matrix hypothesis or Simulated reality hypothesis suggest that we might be inside a computer simulation or virtual reality.

Jain philosophy

Main article: Tattva (Jainism)

Jain philosophy postulates that seven tattva (truths or fundamental principles) constitute reality. These seven tattva are:-

1. Jīva- the soul which is characterized by consciousness
2. Ajīva- the non-soul
3. Asrava- Influx of karma
4. Bandha- The bondage of karma
5. Samvara- obstruction of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul
6. Nirjara- Shedding of karma
7. Moksha- Liberation or Salvation, i.e. the complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with any particular soul).

Physical sciences

Scientific realism

Scientific realism is, at the most general level, the view that the world described by science (perhaps ideal science) is the real world, as it is, independent of what we might take it to be. Within philosophy of science, it is often framed as an answer to the question "how is the success of science to be explained?" The debate over what the success of science involves centers primarily on the status of entities that are not directly observable discussed by scientific theories. Generally, those who are scientific realists state that one can make reliable claims about these entities (viz., that they have the same ontological status) as directly observable entities, as opposed to instrumentalism. The most used and studied scientific theories today state more or less the truth.

Realism and locality in physics

Realism in the sense used by physicists does not equate to realism in metaphysics. The latter is the claim that the world is mind-independent: that even if the results of a measurement do not pre-exist the act of measurement, that does not require that they are the creation of the observer. Furthermore, a mind-independent property does not have to be the value of some physical variable such as position or momentum. A property can be dispositional (or potential), i.e. it can be a tendency: in the way that glass objects tend to break, or are disposed to break, even if they do not actually break. Likewise, the mind-independent properties of quantum systems could consist of a tendency to respond to particular measurements with particular values with ascertainable probability. Such an ontology would be metaphysically realistic, without being realistic in the physicist's sense of "local realism" (which would require that a single value be produced with certainty).

A closely related term is counterfactual definiteness (CFD), used to refer to the claim that one can meaningfully speak of the definiteness of results of measurements that have not been performed (i.e. the ability to assume the existence of objects, and properties of objects, even when they have not been measured).

Local realism is a significant feature of classical mechanics, of general relativity, and of electrodynamics; but quantum mechanics has shown that quantum entanglement is possible. This was rejected by Einstein, who proposed the EPR paradox, but it was subsequently quantified by Bell's inequalities. If Bell's inequalities are violated, either local realism or counterfactual definiteness must be incorrect; but some physicists dispute that experiments have demonstrated Bell's violations, on the grounds that the sub-class of inhomogeneous Bell inequalities has not been tested or due to experimental limitations in the tests. Different interpretations of quantum mechanics violate different parts of local realism and/or counterfactual definiteness.

Role of the observer in quantum mechanics

See also: Quantum decoherence

The quantum mind–body problem refers to the philosophical discussions of the mind–body problem in the context of quantum mechanics. Since quantum mechanics involves quantum superpositions, which are not perceived by observers, some interpretations of quantum mechanics place conscious observers in a special position.

The founders of quantum mechanics debated the role of the observer, and of them, Wolfgang Pauli and Werner Heisenberg believed that it was the observer that produced collapse. This point of view, which was never fully endorsed by Niels Bohr, was denounced as mystical and anti-scientific by Albert Einstein. Pauli accepted the term, and described quantum mechanics as lucid mysticism.

Heisenberg and Bohr always described quantum mechanics in logical positivist terms. Bohr also took an active interest in the philosophical implications of quantum theories such as his complementarity, for example. He believed quantum theory offers a complete description of nature, albeit one that is simply ill suited for everyday experiences – which are better described by classical mechanics and probability. Bohr never specified a demarcation line above which objects cease to be quantum and become classical. He believed that it was not a question of physics, but one of philosophy.

Eugene Wigner reformulated the "Schrödinger's cat" thought experiment as "Wigner's friend" and proposed that the consciousness of an observer is the demarcation line which precipitates collapse of the wave function, independent of any realist interpretation. Commonly known as "consciousness causes collapse", this interpretation of quantum mechanics states that observation by a conscious observer is what makes the wave function collapse.

Multiverse

The multiverse is the hypothetical set of multiple possible universes (including the historical universe we consistently experience) that together comprise everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, and energy as well as the physical laws and constants that describe them. The term was coined in 1895 by the American philosopher and psychologist William James. In the many-worlds interpretation (MWI), one of the mainstream interpretations of quantum mechanics, there are an infinite number of universes and every possible quantum outcome occurs in at least one universe.

The structure of the multiverse, the nature of each universe within it and the relationship between the various constituent universes, depend on the specific multiverse hypothesis considered. Multiverses have been hypothesized in cosmology, physics, astronomy, religion, philosophy, transpersonal psychology and fiction, particularly in science fiction and fantasy. In these contexts, parallel universes are also called "alternative universes", "quantum universes", "interpenetrating dimensions", "parallel dimensions", "parallel worlds", "alternative realities", "alternative timelines", and "dimensional planes," among others.

Scientific theories of everything

A theory of everything (TOE) is a putative theory of theoretical physics that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena, and predicts the outcome of any experiment that could be carried out in principle. The theory of everything is also called the final theory. Many candidate theories of everything have been proposed by theoretical physicists during the twentieth century, but none have been confirmed experimentally. The primary problem in producing a TOE is that general relativity and quantum mechanics are hard to unify. This is one of the unsolved problems in physics.

Initially, the term "theory of everything" was used with an ironic connotation to refer to various overgeneralized theories. For example, a great-grandfather of Ijon Tichy, a character from a cycle of Stanisław Lem's science fiction stories of the 1960s, was known to work on the "General Theory of Everything". Physicist John Ellis claims to have introduced the term into the technical literature in an article in Nature in 1986. Over time, the term stuck in popularizations of quantum physics to describe a theory that would unify or explain through a single model the theories of all fundamental interactions and of all particles of nature: general relativity for gravitation, and the standard model of elementary particle physics – which includes quantum mechanics – for electromagnetism, the two nuclear interactions, and the known elementary particles.

Current candidates for a theory of everything include string theory, M theory, and loop quantum gravity.

Technology

Virtual reality and cyberspace

Virtual reality (VR) is a term that applies to computer-simulated environments that can simulate physical presence in places in the real world, as well as in imaginary worlds.

Reality-Virtuality Continuum.

The Virtuality Continuum is a continuous scale ranging between the completely virtual, a Virtuality, and the completely real: Reality. The reality-virtuality continuum therefore encompasses all possible variations and compositions of real and virtual objects. It has been described as a concept in new media and computer science, but in fact it could be considered a matter of anthropology. The concept was first introduced by Paul Milgram.

The area between the two extremes, where both the real and the virtual are mixed, is the so-called Mixed reality. This in turn is said to consist of both Augmented Reality, where the virtual augments the real, and Augmented virtuality, where the real augments the virtual. Cyberspace, the world's computer systems considered as an interconnected whole, can be thought of as a virtual reality; for instance, it is portrayed as such in the cyberpunk fiction of William Gibson and others. Second life and MMORPGs such as World of Warcraft are examples of artificial environments or virtual worlds (falling some way short of full virtual reality) in cyberspace.

"RL" in internet culture

On the Internet, "real life" refers to life in the real world. It generally references life or consensus reality, in contrast to an environment seen as fiction or fantasy, such as virtual reality, lifelike experience, dreams, novels, or movies. Online, the acronym "IRL" stands for "in real life", with the meaning "not on the Internet". Sociologists engaged in the study of the Internet have determined that someday, a distinction between online and real-life worlds may seem "quaint", noting that certain types of online activity, such as sexual intrigues, have already made a full transition to complete legitimacy and "reality". The abbreviation "RL" stands for "real life". For example, one can speak of "meeting in RL" someone whom one has met in a chat or on an Internet forum. It may also be used to express an inability to use the Internet for a time due to "RL problems".

See also

• Alternate history
• Allegory of the Cave
• Anosognosia
• Authenticity
• Roland Barthes
• Jorge Luis Borges
• Capgras delusion
• Charles Fort
• Cotard delusion
• Counterfactual history
• Delusion
• Determinism
• Derealization
• Digitality
• Dissociation
• Dreamtime (religion)
• E-prime

• Emanationism
• Explanatory model
• False awakening
• Fictionalism
• Fregoli delusion
• Hallucination
• Hyperreality
• Illusion
• Language and thought
• Map and territory
• Marshall McLuhan
• Maya (illusion)
• Mental representation
• Mindville
• Noumenon

• Nagarjuna
• Paranormal
• Déjà vu
• Principle of locality
• Psychosis
• Rashomon
• Reality in Buddhism
• Reality shifts (mysticism)
• Reality-based community (politics)
• Red pill
• Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• Semiotics
• Simulacrum
• Simulated reality
• Skepticism
• Social constructionism
• Solipsism

• Sunyata
• Surrealism
• Vanilla Sky
• Tulpa
• The Usual Suspects
• Waking Life (film)
• Zhuangzi

References

• Berger, Peter L.; Luckmann, Thomas (1966). The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise its the Sociology of Knowledge. New York: Anchor Books. p. 21-22. 

Bibliography

• S. A. Jain (1992). Reality. Jwalamalini Trust. Archived from the original on 2015. Not in Copyright 

External links

• Miller, Alexander. "David Lewis". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 
• C.D. Broad on Reality
• Video: Animated version of the above with Dr Quantum - Flatland
• Phenomenology Online: Materials discussing and exemplifying phenomenological research
• The Matrix as Metaphysics by David Chalmers

UpToDate Contents

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• Doisy G1, Ronen A2, Edan Y3.
• Applied ergonomics.Appl Ergon.2017 Jan;58:527-34. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2016.05.001. Epub 2016 May 12.
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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「real」「practically」「really」「現実」「substantive」

「real」

　　[★]

• adj.

• 現実の、本当の、本物の

関

bona fide、genuine、practically、reality、really、substantive、true、truly

　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　

「practically」

　　[★]

• adv.

• 実際に、現実に

関

actual、actually、fact、in fact、in practice、indeed、real、reality、really、substantive

　 　 　

「really」

　　[★]

• 現実に、本当に

関

genuine、practically、real、reality、substantive、true、truly

　

「現実」

　　[★]

英

reality、real、substantive、really、practically

関

現実性、実際、本当、本物

「substantive」

　　[★]

• 現実の

関

practically、real、reality、really