樹皮

関: bark、rind、tree bark

WordNet

the natural outer covering of food (usually removed before eating)
(meteorology) a unit of pressure equal to a million dynes per square centimeter; "unfortunately some writers have used bar for one dyne per square centimeter"
secure with, or as if with, bars; "He barred the door"
(law) a railing that encloses the part of the courtroom where the judges and lawyers sit and the case is tried; "spectators were not allowed past the bar"
a counter where you can obtain food or drink; "he bought a hot dog and a coke at the bar"
a heating element in an electric fire; "an electric fire with three bars"
a horizontal rod that serves as a support for gymnasts as they perform exercises
a rigid piece of metal or wood; usually used as a fastening or obstruction or weapon; "there were bars in the windows to prevent escape"
an obstruction (usually metal) placed at the top of a goal; "it was an excellent kick but the ball hit the bar"
a submerged (or partly submerged) ridge in a river or along a shore; "the boat ran aground on a submerged bar in the river"
prevent from entering; keep out; "He was barred from membership in the club" (同)debar, exclude
place something or someone in a certain position in order to secretly observe or deceive; "Plant a spy in Moscow"; "plant bugs in the dissidents apartment"
(botany) a living organism lacking the power of locomotion (同)flora, plant life
buildings for carrying on industrial labor; "they built a large plant to manufacture automobiles" (同)works, industrial plant
an actor situated in the audience whose acting is rehearsed but seems spontaneous to the audience
something planted secretly for discovery by another; "the police used a plant to trick the thieves"; "he claimed that the evidence against him was a plant"
put firmly in the mind; "Plant a thought in the students minds" (同)implant
put or set (seeds, seedlings, or plants) into the ground; "Lets plant flowers in the garden" (同)set
place into a river; "plant fish"
tough protective covering of the woody stems and roots of trees and other woody plants
tan (a skin) with bark tannins
a sailing ship with 3 (or more) masts (同)barque
a noise resembling the bark of a dog
the sound made by a dog
remove the bark of a tree (同)skin
cover with bark
make barking sounds; "The dogs barked at the stranger"
speak in an unfriendly tone; "She barked into the dictaphone"
make plans for something; "He is planning a trip with his family"
scale drawing of a structure; "the plans for City Hall were on file" (同)architectural plan
a series of steps to be carried out or goals to be accomplished; "they drew up a six-step plan"; "they discussed plans for a new bond issue" (同)program, programme
have the will and intention to carry out some action; "He plans to be in graduate school next year"; "The rebels had planned turmoil and confusion" (同)be after
make or work out a plan for; devise; "They contrived to murder their boss"; "design a new sales strategy"; "plan an attack" (同)project, contrive, design
putting seeds or young plants in the ground to grow; "the planting of corn is hard work"
the act of fixing firmly in place; "he ordered the planting of policemen outside every doorway"
a collection of plants (trees or shrubs or flowers) in a particular area; "the landscape architect suggested a small planting in the northwest corner"

PrepTutorEJDIC

(果物・チーズなどの)皮,外皮
(木または金属の)『棒』;棒状の物 / 横木,(戸・とびらなどの)かんぬき,横さん / (一般に)(…対する)『障害』《+『to』(『against』)+『名』》 / (また『sand bar』)(河口・港口の)砂州 / (光・色などの)線条,しま,帯 / (酒場・旅館などの)酒を出すカウンター;バー,酒場;簡易食堂 / 《the~》(法廷の裁判官席・被告席・弁護士席と一般席との間の)仕切り;《比諭(ひゆ)的に》法廷 / 《集合的に》弁護士団,法曹界;弁護士[業]: / (楽譜の小節を分ける)縦線;小節 / 〈戸・門など〉‘に'『かんぬきをさす』 / 〈道・通行など〉'を'『妨げる』,はばむ / 《通例受動態で》…‘に'線(筋)をつける / …'を'禁じる(forbid) / (…から)…'を'除外する,締め出す《+『名』+『from』(『out of』)+『名』》;(…に)…'を'とじ込める《+『名』+『in』+『名』》: / …の除いて(except)
(動物に対して)『植物』,草木・(樹木に対して)『草』,草本(そうほん)( 木部があまり発達せず地上部が一年で枯れる植物)・苗,苗木・生産設備,工場,プラント設備,装置・《俗》(人をおとしいれる)わな,おとり / 〈苗など〉‘を'『植える』,〈種〉‘を'まく・(植物を) ‘に'植える《+『名』+『with』+『名』》 / (…に)〈思想など〉‘を'植えつける《+『名』+『in』+『名』》・《場所の副詞[句]を伴って》(ある場所)…‘を'しっかりと置く(すえる,立てる) / ・〈工場・生産設備など〉‘を'建設する・《俗》〈スパイ〉‘を'送りこむ,〈わな〉‘を'仕掛ける・（嫌疑がかかるように）こっそり置く
木の皮,樹皮 / 〈木〉‘の'皮をはぐ / …'を'樹皮でおおう / …‘の'皮膚をすりむく
(…に)『ほえる』,ほえつく《+『at』+『名』》 / (…に)ほえるようにしゃべる,(…を)どなる《+『at』+『名』》 / …'を'どなって言う《+『名』+『out),+『out』+『名』》 / (犬・アザラシなどの)『ほえ声』 / どなり声 / 砲声,銃声,銃声
バーク(3本マストの帆船の一種) / 《詩》船
『計画』,『案』,プラン,設計 / 『設計図』,『図面』;(小区域の)地図,市街図 / …‘を'『計画する』,‘の'案を立てる / …の設計図をかく,‘を'設計する / 計画を立てる

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/02/21 09:09:16」(JST)

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

For other uses, see Bark (disambiguation).

Bark of mature Mango (Mangifera indica) showing characteristic lichen growth; Kolkata, India

Japanese Maple bark.

Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines, and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term.^[1] It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark. The inner bark, which in older stems is living tissue, includes the innermost area of the periderm. The outer bark in older stems includes the dead tissue on the surface of the stems, along with parts of the innermost periderm and all the tissues on the outer side of the periderm. The outer bark on trees is also called the rhytidome.

Products used by people that are derived from bark include: spices and other flavorings, tanbark for tannin, resin, latex, medicines, poisons, various hallucinatory chemicals and cork. Bark has been used to make cloth, canoes, ropes and used as a surface for paintings and map making.^[2] A number of plants are also grown for their attractive or interesting bark colorations and surface textures or their bark is used as landscape mulch.^[3]^[4]

Botanic description

Bark of Leucadendron argenteum

What is commonly called bark includes a number of different tissues. Cork is an external, secondary tissue that is impermeable to water and gases, and is also called the phellem. The cork is produced by the Cork cambium which is a layer of meristematically active cells which serve as a lateral meristem for the periderm. The cork cambium, which is also called the phellogen, is normally only one cell layer thick and it divides periclinally to the outside producing cork. The phelloderm, which is not always present in all barks, is a layer of cells formed by and interior to the cork cambium. Together, the phellem (cork), phellogen (cork cambium) and phelloderm constitute the periderm.^[5]

Cork cell walls contain suberin, a waxy substance which protects the stem against water loss, the invasion of insects into the stem, and prevents infections by bacteria and fungal spores.^[6] The cambium tissues, i.e., the cork cambium and the vascular cambium, are the only parts of a woody stem where cell division occurs; undifferentiated cells in the vascular cambium divide rapidly to produce secondary xylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside. Phloem is a nutrient-conducting tissue composed of sieve tubes or sieve cells mixed with parenchyma and fibers. The Cortex is the primary tissue of stems and roots. In stems the cortex is between the epidermis layer and the phloem, in roots the inner layer is not phloem but the pericycle.

From the outside to the inside of a mature woody stem, the layers include:

(1) Cork (Phellem)
(2) Cork cambium (Phellogen)
(3) Phelloderm
(4) Cortex
(5) Phloem
(6) Vascular cambium
(7) Xylem.

The bark includes (1) through (5), and is composed of periderm and phloem and the cells that produce these tissues.^[7] The periderms includes (1), (2) and (3).

Bark of a Pine tree in Tecpán, Guatemala.

In young stems, which lack what is commonly called bark, the tissues are from the outside to the inside: epidermis, periderm, cortex, primary phloem, secondary phloem, vascular cambium, secondary xylem, and primary xylem. As the stem ages and grows, changes occur that transform the surface of the stem into the bark. The epidermis, which is a layer of cells that cover the plant body, including the stems, leaves, flowers and fruits, that protects the plant from the outside world. In old stems the epidermal layer, cortex, and primary phloem become separated from the inner tissues by thicker formations of cork. Due to the thickening cork layer these cells die because they do not receive water and nutrients. This dead layer is the rough corky bark that forms around tree trunks and other stems.

Periderm

Often a secondary covering called the periderm forms on small woody stems and many non woody plants, which is composed of cork (phellem), the cork cambium (phellogen), and the phelloderm. The periderm forms from the phellogen which serves as a lateral meristem. The periderm replaces the epidermis, and acts as a protective covering like the epidermis. Mature phellem cells have suberin in their walls to protect the stem from desiccation and pathogen attack. Older phellem cells are dead, as is the case with woody stems. The skin on the potato tuber (which is an underground stem) constitutes the cork of the periderm.^[8]^[9]

In woody plants the epidermis of newly grown stems is replaced by the periderm later in the year. As the stems grow a layer of cells form under the epidermis, called the cork cambium, these cells produce cork cells that turn into cork. A limited number of cell layers may form interior to the cork cambium, called the phelloderm. As the stem grows, the cork cambium produces new layers of cork which are impermeable to gases and water and the cells outside of the periderm, namely the epidermis, cortex and older secondary phloem die.^[10]

Within the periderm are lenticels, which form during the production of the first periderm layer. Since there are living cells within the cambium layers that need to exchange gases during metabolism, these lenticels, because they have numerous intercellular spaces, allow gaseous exchange with the outside atmosphere. As the bark develops, new lenticels are formed within the cracks of the cork layers.

Rhytidome

Living tree bark enveloping barbed wire

The rhytidome is the most familiar part of bark, it is the outer layer that covers the trunks of trees. It is composed mostly of dead cells and is produced by the formation of multiple layers of suberized periderm, cortical and phloem tissue.^[5] It is generally thickest and most distinctive at the trunk or bole (The area from the ground to where the main branching starts) of the tree.

Uses

Bark chips

Cork, sometimes confused with bark in colloquial speech, is the outermost layer of a woody stem, derived from the cork cambium. It serves as protection against damage from parasites, herbivorous animals and diseases, as well as dehydration and fire. Cork can contain antiseptics like tannins, that protect against fungal and bacterial attacks that would cause decay.

Backpack made of birch bark.

Bark of pine was used as emergency food in Finland during famine, last time during and after civil war in 1918.

In some plants, the bark is substantially thicker, providing further protection and giving the bark a characteristically distinctive structure with deep ridges. In the cork oak (Quercus suber) the bark is thick enough to be harvested as a cork product without killing the tree;^[11] in this species the bark may get very thick (e.g. more than 20 cm has been reported ^[12]). Some barks can be removed in long sheets; the smooth surfaced bark of birch trees has been used as a covering in the making of canoes, as the drainage layer in roofs, for shoes, backpacks etc. The most famous example of using birch bark for canoes is the birch canoes of North America.^[13]

The bark of some trees is edible; in Sweden and Finland, pine bread is made from rye to which the toasted and ground innermost layer of pine bark is added, the Sami people of far northern Europe used large sheets of Pinus sylvestris bark that were removed in the spring, prepared and stored for use as a staple food resource and the inner bark was eaten fresh, dried or roasted.^[14]

Mechanical bark processing

Bark contains strong fibres known as bast, and there is a long tradition in northern Europe of using bark from coppiced young branches of the small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata) to produce cordage and rope, used for example in the rigging of Viking age longships.^[15]

Among the commercial products made from bark are cork, cinnamon, quinine^[16] (from the bark of Cinchona)^[17] and aspirin (from the bark of willow trees). The bark of some trees notably oak (Quercus robur) is a source of tannic acid, which is used in tanning. Bark chips generated as a by-product of lumber production, are often used in bark mulch in western North America. Bark is important to the horticultural industry since in shredded form it is used for plants that do not thrive in ordinary soil, such as epiphytes.

Bark chip extraction

Wood Adhesives from Bark-Derived Phenols: ^[18] Wood Bark has lignin content and when it is pyrolyzed (subjected to high temperatures in the absence of oxygen), it yields a liquid bio-oil product rich in natural phenol derivatives. The phenol derivatives are isolated and recovered for application as a replacement for fossil-based phenols in phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resins used in Oriented Strand Board (OSB) and plywood.

Bark removal

Cut logs used for the production of lumber or even log cabins generally have the bark removed, either just before cutting or for curing. Such logs and even trunks and branches found in their natural state of decay in forests, where the bark has fallen off, are said to be decorticated.

A number of living organisms live in or on bark, including insects,^[19] fungi and other plants like mosses, algae and other vascular plants. Many of these organisms are pathogens or parasites but some also have symbiotic relationships.

Bark repair

Alder bark (Alnus glutinosa) with characteristic lenticels and abnormal lenticels on callused areas.

Sun scald damage on Sitka spruce

The degree to which trees are able to repair gross physical damage to their bark is very variable. Some are able to produce a callus growth which heals over the wound rapidly, but leaves a clear scar, whilst others such as oaks do not produce an extensive callus repair.

Frost crack and sun scald are examples of damage found on tree bark which trees can repair to a degree, depending on the severity.

Gallery

Eucalypt bark
Acer capillipes (Red Snakebark Maple)
Monterey Pine bark
A rare Black Poplar tree, showing the bark and burls.
The typical appearance of Sycamore bark from an old tree.
Quercus robur bark with a large burl and lichen.
Kauri bark
Extensive callus growth on a young Ash tree with Frost crack
Tree cross section diagram
Beech bark with callus growth following fire (heat) damage
Holly Oak Damaged

References

^ Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray F.; Curtis, Helena (1981), Biology of Plants, New York, N.Y.: Worth Publishers, p. 641, ISBN 0-87901-132-7, OCLC 222047616
^ Taylor, Luke. 1996. Seeing the Inside: Bark Painting in Western Arnhem Land. Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
^ Sandved, Kjell Bloch, Ghillean T. Prance, and Anne E. Prance. 1993. Bark: the Formation, Characteristics, and Uses of Bark around the World. Portland, Or: Timber Press.
^ Vaucher, Hugues, and James E. Eckenwalder. 2003. Tree Bark: a Color Guide. Portland: Timber
^ ^a ^b Dickison, WC. 2000. Integrative Plant Anatomy, Academic Press, San Diego, 186-195.
^ "Botany Glossary "P"". .puc.edu. http://www2.puc.edu/Faculty/Gilbert_Muth/botglosp.htm. Retrieved 2012-01-02.
^ Pereira, Helena (2007), Cork, Amsterdam: Elsevier, p. 8, ISBN 0-444-52967-5, OCLC 162131397
^ Artschwager, E. 1924. Studies on the potato tuber. J. Agr. Res. 27:809-835.
^ Peterson, R.L. and W.G. Barker. 1979. Early tuber development from explanted stolon nodes of Solanum tuberosum var. Kennebec. Bot. Gaz. 140:398-406.
^ Mauseth, James D. (2003), "Botany: an Introduction to Plant Biology", ISBN 0-7637-2134-4: 229
^ Aronson J., Pereira J.S., Pausas J.G. (eds) (2009). "Cork Oak Woodlands on the Edge: conservation, adaptive management, and restoration". Washington DC: Island Press. http://www.uv.es/jgpausas/corkoak.htm.
^ Paulo Fernandes (2011-01-03). "j.g. pausas' blog » Bark thickness: a world record?". Jgpausas.blogs.uv.es. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2010.07.010. http://jgpausas.blogs.uv.es/2011/01/03/bark-thickness/. Retrieved 2012-01-02.
^ Adney, Tappan, and Howard Irving Chapelle. 1964. The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
^ Zackrisson, O.; Östlund, L.; Korhonen, O.; Bergman, I. (200), "The ancient use of Pinus sylvestris L. (scots pine) inner bark by Sami people in northern Sweden, related to cultural and ecological factors = Ancienne usage d\'écorce de Pinus sylvestris L. (Pin écossais) par les peuples Sami du nord de la Suède en relation avec les facteurs écologiques et culturels", Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 9 (2): 99–109, http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1559092
^ Myking T., Hertzberg, A. and Skrøppa, T. (2005) History, manufacture and properties of lime bast cordage in northern Europe. Forestry 78(1): 65-71; doi:10.1093/forestry/cpi006
^ Duran-Reynals, Marie Louise de Ayala. 1946. The Fever Bark Tree; the Pageant of Quinine. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.
^ Markham, Clements R. 1880. Peruvian Bark. A Popular Account of the Introduction of Chinchona Cultivation into British India. London: J. Murray.
^ http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/fy04/wood_adhesives.pdf
^ Lieutier, François. 2004. Bark and Wood Boring Insects in Living Trees in Europe, a Synthesis. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Other references

Cédric Pollet, Bark: An Intimate Look at the World's Trees. London, Frances Lincoln, 2010. (Translated by Susan Berry) ISBN 978-0-7112-3137-5

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

Physicochemical characterization and toxicological evaluation of plant-based anionic polymers and their nanoparticulated system for ocular delivery.

Pathak D, Kumar P, Kuppusamy G, Gupta A, Kamble B, Wadhwani A.Author information Department of Pharmaceutics, J.S.S. College of Pharmacy, (Off campus J.S.S. University, Mysore) , Udhagamandalam , India.AbstractAbstract The water-soluble fractions of mucilages and gum from the seeds of fenugreek, isphagula and mango bark exudate were isolated, purified and characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), maldi/GC-MS, elemental analysis, 1D ((1)H and (13)C) and 2D (HMQC, COSY) nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). The fenugreek mucilage was identified to be a galactomannan chain consisting of 4 units of galactose attached to the backbone of 6 mannose units in 1:1.5 ratio. The isphagula mucilage was identified to be an arabinoxylan polysaccharide chain consisting of 4 units of arabinofuranose attached to the backbone of 9 xylopyrannose units in 1:3 ratio. The mango gum showed the presence of amylose, α-arabinofuranosyl and β-galactopyranosyl, respectively. The characterized mucilages and gum were individually formulated into nanoparticulate system using their complementarily charged polymer chitosan. The particles were observed to be spherical in shape in the range of 61.5-90 nm having zetapotential between 31 and 34 mV and PDI of 0.097-0.241. The prepared nanoparticles were observed to be nonirritant and nontoxic in vitro and in vivo upto 2000 μg/ml. Therefore, these mucilages and gum can be the alternatives of anionic polymers for the ocular drug delivery system.
Nanotoxicology.Nanotoxicology.2014 Dec;8:843-55. doi: 10.3109/17435390.2013.834996. Epub 2013 Sep 18.
Abstract The water-soluble fractions of mucilages and gum from the seeds of fenugreek, isphagula and mango bark exudate were isolated, purified and characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), maldi/GC-MS, elemental analysis, 1D ((1)H and
PMID 23952497

Isolation of an arabinogalactan from Endopleura uchi bark decoction and its effect on HeLa cells.

Bento JF, Noleto GR, de Oliveira Petkowicz CL.Author information Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Paraná, C.P.19046, CEP 81531-980 Curitiba, PR, Brazil.AbstractEndopleura uchi is a native plant from the Amazon used in popular medicine to treat myomas. A crude polysaccharide (AGb) obtained from E. uchi bark decoction was purified, yielding a type II arabinogalactan (AG) that was characterized by chemical and spectroscopic methods. AG was evaluated for its cytotoxic effects on HeLa cells. AG (5-500μg/ml) reduced cell viability at 48 and 72h (approximately 20%) but not in a dose-dependent manner. Cell proliferation was also reduced by AG, with a 25% inhibition (100μg/ml) at 72h. The results suggest that the cytotoxicity exhibited by AG does not involve pathways related to the cell cycle.
Carbohydrate polymers.Carbohydr Polym.2014 Jan 30;101:871-7. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.10.014. Epub 2013 Oct 14.
Endopleura uchi is a native plant from the Amazon used in popular medicine to treat myomas. A crude polysaccharide (AGb) obtained from E. uchi bark decoction was purified, yielding a type II arabinogalactan (AG) that was characterized by chemical and spectroscopic methods. AG was evaluated for its c
PMID 24299850

Cytotoxic activity screening of Bangladeshi medicinal plant extracts.

Akter R, Uddin SJ, Grice ID, Tiralongo E.Author information School of Pharmacy and Griffith Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Gold Coast, Queensland, 4222, Australia.AbstractThe cytotoxic activity of 23 crude methanol extracts from 19 Bangladeshi medicinal plants was investigated against healthy mouse fibroblasts (NIH3T3), healthy monkey kidney (VERO) and four human cancer cell lines (gastric, AGS; colon, HT-29; and breast, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) using MTT assay. High cytotoxicity across all cell lines tested was exhibited by Aegiceras corniculatum (fruit) and Hymenodictyon excelsum (bark) extracts (IC50 values ranging from 0.0005 to 0.9980 and 0.08 to 0.44 mg/mL, respectively). Fourteen extracts from 11 plant species, namely Clitoria ternatea (flower and leaf), Dillenia indica (leaf), Diospyros peregrina (leaf), Dipterocarpus turbinatus (bark and leaf), Ecbolium viride (leaf), Glinus oppositifolius (whole plant), Gnaphalium luteoalbum (leaf), Jasminum sambac (leaf), Lannea coromandelica (bark and leaf), Mussaenda glabrata (leaf) and Saraca asoca (leaf), were also significantly cytotoxic (IC50 < 1.0 mg/mL) against at least one of the cancer cell lines tested. More selectively, Avicennia alba (leaf), C. ternatea (flower and leaf), Caesalpinia pulcherrima (leaf), E. viride (leaf) and G. oppositifolius (whole plant) showed cytotoxicity only against both of the breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231). In contrast, C. ternatea (flower and leaf) exhibited high cytotoxic activity against MDA-MB-231 (IC50 values of 0.11 and 0.49 mg/mL, respectively), whereas E. viride and G. oppositifolius whole plant extracts exhibited high activity against MCF-7 cells (IC50 values of 0.06 and 0.15 mg/mL, respectively). The cytotoxic activity test results for 9 of the plant species correlate with their traditional use as anticancer agents, thus making them interesting sources for further drug development.
Journal of natural medicines.J Nat Med.2014 Jan;68(1):246-52. doi: 10.1007/s11418-013-0789-5. Epub 2013 Jul 12.
The cytotoxic activity of 23 crude methanol extracts from 19 Bangladeshi medicinal plants was investigated against healthy mouse fibroblasts (NIH3T3), healthy monkey kidney (VERO) and four human cancer cell lines (gastric, AGS; colon, HT-29; and breast, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) using MTT assay. High cy
PMID 23846168

Japanese Journal

High degree of polyphagy in a seed-eating bark beetle, <i>Coccotrypes gedeanus</i> (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), during a community-wide fruiting event in a Bornean tropical rainforest