WordNet
- the 16th letter of the Roman alphabet (同)p
PrepTutorEJDIC
- Palestine Liberation Organizationパレスチナ解放機構
- parking
- phosphorusの化学記号
Wikipedia preview
出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/11/21 06:31:35」(JST)
wiki ja
| 目的 | イスラエル支配下にあるパレスチナの解放 |
|---|---|
| 本部 | パレスチナ |
| 公用語 | アラビア語 |
| ウェブサイト | パレスチナ解放機構 国連オブザーバー代表部（英語） |
| 諸機構の統合機関 | |
パレスチナ解放機構（パレスチナかいほうきこう、アラビア語: منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية 、ラテン文字転写:Munaẓẓamat at-Taḥrīr al-Filasṭīniyyah 、英語: Palestine Liberation Organization、略称:PLO）は、イスラエル支配下にあるパレスチナを解放することを目的とした諸機構の統合機関。現在のパレスチナ自治政府の母体となった。
組織名については、ヘブライ語では頭文字を合わせて「アッシャフ」（ヘブライ語:אש"ף）と呼ばれる。
目次
- 1 理念
- 2 歴史
- 2.1 創設とアラファートの加入
- 2.2 解放闘争
- 2.3 湾岸戦争
- 2.4 オスロ合意
- 2.5 第2次インティファーダ
- 2.6 アラファートからアッバースへ
- 3 組織
- 3.1 参加組織
- 3.2 執行委員会議長一覧
- 4 関連項目
- 5 脚注
- 6 外部リンク
理念
主な主張としては、パレスチナ人の民族自決権や離散パレスチナ人の帰還権である。また、政治路線としては、結成当初の規約では入植者ではないユダヤ人のみパレスチナの一市民と認め[1][2]、武装闘争によりイスラエルを敵視してパレスチナを解放することをうたっていたが[3][4]、ヤーセル・アラファートが第2代議長になってからはイスラエルとの徹底抗戦姿勢を退け、第三次中東戦争でのイスラエルの占領地の返還および、イスラム教徒、キリスト教徒、ユダヤ教徒が共存する民主的世俗的なパレスチナ国家を独立させることを目標とし（パレスチナの独立宣言）、憲章にあるイスラエル敵視条項の修正にも動いた[5][6][7][8]。
歴史
創設とアラファートの加入
1964年1月の第一回アラブ首脳会議で成立したアラブ連盟により設立され、イスラエル建国で難民となったパレスチナ人の対イスラエル闘争の統合組織となり、反イスラエルの中心勢力となった。1967年の第三次中東戦争がアラブ諸国側の敗北に終わると、ゲリラ組織や労働運動組織などを主体とするパレスチナ人の民衆的運動として再編され、ヨルダンで反イスラエル闘争を行って越境攻撃を撃退するなどの大きな戦果をあげ、パレスチナ人の間に名声を高めていたファタハが加入した。1969年2月、エジプトのナセル大統領の「パレスチナの指導者」というお墨付きを得た[9]ヤーセル・アラファートがPLO第2代議長に就任し、ファタハを中心に機構を再整備、実質上のパレスチナ亡命政府となる。
解放闘争
拠点ははじめヨルダンのアンマンにあったが、ファタハがたびたびイスラエルに対するテロ事件を起こしたことから1970年のブラック・セプテンバーでヨルダンを追われ、活動の拠点をレバノンのベイルートに移した。第四次中東戦争を契機とするアラブ諸国とイスラム諸国の結束の機運に乗じて、1974年のモロッコのラバトで開かれたアラブ連盟首脳会議で満場一致でPLOは「パレスチナ唯一の代表」となり、同年にはパキスタンのラホールのイスラム諸国会議機構首脳会議でアラファート議長は演説して全会一致の支持を受け、さらに国際連合総会オブザーバー資格を手に入れて国連本部でも演説を行い、パレスチナを公的・国際的に代表する機関として国際的な認知も得るに至る。しかし、1982年のレバノン戦争でレバノンにイスラエルが侵攻してきたため、レバノンを追われて本部を再びベイルートからチュニジアのチュニスに移さなくてはならなかった。
1987年末から巻き起こったインティファーダでは、海外からパレスチナのイスラエル占領地内の蜂起指導者たちと連絡を取り合って支援する一方、1988年11月には、「シオニスト国家打倒によるパレスチナ解放」から「イスラエルと共存するヨルダン川西岸地区およびガザ地区でのパレスチナ国家建設」へと方向転換を行い、議決機関のパレスチナ国民評議会で独立宣言を採択した。
湾岸戦争
1990年のイラクのクウェート侵攻に始まる湾岸戦争では、イラクのサッダーム・フセインがPLOの支持を打ち出し（イラクが侵略者なら、イスラエルも侵略者であり、イスラエルに肩入れするアメリカのやり方はダブルスタンダードだと主張したことによる）、PLOの側もイラクに近い動きを見せたため、国際的にイラク寄りとみなされて孤立。イラクと対立するペルシア湾岸諸国からの援助を打ち切られて財政的にも苦境に陥った。
オスロ合意
1991年にはスペインのマドリードで中東和平会議に出席するが和平交渉に行き詰まった。しかし、この頃からノルウェーの仲立ちでオスロにおいてイスラエル政府と秘密交渉を行い、1993年にイスラエル政府とPLOの相互承認とガザ地区・西岸地区におけるパレスチナ人の暫定自治を定めたオスロ合意にこぎつけた。
オスロ合意の結果、PLOは武装闘争路線の放棄を約束し、イスラエルとの間にパレスチナ暫定自治協定を締結。アラファート議長はイスラエルのイツハク・ラビン首相とともにノーベル平和賞を受賞した。暫定自治のためのパレスチナ自治政府はPLOを基盤に設立され、その元首（大統領）にはPLOのアラファート議長が就任する。
しかし、1995年、ラビン首相が暗殺され、アメリカを仲介にイスラエルのバラク首相とオスロ合意で定められた包括的解決に向けた和平交渉を進めるが、進展しなかった。パレスチナ内部では、「和平粉砕」を掲げるハマースが1993年から自爆テロを開始し、主に難民や貧困層での支持を広げた。
第2次インティファーダ
2000年に、当時のイスラエル国防相アリエル・シャロンのエルサレム訪問に反発する暴動からパレスチナ全土でのアル＝アクサー・インティファーダに発展する。この二度目のインティファーダで主流を演じたのはPLOではなく、イスラム主義系の組織ハマースであり、アラファトらPLO主導部を「官僚化し腐敗した」と批判するファタハ内の「（80年代）インティファーダ世代」と言われる若手グループ（主に「アル＝アクサー殉教団」）だった。イスラエルはこの第二次インティファーダに対して全面的な軍事鎮圧に乗り出し、やがて全面戦争に発展していく過程で、ハマースと「アル＝アクサー殉教団」は、競うように自爆テロ戦術を激化させていく。
アラファートからアッバースへ
2004年にはパレスチナ自治政府の元首とPLOの議長を兼ねてパレスチナの唯一最高の指導者として長年活躍してきたアラファート議長が病死し、反テロを掲げる穏健派として知られるマフムード・アッバース事務局長が後任の執行委員会議長に就任した。
組織
その基盤としては、最高議決機関のパレスチナ民族評議会（PNC）があり、議会に相当する機能を果たす。また、PNC開催が困難なときこれに代わるものとして、ミニPNCともいうべきパレスチナ中央評議会（PCC）がおかれる。憲法に相当するものとしては、パレスチナ国民憲章を定めている。
政治事項の執行を担当するのは執行委員会で、PLOの最高指導者である議長を中心として内閣に相当する機構をなす。その下部には各省庁にあたるものとして政治局、国際局、交渉局があり、さらにファタハ加入後の武装闘争路線を支えるため、正規軍にあたるパレスチナ解放軍が設立された。
パレスチナ暫定自治政府の結成後、パレスチナ解放軍は自治政府に移管され、自治区の治安を担うパレスチナ国家警備隊となった。PLO自体は存続し、その後もイスラエルとパレスチナの間の唯一の正式の窓口として重要な役割を占めたが、自治区の施政上の機能は自治政府に奪われ、次第に存在感を薄れさせている。
参加組織
現在参加
- ファタハ（最大派閥）
- パレスチナ解放民主戦線（DFLP）
- パレスチナ人民党（PPP）
- パレスチナ解放戦線（PLF）
- パレスチナ民主連合
- パレスチナ人民闘争戦線（PPSF）
- パレスチナ解放人民戦線（PFLP、反主流派最大派閥）
- アラブ解放戦線（ALF）
- サーイカ
- パレスチナ・アラブ戦線
脱退
- パレスチナ解放人民戦線総司令部（PFLP-GC）
- ファタハ革命評議会（FRC）
執行委員会議長一覧
| 代 | 画像 | 議長 | アラビア語 | 就任日 | 退任日 | 備考 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | アフマド・シュケイリ | أحمد الشقيري | 1964年6月2日 | 1967年12月24日 | ||
| 2 | ヤヒア・ハマウダ | يحيى حمودة | 1967年12月24日 | 1969年2月4日 | ||
| 3 | ヤーセル・アラファート | ياسر عرفات | 1969年2月4日 | 2004年11月11日 | ||
| 4 | マフムード・アッバース | محمود عباس | 2004年11月11日 |
関連項目
- 国際連合総会オブザーバー
- 国家の内部における国家 - ヨルダンやレバノンに駐在していたころの PLO が、こう評価される。
脚注
| [ヘルプ] |
- ^ http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/plocov.asp
- ^ [1]
- ^ 1964 Palestinian National Covenant
- ^ Moshe Shemesh, "Did Shuqayri Call For 'Throwing the Jews into the Sea?'" Israel Studies, Summer 2003, p.70
- ^ Wye River Memorandum: Status of Implementation (February 1, 1999), Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
- ^ Israeli Reactions to the PNC Vote in Gaza (December 14, 1998), Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
- ^ Palestinian Authority has yet to honor all of its Wye commitments (December 15, 1998), Likoed Nederland.
- ^ Press Conf PM Netanyahu and FM Sharon - Erez (15 December 1998), Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
- ^ Aburish, Said K. (2004). Nasser, The Last Arab. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 978-0-312-28683-5. OCLC 52766217.
外部リンク
- パレスチナ解放機構 国連オブザーバー代表部
wiki en
"PLO" redirects here. For other uses, see PLO (disambiguation).
| Palestine Liberation Organization | |
|---|---|
| Founded | 28 May 1964[1] |
| Headquarters | Ramallah, West Bank[2][3] |
| Ideology | Palestinian nationalism |
| Party flag | |
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) (Arabic: منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية; Munaẓẓamat at-Taḥrīr al-Filasṭīniyyah (help·info)) is an organization founded in 1964 with the purpose of the "liberation of Palestine" through armed struggle. It is recognized as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" by over 100 states with which it holds diplomatic relations,[4][5] and has enjoyed observer status at the United Nations since 1974.[6][7][8] The PLO was considered by the United States and Israel to be a terrorist organization until the Madrid Conference in 1991. In 1993, the PLO recognized Israel's right to exist in peace, accepted UN Security Council resolutions 242 and 338, and rejected "violence and terrorism"; in response, Israel officially recognized the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people.[9]
Contents
- 1 Founding
- 2 Ideology
- 2.1 Secular versus Islamic
- 3 Organization
- 3.1 Structure
- 3.2 Institutions
- 3.3 Challenged representation
- 3.4 PLO versus PA
- 3.5 Internal politics
- 3.5.1 2015 struggle for power
- 4 Political status
- 4.1 Status at the United Nations
- 4.1.1 Observer status
- 4.1.2 2011 application for UN state membership
- 4.1.3 ′Non-member observer state′ status
- 4.2 Diplomatic representation
- 4.1 Status at the United Nations
- 5 Peace process
- 5.1 Ten Point Program
- 5.2 First Intifada
- 5.3 Oslo Accords
- 6 Armed actions
- 6.1 Early actions
- 6.2 War of attrition
- 6.3 Black September in Jordan
- 6.4 Lebanon and the Lebanese Civil War
- 6.5 Tunis
- 6.6 Second Intifada
- 7 Membership
- 7.1 Executive Committee Chairmen
- 8 See also
- 9 References
- 9.1 Bibliography
- 10 External links
- 10.1 Official sites
- 10.2 Documents
- 10.3 Analysis
- 10.4 General
Founding
Ahmad Shukeiri with Shafiq al-Hout and Said al Sabeh in the Arab Summit in Khartoum (1967)
At its first summit meeting in Cairo in 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organization representing the Palestinian people.[10] The Palestinian National Council convened in Jerusalem on 28 May 1964. Concluding this meeting the PLO was founded on 2 June 1964. Its stated goal was the "liberation of Palestine" through armed struggle.[11]
Ideology
The ideology of the PLO was formulated in the founding year 1964 in the Palestinian National Covenant.[11] The document is a combative anti-Zionist statement dedicated to the "restoration of the Palestinian homeland". It has no reference to religion. In 1968, the Charter was replaced by a comprehensively revised version.[12]
Until 1993, the only promoted option was armed struggle. From the signing of the Oslo Accords, negotiation and diplomacy became the only official policy. In April 1996, a large number of articles, which were inconsistent with the Oslo Accords, were wholly or partially nullified.[13]
The basic idea in the PLO's ideology is that Zionists had unjustly expelled the Palestinians from Palestine and established a Jewish state in place under the pretext of having historic and Jewish ties with Palestine. They demanded that Palestinian refugees should be allowed to return to their homes. This is expressed in the National Covenant:
Article 2 of the Charter states that ″Palestine, with the boundaries it had during the British mandate, is an indivisible territorial unit″,[12] meaning that there is no place for a Jewish state. This article was adapted in 1996 to meet the Oslo Accords.[13]
Article 20 states: ″The Balfour Declaration, the Mandate for Palestine, and everything that has been based upon them, are deemed null and void. Claims of historical or religious ties of Jews with Palestine are incompatible with the facts of history and the true conception of what constitutes statehood. Judaism, being a religion, is not an independent nationality. Nor do Jews constitute a single nation with an identity of its own; they are citizens of the states to which they belong″.[12] This article was nullified in 1996.
Article 3 reads: ″The Palestinian Arab people possess the legal right to their homeland and have the right to determine their destiny after achieving the liberation of their country in accordance with their wishes and entirely of their own accord and will″.
The PLO has always, above all, the Palestinian people labelled as Arabs. This was a natural consequence of the fact that the PLO was an offshoot of the Arab League. It also has a tactical element, as to keep the backing of Arab states. Over the years, the Arab identity remained the stated nature of the Palestinian State.[14] It is a reference to the ″Arab State″ envisioned in the UN Partition Plan.
Secular versus Islamic
The PLO and its dominating faction Fatah are often contrasted to more religious orientated factions like Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). All, however, represent a predominant Muslim population. Practically the whole population of the Territories is Muslim, most of them Sunni. Only some 50,000 (ca 1%) of the 4.6 million Palestinians in the OPT is Palestinian Christian,[15][16] whereas roughly 120,000-130,000 live in Israel[15][16] and the vast majority in the Diaspora (estimated up to one half-million or more.[15][17]
The National Charter has no reference to religion. Under President Arafat, the Fatah-dominated Palestinian Authority adopted the 2003 Amended Basic Law, which stipulates Islam as the sole official religion in Palestine and the principles of Islamic sharia as a principal source of legislation.[14] The draft Constitution, which never materialized, contains the same provisions.[18][19] At the time, the PLC did not include a single Hamas member. The draft Constitution was formulated by the ″Constitutional Committee″, appointed with the approval of the PLO.[20][21]
Organization
Structure
Orient House, the former PLO headquarters in Jerusalem
The PLO incorporates a range of generally secular ideologies of different Palestinian movements "committed to the struggle for Palestinian independence and liberation," hence the name of the organization. It formally is an umbrella organization that includes "numerous organizations of the resistance movement, political parties, and popular organizations."[22] From the beginning, the PLO was designed as a government in exile, with a parliament (PNC), chosen by the Palestinian people, as the highest authority in the PLO, and an executing government (EC), elected by the PNC.[22] In practice, however, the organization was rather a hierarchic one with a military-like character, needed for its function as liberation organization, the "liberation of Palestine".[10]
Beside a Palestinian National Charter, which describes the ideology of the PLO, a constitution, named “Fundamental Law”, was adopted, which dictates the inner structure of the organization and the representation of the Palestinian people. A draft Constitution was written in 1963, to rule the PLO until free general elections among all the Palestinians in all the countries in which they resided could be held.[23] The Constitution was revised in 1968.[24]
Institutions
The Palestinian National Council has 740 members and the Executive Committee or ExCo has 18 members. The Palestinian Central Council or CC or PCC, established by the PNC in 1973, is the second leading body of the PLO.[25] The CC consists of 124 members from the PLO Executive Committee, PNC, PLC and other Palestinian organizations.[26] The EC includes 15 representatives of the PLC.[22] The CC functions as an intermediary body between the PNC and the EC. The CC makes policy decisions when PNC is not in session, acting as a link between the PNC and the PLO-EC. The CC is elected by the PNC and chaired by the PNC speaker.[27]
The PNC serves as the parliament for all Palestinians inside and outside of the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including Jerusalem. The PLO is governed internally by its “Fundamental Law”, which describes the powers and the relations between the organs of the PLO.[25]
Ahmad Shukairy was the first Chairman of the PLO Executive Committee from 1964 to 1967. Yasser Arafat occupied the function from 1969 until his death in 2004. He was succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas (also known as Abu Mazen).
According to an internal PLO document, the current PNC remains in function if elections are not possible. In absence of elections, most of the members of the PNC are appointed by the Executive Committee. The document further states that "the PNC represents all sectors of the Palestinian community worldwide, including numerous organizations of the resistance movement, political parties, popular organizations and independent personalities and figures from all sectors of life, including intellectuals, religious leaders and businessmen".[25]
Challenged representation
As of 2015, there have not been elections for many years, neither for the PNC, nor for the EC, the PCC and the President of the State of Palestine. The Executive Committee has formally 18 members, including its Chairman, but in past years many vacant seats in the Executive remained empty. Moreover, the largest representative of the inhabitants of the Palestinian Territories alongside Fatah, being Hamas, is not represented in the PLO at all. The results of the last parliamentary elections for the PLC, held in the Territories in 2006, with Hamas as the big winner while not even a member of the PLO, "underlined the clear lack of a popular mandate by the PLO leadership", according to PASSIA.[28] Individual elected members of the PLC representing Hamas, however, are automatically members of the PNC.
The representative status of the PLO is often challenged in the past.[10] It was for example doubted in 2011 by a group of Palestinian lawyers, jurists and legal scholars, due to lack of elections. They questioned the PLO's legitimacy to alter the status and role of the Organisation in respect of their status within the UN. They demanded for immediate and direct elections to the Palestine National Council to ″activate representative PLO institutions in order to preserve, consolidate, and strengthen the effective legal representation of the Palestinian people as a whole″, before changing the status within the UN.[29]
PLO versus PA
The 1993-1995 Oslo Accords deliberately detached the Palestinian population in the Occupied Palestinian Territories from the PLO and the Palestinians in exile by creating a Palestinian Authority (PA) for the Territories. A separate parliament and government were established. Mahmoud Abbas was one of the architects of the Oslo Accords.[30][31]
Although many in the PLO opposed the Oslo Agreements, the Executive Committee and the Central Council approved the Accords. It marked the beginning of the PLO’s decline, as the PA came to replace the PLO as the prime Palestinian political institution. Political factions within the PLO that had opposed the Oslo process were marginalized. Only during the Hamas-led PA Government in 2006-2007, the PLO resurfaced. After Hamas had taken over Gaza in 2007, Abbas issued a decree suspending the PLC and some sections of the Palestinian Basic Law, and appointing Salam Fayyad as Prime Minister.[10]
The PLO managed to overcome the separation by keeping the power in PLO and PA in one hand, upheld by Yasser Arafat. In 2002, Arafat held the functions Chairman of the PLO/Executive Committee and Chairman of Fatah, the dominating faction within the PLO, as well as President of the Palestinian National Authority. He also controlled the Palestinian National Security Forces.[32]
Internal politics
On 4 February 1969, Fatah founder Arafat was elected Chairman of the PLO in Cairo.[33][34] Since, Fatah has been the dominant factor within the PLO, which still continues in 2015.
Under pressure from the international community led by Israel and US, and from inside his own party Fatah, Arafat partially transferred some of his strongly centralized power in 2003,[19][32][35] causing strong tensions within the Palestinian leadership. Arafat appointed Mahmoud Abbas as prime minister, but this resulted in disputes about the transfer of tasks and responsibilities. Abbas was strongly supported by the US and the international community, because he was supposed to be more willing to give far-reaching concessions to Israel.[32] While Arafat had retained most of his power and a power struggle within Fatah continued, the leadership was criticised for corruption and nepotism.[36]
After Arafat's death, Abbas increasingly gained exclusive powers within both PLO and PA as well as in Fatah, until he had acquired the same power as previously Arafat.[37] In absence of a functioning parliament and Executive, he even got legislative power. Only Hamas-ruled Gaza has a more or less functioning parliament.[38] There appeared reports of widespread corruption and nepotism.[37][39]
2015 struggle for power
See also: Politics of the Palestinian National Authority
With a de facto defunct parlement and Executive, Mahmoud Abbas increasingly gained exclusive powers within both PLO and PA as well as in Fatah. After Abbas had announced his resignation as head of the Executive Committee in August 2015, Deputy Chief of the Hamas Political Bureau Mousa Abu-Marzouk regarded this step as an attempt to get rid of his rivals. The accompanying collective resignations (needed in order to legally call for the Palestinian National Council to convene[40]) "came to pave the way ahead of electing a new executive empty of all rivals", according to Abu-Marzouk.[41] Former Fatah leader Mohamed Dahlan called it an attempt to destroy the last effective Palestinian institution and to “get rid of all opposition voices and all restrictions and monitors, who are looking at his political, legal and financial crimes[42]
Political status
The Palestine Liberation Organization is recognized by the Arab League as "the sole and legitimate representative of the Palestinian people",[4][25] and by the United Nations as "the representative of the Palestinian people".[43]
The PLO was designated a terrorist organization by the United States in 1987,[44][45] but in 1988 a presidential waiver was issued which permitted contact with the organization.[46] Most of the rest of the world recognized the PLO as the legitimate representatives of the Palestinian people from the mid-1970s onwards (after the PLO's admission to the UN as an observer.)[47]
Israel considered the PLO to be a terrorist organization until the Madrid Conference in 1991.[46] In 1993, PLO chairman Yasser Arafat recognized the State of Israel in an official letter to its prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin. In response to Arafat's letter, Israel decided to revise its stance toward the PLO and to recognize the organization as the representative of the Palestinian people.[48][49] This led to the signing of the Oslo Accords in 1993.
Status at the United Nations
Further information: State of Palestine, International recognition of the State of Palestine, List of current Permanent Representatives to the United Nations § United Nations General Assembly observers and Category:Permanent Observers of Palestine to the United Nations
Observer status
The United Nations General Assembly recognized the PLO as the "representative of the Palestinian people" in Resolution 3210 and Resolution 3236, and granted the PLO observer status on 22 November 1974 in Resolution 3237. On 12 January 1976 the UN Security Council voted 11–1 with 3 abstentions to allow the Palestinian Liberation Organization to participate in a Security Council debate without voting rights, a privilege usually restricted to UN member states. It was admitted as a full member of the Asia group on 2 April 1986.[50][51][52]
After the Palestinian Declaration of Independence the PLO's representation was renamed Palestine.[53] On 7 July 1998, this status was extended to allow participation in General Assembly debates, though not in voting.[54]
2011 application for UN state membership
When President Mahmoud Abbas submitted an application for UN state membership, in September 2011, Palestinian lawyers, jurists and legal scholars expressed their concern that the change of Palestine's status in the UN (since 1988 designated as "Palestine" in place of "Palestine Liberation Organization") could have negative implications on the legal position of the Palestinian people. They warned for the risk of fragmentation, where the State of Palestine would represent the people within the UN and the PLO represent the people outside the UN, the latter including the Palestinians in exile, where refugees constitute more than half of the Palestinian people. They were also afraid of the loss of representation of the refugees in the UN.[29] In Resolution 67/19 of November 2012, Palestine was at last awarded non-member observer State status, but the General Assembly maintained the status of the PLO.
′Non-member observer state′ status
By September 2012, with their application for full membership stalled due to the inability of Security Council members to 'make a unanimous recommendation', the PLO had decided to pursue an upgrade in status from "observer entity" to "non-member observer state". On 29 November 2012, Resolution 67/19 passed, upgrading Palestine to "non-member observer State" status in the United Nations.[55][56][57] The new status equates Palestine's with that of the Holy See.[58]
Diplomatic representation
Main article: Foreign relations of the Palestine Liberation Organization
See also: Category:Ambassadors of Palestine
The Palestine Information Office was registered with the Justice Department of the United States as a foreign agent until 1968, when it was closed. It was reopened in 1989 as the Palestine Affairs Center.[59] The PLO Mission office, in Washington D.C was opened in 1994, and represented the PLO in the United States. On 20 July 2010, the United States Department of State agreed to upgrade the status of the PLO Mission in the United States to "General Delegation of the PLO".[60]
Peace process
Further information: Palestinian views on the peace process § Yasser Arafat and the_PLO
Initially, as a guerrilla organization, the PLO performed actions against Israel in the 1970s and early 1980s, regarded as terroristic activities by Israel and regarded as a war of liberation by the PLO. In 1988, however, the PLO officially endorsed a two-state solution, contingent on terms such as making East Jerusalem capital of the Palestinian state and giving Palestinians the right of return to land occupied by Palestinians prior to 1948, as well as the right to continue armed struggle until the end of "The Zionist Entity."[61] In 1996, the PLO nullified the articles of the PLO's Charter, or parts of it, which called for the destruction of Israel and for armed resistance.[62]
Ten Point Program
Following the failure of the armies of Egypt and Syria to defeat Israel in the October 1973 Yom Kippur War, which broke the status quo existing since the June 1967 Six Day War, the PLO began formulating a strategic alternative.[63] Now, they intended to establish a ″national authority″ over every territory they would be able to reconquer. From 1 to 9 June 1974, the Palestine National Council held its 12th meeting in Cairo. On 8 June, the Ten Point Program was adopted. The Program stated:
″The Liberation Organization will employ all means, and first and foremost armed struggle, to liberate Palestinian territory and to establish the independent combatant national authority for the people over every part of Palestinian territory that is liberated. This will require further changes being effected in the balance of power in favour of our people and their struggle.″ (article 2)[64]
With ″every part of Palestinian territory that is liberated″ was implicitly meant the West Bank and Gaza Strip, albeit presented as an interim goal.[63] The final goal remained ″completing the liberation of all Palestinian territory″ and ″recover all their national rights and, first and foremost, their rights to return and to self-determination on the whole of the soil of their homeland″.[65] Also UN Resolution 242 was still rejected.[64]
While clinging to armed struggle as the prime means, the PLO did no longer exclude peaceful means.Therefore, the Ten Point Program was considered the first attempt by the PLO at peaceful resolution. In October 1974, the Arab League proclaimed the PLO ″the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people in any Palestinian territory that is liberated″, and also the UN recognized the PLO. From then, the diplomatic road was prepared. On the other hand, the Program was rejected by more radical factions and eventually caused a split in the movement.[63]
First Intifada
Main article: First Intifada
In 1987, the First Intifada broke out in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The Intifada caught the PLO by surprise,[66] and the leadership abroad could only indirectly influence the events. A new local leadership emerged, the Unified National Leadership of the Uprising (UNLU), comprising many leading Palestinian factions. After King Hussein of Jordan proclaimed the administrative and legal separation of the West Bank from Jordan in 1988,[67] the Palestine National Council adopted the Palestinian Declaration of Independence in Algiers, proclaiming an independent State of Palestine. The declaration made reference to UN resolutions without explicitly mentioning Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338.
A month later, Arafat declared in Geneva that the PLO would support a solution of the conflict based on these Resolutions. Effectively, the PLO recognized Israel's right to exist within pre-1967 borders, with the understanding that the Palestinians would be allowed to set up their own state in the West Bank and Gaza. The United States accepted this clarification by Arafat and began to allow diplomatic contacts with PLO officials. The Proclamation of Independence did not lead to statehood, although over 100 states recognised the State of Palestine.
Oslo Accords
In 1993, the PLO secretly negotiated the Oslo Accords with Israel.[68] The accords were signed on 20 August 1993.[68] There was a subsequent public ceremony in Washington D.C. on 13 September 1993 with Yasser Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin.[69] The Accords granted the Palestinians right to self-government on the Gaza Strip and the city of Jericho in the West Bank through the creation of the Palestinian Authority. Yasser Arafat was appointed head of the Palestinian Authority and a timetable for elections was laid out. The headquarters of the PLO were moved to Ramallah on the West Bank.[2][3]
Armed actions
Early actions
The PLO began their militancy campaign from its inception with an attack on Israel's National Water Carrier in January 1965.[46] The group used guerrilla tactics to attack Israel from their bases in Jordan (including the West Bank), Lebanon, Egypt (Gaza Strip), and Syria.[70]
The most notable of what were considered terrorist acts committed by member organizations of the PLO were:
- The 1970 Avivim school bus massacre by the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), killed nine children, three adults and crippled 19.
- In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, the second-largest PLO faction after al-Fatah, carried out a number of attacks and plane hijackings mostly directed at Israel, most infamously the Dawson's Field hijackings, which precipitated the Black September in Jordan crisis.
- In 1972, the Black September Organization carried out the Munich massacre of Israeli Olympic athletes.
- In 1974, members of the DFLP seized a school in Israel and killed a total of 26 students and adults and wounded over 70 in the Ma'alot massacre.
- The 1975, Savoy Hotel hostage situation killing 8 hostages and 3 soldiers, carried out by Fatah.
- The 1978, Coastal Road massacre killing 37 Israelis and wounding 76, also carried out by Fatah.
War of attrition
From 1967 to September 1970 the PLO, with passive support from Jordan, fought a war of attrition with Israel. During this time, the PLO launched artillery attacks on the moshavim and kibbutzim of Bet Shean Valley Regional Council, while fedayeen launched numerous attacks on Israeli forces. Israel raided the PLO camps in Jordan, including Karameh, withdrawing only under Jordanian military pressure.[71]
This conflict culminated in Jordan's expulsion of the PLO to Lebanon in July 1971.
Black September in Jordan
Main article: Black September in Jordan
The PLO suffered a major reversal with the Jordanian assault on its armed groups in the events known as Black September in 1970. The Palestinian groups were expelled from Jordan, and during the 1970s, the PLO was effectively an umbrella group of eight organizations headquartered in Damascus and Beirut, all devoted to armed struggle against Zionism or Israeli occupation, using methods which included direct clashing and guerrilla warfare against Israel. After Black September, the Cairo Agreement led the PLO to establish itself in Lebanon.
Lebanon and the Lebanese Civil War
Main articles: Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon and Lebanese Civil War
In the late 1960s, and especially after the expulsion of the Palestinian militants from Jordan in Black September events in 1970–1971, Lebanon had become the base for PLO operations. Palestinian militant organizations relocated their headquarters to South Lebanon, and relying on the support in Palestinian refugee camps, waged a campaign of attacks on the Galilee and on Israeli and Jewish targets worldwide. Increasing penetration of Palestinians into Lebanese politics and Israeli retaliations gradually deteriorated the situation.
By the mid-1970s, Arafat and his Fatah movement found themselves in a tenuous position.[citation needed] Arafat increasingly called for diplomacy, perhaps best symbolized by his Ten Points Program and his support for a UN Security Council resolution proposed in 1976 calling for a two-state settlement on the pre-1967 borders.[citation needed] But the Rejectionist Front denounced the calls for diplomacy, and a diplomatic solution was vetoed by the United States.[citation needed] In 1975, the increasing tensions between Palestinian militants and Christian militias exploded into the Lebanese Civil War, involving all factions. On 20 January 1976, the PLO took part in the Damour massacre in retaliation to the Karantina massacre. The PLO and Lebanese National Movement attacked the Christian town of Damour, killing 684 civilians and forcing the remainder of the towns population to flee. In 1976 Syria joined the war by invading Lebanon, which began the 29‑year Syrian occupation of Lebanon, and in 1978 Israel invaded South Lebanon, in response to the Coastal Road Massacre, executed by Palestinian militants based in Lebanon.
The population in the West Bank and Gaza Strip saw Arafat as their best hope for a resolution to the conflict.[citation needed] This was especially so in the aftermath of the Camp David Accords of 1978 between Israel and Egypt, which the Palestinians saw as a blow to their aspirations to self-determination.[citation needed] Abu Nidal, a sworn enemy of the PLO since 1974,[citation needed] assassinated the PLO's diplomatic envoy to the European Economic Community, which in the Venice Declaration of 1980 had called for the Palestinian right of self-determination to be recognized by Israel.
Opposition to Arafat was fierce not only among radical Arab groups, but also among many on the Israeli right.[citation needed] This included Menachem Begin, who had stated on more than one occasion that even if the PLO accepted UN Security Council Resolution 242 and recognized Israel's right to exist, he would never negotiate with the organization.[72][verification needed] This contradicted the official United States position that it would negotiate with the PLO if the PLO accepted Resolution 242 and recognized Israel, which the PLO had thus far been unwilling to do. Other Arab voices had recently called for a diplomatic resolution to the hostilities in accord with the international consensus, including Egyptian leader Anwar Sadat on his visit to Washington, DC in August 1981, and Crown Prince Fahd of Saudi Arabia in his 7 August peace proposal; together with Arafat's diplomatic maneuver, these developments made Israel's argument that it had "no partner for peace" seem increasingly problematic. Thus, in the eyes of Israeli hard-liners, "the Palestinians posed a greater challenge to Israel as a peacemaking organization than as a military one".[73]
After the appointment of Ariel Sharon to the post of Minister of defence in 1981, the Israeli government policy of allowing political growth to occur in the occupied West Bank and Gaza strip changed. The Israeli government tried, unsuccessfully, to dictate terms of political growth by replacing local pro-PLO leaders with an Israeli civil administration.[74]
In 1982, after an attack on a senior Israeli diplomat by Lebanon-based Palestinian militants in Lebanon, Israel invaded Lebanon in a much larger scale in coordination with the Lebanese Christian militias, reaching Beirut and eventually resulting in ousting of the PLO headquarters in June that year. Low-level Palestinian insurgency in Lebanon continued in parallel with the consolidation of Shia militant organizations, but became a secondary concern to Israeli military and other Lebanese factions. With ousting of the PLO, the Lebanese Civil War gradually turned into a prolonged conflict, shifting from mainly PLO-Christian conflict into involvement of all Lebanese factions – whether Sunni, Shia, Druze, and Christians.
Tunis
In 1982, the PLO relocated to Tunis, Tunisia after it was driven out of Lebanon by Israel during Israel's six-month invasion of Lebanon. Following massive raids by Israeli forces in Beirut, it is estimated that 8,000 PLO fighters evacuated the city and dispersed.[75]
On 1 October 1985, in Operation Wooden Leg, Israeli Air Force F-15s bombed the PLO's Tunis headquarters, killing more than 60 people.
It is suggested that the Tunis period (1982–1991) was a negative point in the PLO's history, leading up to the Oslo negotiations and formation of the Palestinian Authority (PA). The PLO in exile was distant from a concentrated number of Palestinians and became far less effective.[76] There was a significant reduction in centres of research, political debates or journalistic endeavours that had encouraged an energised public presence of the PLO in Beirut. More and more Palestinians were abandoned, and many felt that this was the beginning of the end.[77]
Second Intifada
Main article: Al-Aqsa Intifada
The Second or Al-Aqsa Intifada started concurrent with the breakdown of talks at Camp David with Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak. The Intifada never ended officially, but violence hit relatively low levels during 2005. The death toll both military and civilians of the entire conflict in 2000–2004 is estimated to be 3,223 Palestinians and 950 Israelis, although this number is criticized for not differentiating between combatants and civilians.[citation needed] Members of the PLO have claimed responsibility for a number of attacks against Israelis during the Second Intifada[citation needed].
In February 2015 in a civil case considered by a US federal court the Palestinian Authority and Palestine Liberation Organization were found liable for the death and injuries of US citizens in a number of terrorist attacks in Israel from 2001 to 2004. The damages are to be $655.5 million.[78]
Membership
[citation needed]
Present members include:
- Fatah – Largest faction, secular, left-wing nationalist.
- The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) – Second largest, radical left militant and communist
- The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP) – Third largest, communist
- The Palestinian People's Party (PPP) – Ex-communist, Social Democratic, non-militant
- The Palestine Liberation Front (PLF, Abu Abbas faction) – Minor left-wing faction
- The Arab Liberation Front (ALF) – Minor faction, aligned to the Iraqi Ba'ath Party
- As-Sa'iqa – Syrian-controlled Ba'athist faction
- The Palestinian Democratic Union (Fida) – Minor democratic socialist, 2 state solution, non militant faction
- The Palestinian Popular Struggle Front (PPSF, Samir Ghawsha faction) – minor socialist faction
- The Palestinian Arab Front (PAF) – minor pro-Fatah, former Iraqi Ba'athists faction
Former member groups of the PLO include:
- The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command (PFLP-GC)[79]
Executive Committee Chairmen
- Ahmad Shukeiri (2 June 1964 – 24 December 1967)
- Yahya Hammuda (24 December 1967 – 2 February 1969)
- Yasser Arafat "Abu Amar" (4 February 1969 – 11 November 2004)
-
- (in exile in Jordan to April 1971; Lebanon 1971 – December 1982; and Tunis December 1982 – May 1994)
- Mahmoud Abbas "Abu Mazen" (From 29 October 2004 – present)
-
- (acting [for Arafat] until 11 November 2004)
See also
| Wikisource has original text related to this article:
PLO Charter/Covenant
|
- PLO Negotiation Affairs Department
- Human rights in the Palestinian National Authority
- Palestinian political violence
- Proposals for a Palestinian state
- Palestinian territories
- Palestinian Liberation Army
- Fatah–Hamas conflict
- Israeli–Palestinian conflict
- Violence in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
- Palestine–Tamil Eelam relations
- Palestinian expulsion from Kuwait
References
- ^ Arabs Create Organization For Recovery of Palestine New York Times; 29 May 1964; "JERUSALEM, (Jordanian Sector) 28 May (Reuters) -The creation of Palestine liberation organization was announced today..."]
- ^ a b In West Bank, Ramallah looks ever more like capital: "Abbas opened new Ramallah headquarters for the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which was headquartered in East Jerusalem in the years between its establishment in 1964 and Israel's capture of the land in 1967. "God willing, the headquarters of the PLO will return to Jerusalem soon," Abbas said at the 23 November opening ceremony of the building, which the PLO is renting."
- ^ a b Abbas: Referendum law is ‘obstacle to peace’: "...Abbas told reporters in Ramallah, where he inaugurated a new headquarters for the PLO."
- ^ a b Madiha Rashid al Madfai, Jordan, the United States and the Middle East Peace Process, 1974–1991, Cambridge Middle East Library, Cambridge University Press (1993). ISBN 0-521-41523-3. p. 21:"On 28 October 1974, the seventh Arab summit conference held in Rabat designated the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people and reaffirmed their right to establish an independent state of urgency."
- ^ Geldenhuys, Deon (1990). Isolated states: a comparative analysis. Cambridge University Press. p. 155. ISBN 0-521-40268-9.
The organisation has also been recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people by well over 100 states…
- ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3210. "Invites the Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people, to participate in the deliberations of the General Assembly on the question of Palestine in plenary meetings."
- ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3236. "Having heard the statement of the Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people, …"
- ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3237
- ^ Kim Murphy. "Israel and PLO, in Historic Bid for Peace, Agree to Mutual Recognition," Los Angeles Times, 10 September 1993.
- ^ a b c d The PLO and the crisis of representation. Mazen Masri, Muftah, 15 October 2010
- ^ a b Palestinian National Charter (1964) published by the Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations
- ^ a b c The Palestinian National Charter: Resolutions of the Palestine National Council July 1-17, 1968, on Avalon
- ^ a b Letter From President Yasser Arafat to President Clinton, 13 January 1998
- ^ a b 2003 Amended Basic Law
Art. 1: ″Palestine is part of the larger Arab world, and the Palestinian people are part of the Arab nation.″; Art. 4: ″Islam is the official religion in Palestine. Respect for the sanctity of all other divine religions shall be maintained; The principles of Islamic Shari’a shall be a principal source of legislation.; Arabic shall be the official language.″ - ^ a b c Palestinian Christians in the Holy Land and the Diaspora. Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, 21 October 2014
- ^ a b Palestinian Christians in the Holy Land. Institute for Middle East Understanding, 17 December 2012
- ^ Christian Presence in Palestine and the Diaspora: Statistics, Challenges and Opportunities. Global Ministries, 31 August 2012
- ^ The revision of the third draft of the constitution of the State of Palestine (Art. 5 and 7). 15 May 2003
- ^ a b Draft Palestine Constitution. MidEastWeb, 25 March 2003
- ^ The draft of the Palestinian Constitution. Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research (PSR), February 2001
- ^ Palestinian Constitution. Palestinian National Authority, April 2003
- ^ a b c Palestine Liberation Organization. Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations
- ^ The Draft Constitution of the Palestine Liberation Organization (1963) See Artcle 4. The Jerusalem Fund
- ^ Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO):Constitution. Text of the 1968 Constitution on JVL
- ^ a b c d Memo: Distinction between PLO, PA, PNC, PLC. Al Jazeera,The Palestine Papers, 5 February 2006. Available on. Internal PLO document from Mazen Masri, legal researcher, to the PLO Negotiations Support Unit. See also note 4 in the pdf.
- ^ PLO Central Council Members
- ^ PALESTINIAN ORGANISATIONS
- ^ PLO vs. PA, p. 9. Passia, September 2014
- ^ a b Palestinian lawyers affirm essential role of PLO at UN. Ma'an News Agency, 13 October 2011
- ^ Profile: Mahmoud Abbas. BBC, 5 November 2009
- ^ Who's Who in the Arab World 2007-2008. Walter de Gruyter, 2007
- ^ a b c Arafat vs Abbas. Al-Ahram Weekly, 17–23 July 2003, Issue No. 647
- ^ "The Morning Record - Google News Archive Search". google.com.
- ^ FATAH WINS CONTROL OF PALESTINE GROUP;New York Times; 5 Feb 1969
- ^ Arafat urges overhaul of Palestinian government. CNN, 15 May 2002
- ^ Arafat urged to end corruption after unrest. Chris McGreal, The Guardian, 20 July 2004
- ^ a b Critics slam Mahmoud Abbas' PLO resignation as 'farce'. Mel Frykberg, Al Jazeera, 28 August 2015
- ^ The Legislative Status in the Palestinian Territory. Birzeit University, December 2012.
″Article 43 of the Amended Basic Law grants the President the power to issue decrees that have the power of law in cases of necessity that cannot be delayed. ... Towards 9 January 2009, laws used to be sent by fax or email to the PNA President for approval within 30 days. Otherwise, laws would automatically enter into force. According to the new Law on the Official Gazette, these were published in the Official Gazette. After 9 January 2009, however, no laws have been sent to the President’s Office for approval and promulgation. In this context, Mr. Barham went over major laws passed by the Gaza-based PLC.″ - ^ Report Highlights Corruption in Palestinian Institutions. Hazem Balousha, Al-Monitor, 6 May 2013
- ^ Abbas resigns from PLO Executive Committee. The Middle East Monitor, 20 August 2015
- ^ Hamas: Abbas to get rid of rivals in PLO Executive Committee. The Middle East Monitor, 24 August 2015
- ^ Dahlan: Abbas is trying to destroy Palestinian institutions. The Middle East Monitor, 25 August 2015
- ^ Resolution 3210 (XXIX). Invitation to the Palestine Liberation Organization. UNGA, 14 October 1974
"Invites the Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people, to participate in the deliberations of the General Assembly on the question of Palestine in plenary meetings." - ^ U.S. Code TITLE 22 > CHAPTER 61 > § 5201. Findings; determinations, Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. Retrieved 5 December 2006.
- ^ 22 USC CHAPTER 61 – ANTI-TERRORISM – PLO, Office of the Law Revision Counsel (United States). Retrieved 5 December 2006.
- ^ a b c FUNDING EVIL, How Terrorism Is Financed – and How to Stop It By Rachel Ehrenfeld
- ^ Hajjar, 2005, p. 53.
- ^ Israel-PLO Recognition – Exchange of Letters between PM Rabin and Chairman Arafat – 9–1 Sept, 993
- ^ "At the threshold of peace Mutual recognition ends 3 decades of strife between Israel and PLO ISRAELI-PLO PEACE TALKS". Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations. "Status of Palestine at the United Nations". United Nations. Retrieved 9 December 2010. : "On 2 April 1986, the Asian Group of the U.N. decided to accept the PLO as a full member."
- ^ United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2002). "Government structures". United Nations. Retrieved 5 December 2010. : "At present, the PLO is a full member of the Asian Group of the United Nations".
- ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 52/250: Participation of Palestine in the work of the United Nations (1998): "Palestine enjoys full membership in the Group of Asian States".
- ^ UN General Assembly (9 December 1988). "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 43/177". UN Information System on the Question of Palestine. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
- ^ "The Law and Practice of the United Nations". google.com.
- ^ General Assembly Votes Overwhelmingly to Accord Palestine ‘Non-Member Observer State’ Status in United Nations. UN press release, 29 November 2012
- ^ "A/67/L.28 of 26 November 2012 and A/RES/67/19 of 29 November 2012". Unispal.un.org.
- ^ Palestine: What is in a name (change)? - Inside Story. Al Jazeera
- ^ Non-member States having received a standing invitation to participate as observers in the sessions and the work of the General Assembly and maintaining permanent observer missions at Headquarters. Official UN website
- ^ The Palestinian Diaspora: Formation of Identities and Politics of Homeland, By Helena Lindholm Schulz, Juliane Hammer, Routledge, 2003 p. 81
- ^ Mozgovaya, Natasha. (2010-07-22) U.S. upgrades status of Palestinian mission in Washington Israel News Broadcast. Haaretz. Retrieved on 2013-08-25.
- ^ William L. Cleveland, A History of the Modern Middle East, Westview Press (2004). ISBN 0-8133-4048-9.
- ^ Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations, Decisions and Actions Related to the Palestine National Charter
- ^ a b c The PLO at the Crossroads—Moderation, Encirclement, Future Prospects. See par. The PLO on the Road to “Moderation”. Sameer Abraham, MER 80,Volume: 9, September/October 1979
- ^ a b Text of the Ten Point Program, 8 June 1974. On UNISPAL
- ^ The PNC Program of 1974, 8 June 1974. On the site of MidEastWeb for Coexistence R.A. – Middle East Resources. Page includes commentary.
- ^ Yasser Arafat obituary, socialistworld.net (Committee for a Worker’s International) 11 November 2004. Retrieved 5 December 2006.
- ^ King Hussein, Address to the Nation, Amman, Jordan, 31 July 1988. On the Royal Hashemit Court's official site in tribute to King Hussein. Retrieved 5 December 2006.
- ^ a b "Violent Globalisms". google.com.
- ^ "Encyclopedia of the Palestinians". google.com.
- ^ Arab-Israeli Conflict, Encarta Archived 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine[dead link]
- ^ Ben-Tzedef, Eviatar (2008-03-24). "Inferno at Karameh". nfc (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 21 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
- ^ Smith, op. cit., p. 357
- ^ Smith, op. cit., 376
- ^ Shaul Mishal, Ranan D. Kuperman, David Boas (2001). Investment in Peace: Politics of Economic Cooperation Between Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian Authority. Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 1-902210-88-3 p 64
- ^ Helena Cobban, The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: People, Power and Politics, p3
- ^ Rashid Khalidi, The Iron Cage, The Story of the Struffle for Palestinian Statehood, p 180
- ^ Rashid Khalidi, The Iron Cage, The Story of the Struffle for Palestinian Statehood, p164
- ^ Palestinian Groups Are Found Liable at Manhattan Terror Trial
- ^ Palestinian Factions, CRS Report for Congress, Aaron D. Pina, 8 June 2005: "Damascus based faction that is politically close to Syria and is a Marxist group that suspended its participation in the PLO after the 1993 Israel-Palestinian Declaration of Principles. The PFLP-GC split from the PFLP (established by Dr. George Habbash) in 1968, claiming it wanted to focus more on fighting and less on politics."
Bibliography
- Hajjar, Lisa (2005). Courting conflict: the Israeli military court system in the West Bank and Gaza (Illustrated ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 9780520241947.
- Yezid Sayigh, “Struggle Within, Struggle Without: the Transformation of PLO politics since 1982,” International Affairs vol. 65, no. 2 (spring 1989) pages 247–271.
External links
Official sites
- PLO Negotiations Affairs Department
- Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations
Documents
- Statement of Proclamation of the Organization (1964)
- Palestinian National Charter (1968) published by The Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- Palestinian National Charter (1968) on Wikisource
- Palestinian National Charter (1964) published by the Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations
- PLO Political Program Adopted at the 12th Session of the Palestine National Council Cairo, 8 June 1974 published by the Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations]
- Decisions and Actions related to the Palestine National Charter (1996) at the Wayback Machine (archived January 18, 2008) published by the Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations]
- Constitution of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) (1968)
Analysis
- Commentary on the Palestine National Charter published by the Jewish Virtual Library
- Dean Peter F. Krogh Discusses the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
General
- PLO in Oxford Islamic Studies Online
- Palestinian Factions CRS Report for Congress, Aaron D. Pina, 8 June 2005
- Brief history of the Palestine Liberation Organization by GlobalSecurity.org
- Collection of Documents, Biographies and other information on the Palestine Liberation Organization published by the Jewish Virtual Library
- The Palestinian Vision of Peace (2002) as stated by the PLO Negotiations Affairs Department
- Documents regarding the Soviet Ministry of Defense 1983 special operation requested by Yasir Arafat: delivery of two German-built coast guard cutters belonging to the PLO from Syria to Tunis – (PDF in Russian) from the Soviet Archives [1] collected by Vladimir Bukovsky
- Photo enlargement shows Palestinians marching in West Berlin, 15 November 69.
- Collection of over 150 PLO posters
- Palestine - P.L.O. Information bulletin Archive. Some archived issues: 1978, 1979, 1982
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
UpToDate Contents
全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.
- 1. 閉経前の骨粗鬆症の疫学および病因 epidemiology and etiology of premenopausal osteoporosis
- 2. 妊娠中および産後の筋骨格系の変化および疼痛 musculoskeletal changes and pain during pregnancy and postpartum
English Journal
- Novel phospholipid-based topical formulations of tamoxifen: evaluation for antipsoriatic activity using mouse-tail model.
- Bhatia A1, Singh B, Wadhwa S, Raza K, Katare OP.Author information 1Drug Delivery Research Group, University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences-UGC Center of Advanced Study, Panjab University , Chandigarh , India.AbstractOBJECTIVE: Tamoxifen (TAM) is widely employed in the treatment of breast malignancies and is also found to be effective in psoriasis treatment. The current studies aimed to explore the antipsoriatic potential of topical TAM encapsulated in the new generation phospholipid-based vesicular and micellar systems, i.e. flexible membrane vesicles (FMVs) and pluronic lecithinized organogels (PLOs).
- Pharmaceutical development and technology.Pharm Dev Technol.2014 Mar;19(2):160-3. doi: 10.3109/10837450.2013.763260. Epub 2013 Jan 31.
- OBJECTIVE: Tamoxifen (TAM) is widely employed in the treatment of breast malignancies and is also found to be effective in psoriasis treatment. The current studies aimed to explore the antipsoriatic potential of topical TAM encapsulated in the new generation phospholipid-based vesicular and micellar
- PMID 23369039
- Development and characterization of a ricinoleic acid poloxamer gel system for transdermal eyelid delivery.
- Boddu SH1, Bonam SP, Jung R.Author information 1Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo , Toledo, OH , USA.AbstractAbstract Objective: This study deals with the preparation and evaluation of a pluronic lecithin organogel (PLO gel) containing ricinoleic acid for the transdermal eyelid delivery of dexamethasone and tobramycin. Methods: Five different PLO gel formulations (F1, F2, F3, F4 and F5) containing tobramycin (0.3%) and dexamethasone (0.1%) were prepared and compared to a conventional PLO gel (light mineral oil PLO gel, F6) with respect to physical appearance and viscosity. The optimized ricinoleic acid PLO gel formulation (F2) was further characterized for pH, gelation temperature, morphology and drug content. Ex vivo permeability of dexamethasone and bactericidal activity of tobramycin from formulation F2 was tested, and values were compared to the marketed Tobradex® eye ointment. Results: No apparent changes in the physical appearance and consistency were observed when ricinoleic acid was used as the oil phase. The pH of the optimized ricinoleic acid PLO gel (formulation F2) was found to be 6.54 with a gelation temperature of 31 °C. The drug content of tobramycin and dexamethasone were found to be 102.8% and 100.14%, respectively. The penetration profile of dexamethasone from formulation F2 was found to be much higher than the marketed Tobradex® eye ointment. F2 showed a better antimicrobial activity and higher zones of inhibition when compared to the marketed Tobradex® eye ointment. Conclusion: The findings of this investigation indicate that the ricinoleic acid PLO gel has the potential for use as a transdermal eyelid delivery system.
- Drug development and industrial pharmacy.Drug Dev Ind Pharm.2014 Feb 12. [Epub ahead of print]
- Abstract Objective: This study deals with the preparation and evaluation of a pluronic lecithin organogel (PLO gel) containing ricinoleic acid for the transdermal eyelid delivery of dexamethasone and tobramycin. Methods: Five different PLO gel formulations (F1, F2, F3, F4 and F5) containing tobramyc
- PMID 24517574
- Emergence of a BCR-ABL Translocation in a Patient With the JAK2V617F Mutation: Evidence for Secondary Acquisition of BCR-ABL in the JAK2V617F Clone.
- Yamada O1, Mahfoudhi E, Plo I, Ozaki K, Nakatake M, Akiyama M, Yamada H, Kawauchi K, Vainchenker W.
- Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.J Clin Oncol.2014 Feb 10. [Epub ahead of print]
- PMID 24516035
Japanese Journal
- Preparation and Evaluation of PEGylated Poly-L-ornithine Complex as a Novel Absorption Enhancer
- Biological & pharmaceutical bulletin 40(2), 205-211, 2017-02
- NAID 40021077710
- Preparation and Evaluation of PEGylated Poly-L-ornithine Complex as a Novel Absorption Enhancer
- Ｂｉｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌ ＆ Ｐｈａｒｍａｃｅｕｔｉｃａｌ Ｂｕｌｌｅｔｉｎ 40(2), 205-211, 2017
- NAID 130005308417
- PLOによるヨルダンとの同盟関係の模索・1982~1987年 : インティファーダ前史としての外交戦略の展開
- 日本中東学会年報 = Annals of Japan Association for Middle East Studies (32), 37-70, 2016
- NAID 40020930866
Related Pictures
★リンクテーブル★
| 関連記事 | 「PL」「P」 |
「PL」
- 複合感冒薬
- PL配合顆粒
- 総合感冒剤／鎮咳,抗ヒスタミン,解熱配合剤／総合感冒剤
参考
http://www.interq.or.jp/ox/dwm/se/se11/se1180107.html
- 添付文書
http://www.info.pmda.go.jp/go/pack/1180107D1131_1_02/
「P」