High-density lipoprotein (HDL) is one of the five major groups of lipoproteins, which, in order of sizes, largest to smallest, are chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, and HDL, which enable lipids like cholesterol and triglycerides to be transported within the water-based bloodstream. In healthy individuals, about thirty percent of blood cholesterol is carried by HDL.[1]
Blood tests typically report HDL-C level, i.e. the amount of cholesterol contained in HDL particles. It is often contrasted with low-density or LDL cholesterol or LDL-C. HDL particles are able to remove cholesterol from within artery atheroma[citation needed] and transport it back to the liver for excretion or re-utilization, which is the main reason why the cholesterol carried within HDL particles (HDL-C) is sometimes called "good cholesterol" (despite the fact that it is exactly the same as the cholesterol in LDL particles). Those with higher levels of HDL-C seem to have fewer problems with cardiovascular diseases, while those with low HDL-C cholesterol levels (less than 40 mg/dL or about 1 mmol/L) have increased rates for heart disease.[2] While higher HDL levels are correlated with cardiovascular health, no incremental increase in HDL has been proven to improve health. In other words, while high HDL levels might correlate with better cardiovascular health, specifically increasing one's HDL might not increase cardiovascular health.[3] Additionally, those few individuals producing an abnormal, apparently more efficient, HDL ApoA1 protein variant called ApoA-1 Milano, have low measured HDL-C levels yet very low rates of cardiovascular events even with high blood cholesterol values.[citation needed]
These days, another research suggests that "HDL with apoC-III could increase the risk of future CHD".[4]
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Contents
- 1 Structure and function
- 2 Epidemiology
- 3 Estimating HDL via associated cholesterol
- 4 Measuring HDL concentration and sizes
- 4.1 Chemical measurements
- 4.2 Electrophoresis measurements
- 4.3 NMR measurements
- 4.3.1 Optimal Total and Large HDL concentrations
- 5 Memory
- 6 Increasing HDL levels
- 6.1 Diet and lifestyle
- 6.2 Drugs
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 External links
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Structure and function
HDL is the smallest of the lipoprotein particles. They are the densest because they contain the highest proportion of protein to cholesterol. Their most abundant apolipoproteins are apo A-I and apo A-II.[5] The liver synthesizes these lipoproteins as complexes of apolipoproteins and phospholipid, which resemble cholesterol-free flattened spherical lipoprotein particles. They are capable of picking up cholesterol, carried internally, from cells by interaction with the ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1). A plasma enzyme called lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) converts the free cholesterol into cholesteryl ester (a more hydrophobic form of cholesterol), which is then sequestered into the core of the lipoprotein particle, eventually making the newly synthesized HDL spherical. They increase in size as they circulate through the bloodstream and incorporate more cholesterol and phospholipid molecules from cells and other lipoproteins, for example by the interaction with the ABCG1 transporter and the phospholipid transport protein (PLTP).
HDL transports cholesterol mostly to the liver or steroidogenic organs such as adrenals, ovary, and testes by direct and indirect pathways. HDL is removed by HDL receptors such as scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI), which mediate the selective uptake of cholesterol from HDL. In humans, probably the most relevant pathway is the indirect one, which is mediated by cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP). This protein exchanges triglycerides of VLDL against cholesteryl esters of HDL. As the result, VLDLs are processed to LDL, which are removed from the circulation by the LDL receptor pathway. The triglycerides are not stable in HDL, but degraded by hepatic lipase so that finally small HDL particles are left, which restart the uptake of cholesterol from cells.
The cholesterol delivered to the liver is excreted into the bile and, hence, intestine either directly or indirectly after conversion into bile acids. Delivery of HDL cholesterol to adrenals, ovaries, and testes is important for the synthesis of steroid hormones.
Several steps in the metabolism of HDL can contribute to the transport of cholesterol from lipid-laden macrophages of atherosclerotic arteries, termed foam cells, to the liver for secretion into the bile. This pathway has been termed reverse cholesterol transport and is considered as the classical protective function of HDL toward atherosclerosis.
However, HDL carries many lipid and protein species, several of which have very low concentrations but are biologically very active. For example, HDL and their protein and lipid constituents help to inhibit oxidation, inflammation, activation of the endothelium, coagulation, and platelet aggregation. All these properties may contribute to the ability of HDL to protect from atherosclerosis, and it is not yet known what are the most important. In addition, a small subfraction of HDLs lend protection against the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei brucei. These HDLs, termed trypanosome lytic factor, contains specialized proteins that, while very active, are unique to the TLF molecule. [6]
In the stress response, serum amyloid A, which is one of the acute-phase proteins and an apolipoprotein, is under the stimulation of cytokines (IL-1, IL-6), and cortisol produced in the adrenal cortex and carried to the damaged tissue incorporated into HDL particles. At the inflammation site, it attracts and activates leukocytes. In chronic inflammations, its deposition in the tissues manifests itself as amyloidosis.
It has been postulated that the concentration of large HDL particles more accurately reflects protective action, as opposed to the concentration of total HDL particles.[7] This ratio of large HDL to total HDL particles varies widely and is measured only by more sophisticated lipoprotein assays using either electrophoresis (the original method developed in the 1970s) or newer NMR spectroscopy methods (See also: NMR and spectroscopy), developed in the 1990s.
Subfractions
Five subfractions of HDL have been identified. From largest (and most effective at cholesterol removal) to smallest (and least effective), the types are 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, and 3c.[8]
Epidemiology
Men tend to have noticeably lower HDL levels, with smaller size and lower cholesterol content, than women. Men also have an increased incidence of atherosclerotic heart disease. Alcohol consumption tends to raise HDL levels,[9] and moderate alcohol consumption is associated with lower cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. Recent study confirm the fact that HDL has a buffering role in balancing the effects of hypercoagulable state in type 2 diabetics and decreases high risk of cardiovascular complications in these patients. Also, the results obtained in this study revealed that there was negative significant correlation between HDL and Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (APTT).[10]
Epidemiological studies have shown that high concentrations of HDL (over 60 mg/dL) have protective value against cardiovascular diseases such as ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction. Low concentrations of HDL (below 40 mg/dL for men, below 50 mg/dL for women) increase the risk for atherosclerotic diseases.
Data from the landmark Framingham Heart Study showed that, for a given level of LDL, the risk of heart disease increases 10-fold as the HDL varies from high to low. On the converse, however, for a fixed level of HDL, the risk increases 3-fold as LDL varies from low to high.[11][12]
Even people with very low LDL levels are exposed to increased risk if their HDL levels are not high enough.[13]
Estimating HDL via associated cholesterol
Reference ranges for blood tests, comparing HDL cholesterol (in orange at right) to other blood constituents.
Many laboratories used a two-step method: Chemical precipitation of lipoproteins containing apoprotein B, then calculating HDL associated cholesterol as the cholesterol remaining in the supernate,[14] and there are also direct methods. Both methods have long been promoted on the basis of lowest cost, though neither of these measurements directly, or reliably, reflects HDL particle functionality to remove cholesterol from atherosclerotic plaque and can therefore be misleading, especially on an individual patient-by-patient basis[15] Labs use the routine dextran sulfate-Mg2+ precipitation method with ultracentrifugation/dextran sulfate-Mg2+ precipitation as reference method.[16] HPLC can be used.[17]
Subfractions (HDL-2C, HDL-3C) can be measured[18] and have clinical significance.
Recommended ranges
The American Heart Association, NIH and NCEP provides a set of guidelines for fasting HDL levels and risk for heart disease.[19][20][21]
| Level mg/dL |
Level mmol/L |
Interpretation |
| <40 for men, <50 for women |
<1.03 |
Low HDL cholesterol, heightened risk for heart disease |
| 40–59 |
1.03–1.55 |
Medium HDL level |
| >60 |
>1.55 |
High HDL level, optimal condition considered protective against heart disease |
Low LDL with low HDL level is also risk factor for cardiovascular disease.
Measuring HDL concentration and sizes
As technology has reduced costs and clinical trial have continued to demonstrate the importance of HDL, methods for directly measuring HDL concentrations, and size (which indicates function) at lower costs have become increasingly available and regarded as more important for assessing individual risk for progressive arterial disease and improve treatment methods.
Chemical measurements
HDL, as discussed above, forms from two large proteins, predominantly apo A-I and apo A-II, positioned, back to back. Charged amino acids on the outer surface attract water, making the particles both water-soluble (so as to carry fats within the blood) and able to associate with HDL receptors on in the surface of cells, e.g. the macrophages of which plaque is predominantly composed, at least in the early stages. Cholesterol is carried within and between the two particles. If the particles pick up more cholesterol, then the particles enlarge and a third or fourth apo A protein joins the grouping, termed large HDL. Chemical measurements can be used to estimate HDL concentrations present in a blood sample, though such measurements may not indicate how well the HDL particles are functioning to reverse transport cholesterol from tissues. HDL-cholesterol is measured by first removing LDL particles by aggregation or precipitation with divalent ions (such as Mg++) and then coupling the products of a cholesterol oxidase reaction to an indicator reaction. The measurement of apo-A reactive capacity can be used to measure HDL cholesterol but is thought to be less accurate.
Electrophoresis measurements
Since the HDL particles have a net negative charge and vary by size, electrophoresis measurements have been utilized since the 1960s to both indicate the number of HDL particles and additionally sort them by size. Larger HDL particles are carrying more cholesterol.
NMR measurements
The newest methodology for measuring HDL particles, available clinically since the late 1990s[22] uses Nuclear Magnetic Resonance fingerprinting of the particles to measure both concentration and sizes. This methodology was pioneered by researcher Jim Otvos and the North Carolina State University academic research spinoff company[23] and dramatically reduced the cost of HDL measurements.
Optimal Total and Large HDL concentrations
The HDL particle concentrations are typically categorized by event rate percentiles based on the people participating and being tracked in the MESA[24] trial, a medical research study sponsored by the United States National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.
Total HDL particle Table
| MESA Percentile |
Total HDL particles μmol/L |
Interpretation |
| >75% |
>34.9 |
Those with highest (Optimal) total HDL particle concentrations & lowest rates of cardiovascular disease events |
| 50–75% |
30.5–34.5 |
Those with moderately high total HDL particle concentrations & moderate rates of cardiovascular disease events |
| 25–50% |
26.7–30.5 |
Those with lower total HDL particle concentrations & Borderline-High rates of cardiovascular disease |
| 0–25% |
<26.7 |
Those with lowest total HDL particle concentrations & Highest rates of cardiovascular disease events |
Large (protective) HDL particle Table
| MESA Percentile |
Large HDL particles μmol/L |
Interpretation |
| >75% |
>7.3 |
Those with highest (Optimal) Large HDL particle concentrations & lowest rates of cardiovascular disease events |
| 50–75% |
4.8–7.3 |
Those with moderately high Large HDL particle concentrations & moderate rates of cardiovascular disease events |
| 25–50% |
3.1–4.8 |
Those with lower Large HDL particle concentrations & Borderline-High rates of cardiovascular disease |
| 0–25% |
<3.1 |
Those with lowest Large HDL particle concentrations & Highest rates of cardiovascular disease events |
low LDL level with The lowest incidence of atherosclerotic events over time occurs within those with both the highest concentrations of total HDL particles, the top quarter (>75%), and the highest concentrations of large HDL particle concentrations. Multiple other measures, including LDL particle concentrations, small LDL particle concentrations, along with VLDL concentrations, estimations of Insulin resistance pattern and standard cholesterol lipid measurements (for comparison of the plasma data with the estimation methods discussed above) are also routinely provided.
Memory
Fasting serum lipids have been associated with short term verbal memory. In a large sample of middle aged adults, low HDL cholesterol was associated with poor memory and decreasing levels over a five year follow-up period were associated with decline in memory.[25]
Increasing HDL levels
Diet and lifestyle
Certain changes in lifestyle may have a positive impact on raising HDL levels:[26]
- Aerobic exercise[27]
- Weight loss[28]
- niacin (vitamin B3, aka nicotinic acid) supplementation[28]
- Smoking cessation[28]
- Removal of trans fatty acids from the diet[29]
- Mild to moderate alcohol intake[30][31][32][33][34][35]
- Addition of soluble fiber to diet[36]
- Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids such as fish oil[37] or flax oil[citation needed]
- Increased intake of cis-unsaturated fats[38]
- Decreased intake of simple carbohydrates.[39][40][41][42]
- Consumption of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT's) such as caproic acid, caprylic acid, capric acid, and lauric acid.
Most saturated fats increase HDL cholesterol to varying degrees but also raise total and LDL cholesterol.[43] A high-fat, adequate-protein, low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet may have similar response to taking niacin (vitamin B3) as described below (lowered LDL and increased HDL) through beta-hydroxybutyrate coupling the Niacin receptor 1.[44]
Drugs
While higher HDL levels are correlated with cardiovascular health, no increase in HDL has been proven to improve health. In other words, while high HDL levels might correlate with better cardiovascular health, specifically increasing one's HDL might not increase cardiovascular health.[3] Pharmacological therapy to increase the level of HDL cholesterol includes use of fibrates and niacin. Fibrates have not been proven to have an effect on overall deaths from all causes, despite their effects on lipids.[45]
Niacin (vitamin B3) increases HDL by selectively inhibiting hepatic Diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2, reducing triglyceride synthesis and VLDL secretion through a receptor HM74[46] otherwise known as Niacin receptor 2 and HM74A / GPR109A,[44] Niacin receptor 1.
Pharmacologic (1- to 3-gram/day) niacin doses increase HDL levels by 10–30%,[47] making it the most powerful agent to increase HDL-cholesterol.[48][49] A randomized clinical trial demonstrated that treatment with niacin can significantly reduce atherosclerosis progression and cardiovascular events.[50] However, niacin products sold as "no-flush", i.e. not having side-effects such as "niacin flush", do not contain free nicotinic acid and are therefore ineffective at raising HDL, while products sold as "sustained-release" may contain free nicotinic acid, but "some brands are hepatotoxic"; therefore the recommended form of niacin for raising HDL is the cheapest, immediate-release preparation.[51] Both fibrates and niacin increase artery toxic homocysteine, an effect that can be counteracted by also consuming a multivitamin with relatively high amounts of the B-vitamins[citation needed], however multiple European trials of the most popular B-vitamin cocktails, trial showing 30% average reduction in homocysteine, while not showing problems have also not shown any benefit in reducing cardiovascular event rates. A 2011 niacin study was halted early because patients adding niacin to their statin treatment showed no increase in heart health, but did experience an increase in the risk of stroke.[52]
In contrast, while the use of statins is effective against high levels of LDL cholesterol, it has little or no effect in raising HDL cholesterol.[48] As statins are associated with side effects like myopathy which causes sore muscles, patients who experience these side effects may need to be given a lower dose of statin to control cholesterol.[53]
Lovaza has been shown to increase HDL-C.[54]
Magnesium supplements raise HDL-C.[55]
Apo-A1 Milano, the most effective proven HDL agent, is in commercial production by a Canadian company, Sembiosys, but as of 2010 may still be several years away from clinical availability.[citation needed]
See also
- Asymmetric dimethylarginine
- Cardiovascular disease
- Cholesteryl ester storage disease
- Endothelium
- Lipid profile
- Low-density lipoprotein
- Lysosomal acid lipase deficiency
References
- Notes
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- ^ Some HDL, or "Good" Cholesterol, May Not Protect Against Heart Disease, HSPH, May 7, 2012
- ^ Després, Jean-Pierre. "The Atherogenic Triad of New Metabolic Risk Factors: Importance of Waist and Fasting Triglycerides as Screening Tools". Visceral Adipose Tissue and Cardiometabolic Risk: Does It Really Matter? Part 2. http://www.lipidsonline.org/slides/slide01.cfm?q=apolipoprotein&dpg=59. Retrieved 8 October 2009.[self-published source?]
- ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23059119
- ^ Kwiterovich Jr, P. O. (2000). "The metabolic pathways of high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, and triglycerides: a current review". The American journal of cardiology 86 (12A): 5L–10L. doi:10.1016/S0002-9149(00)01461-2. PMID 11374859. edit
- ^ HDL, HDL2, and HDL3 subfractions, and the risk of acute myocardial infarction. A prospective population study in eastern Finnish men.
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- ^ Rahilly, Catherine (2011). "Relation between high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and survival to age 85 years in men (from the VA normative aging study)". Am J Cardiol 107 (8): 1173–7. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2010.12.015. PMID 21296318.
- ^ HB, HB (2002). "Diabetes, plasma insulin, and cardiovascular disease: subgroup analysis from the Department of Veterans Affairs high-density lipoprotein intervention trial (VA-HIT)". Arch. Intern. Med. 162 (22): 2597–604. PMID 12456232.
- ^ Barter, Philip; Gotto, Antonio M.; LaRosa, John C.; Maroni, Jaman; Szarek, Michael; Grundy, Scott M.; Kastelein, John J. P.; Bittner, Vera et al. (2007). "HDL Cholesterol, Very Low Levels of LDL Cholesterol, and Cardiovascular Events". New England Journal of Medicine 357 (13): 1301–10. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064278. PMID 17898099.
- ^ Lin, Maun-Jan; Hoke, Carolyn; Ettinger, Bruce (1998). "Evaluation of Homogeneous High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Assay on a BM/Hitachi 747-200 Analyzer". Clinical Chemistry 44 (5): 1050–2. PMID 9590383. http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/short/44/5/1050.
- ^ "Lipid Measurement Fact Sheet". University of Michigan Health System. http://www.med.umich.edu/mdrtc/cores/ChemCore/lipids.htm. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
- ^ Bairaktari, E; Elisaf, M; Katsaraki, A; Tsimihodimos, V; Tselepis, AD; Siamopoulos, KC; Tsolas, O (1999). "Homogeneous HDL-cholesterol assay versus ultracentrifugation/dextran sulfate-Mg2+ precipitation and dextran sulfate-Mg2+ precipitation in healthy population and in hemodialysis patients". Clinical Biochemistry 32 (5): 339–46. doi:10.1016/S0009-9120(99)00031-4. PMID 10480448.
- ^ Okazaki, Mitsuyo; Sasamoto, Keiko; Muramatsu, Toshio; Hosaki, Seijin (1997). "Evaluation of precipitation and direct methods for HDL-cholesterol assay by HPLC". Clinical Chemistry 43 (10): 1885–90. PMID 9342008. http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/abstract/43/10/1885.
- ^ Hirano, Tsutomu; Nohtomi, Kyoko; Koba, Shinji; Muroi, Ayako; Ito, Yasuki (2008). "A simple and precise method for measuring HDL-cholesterol subfractions by a single precipitation followed by homogenous HDL-cholesterol assay". The Journal of Lipid Research 49 (5): 1130–6. doi:10.1194/jlr.D700027-JLR200. PMID 18223297.
- ^ "Cholesterol Levels". American Heart Association. http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4500. Retrieved 14 November 2009.
- ^ "What Do My Cholesterol Levels Mean?" (PDF). American Heart Association. September 2007. http://www.americanheart.org/downloadable/heart/119618151049911%20CholLevels%209_07.pdf. Retrieved 14 November 2009.
- ^ "Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) Executive Summary". National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI). National Institutes of Health. May 2001. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/atp3xsum.pdf.
- ^ liposcience.com
- ^ liposcience.com
- ^ mesa-nhlbi.org
- ^ Singh-manoux, A; Gimeno, D; Kivimaki, M; Brunner, E; Marmot, MG (2008). "Low HDL cholesterol is a risk factor for deficit and decline in memory in midlife: the Whitehall II study". Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology 28 (8): 1556–62. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.108.163998. PMC 2581752. PMID 18591462. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2581752/.
- ^ Fogoros, Richard N. (15 September 2009). [http://heartdisease.about.com/cs/cholesterol/a/raiseHDL.htm "Raising Your HDL Levels Increasing the GOOD cholesterol"]. About.com. http://heartdisease.about.com/cs/cholesterol/a/raiseHDL.htm. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
- ^ Spate-douglas, T; Keyser, RE (1999). "Exercise intensity: its effect on the high-density lipoprotein profile". Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation 80 (6): 691–5. doi:10.1016/S0003-9993(99)90174-0. PMID 10378497.
- ^ a b c Hausenloy DJ, Yellon DM (June 2008). "Targeting residual cardiovascular risk: raising high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels". Heart 94 (6): 706–14. doi:10.1136/hrt.2007.125401. PMID 18480348.
- ^ "Trans fat: Avoid this cholesterol double whammy". Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER). http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/trans-fat/CL00032. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- ^ Baer, D.; Judd, J.; Clevidence, B.; Muesing, R.; Campbell, W.; Brown, E.; Taylor, P. (2002). "Moderate alcohol consumption lowers risk factors for cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women fed a controlled diet". The American journal of clinical nutrition 75 (3): 593–599. PMID 11864868. edit
- ^ Van Der Gaag, M.; Van Tol, A.; Vermunt, S.; Scheek, L.; Schaafsma, G.; Hendriks, H. (2001). "Alcohol consumption stimulates early steps in reverse cholesterol transport". Journal of lipid research 42 (12): 2077–2083. PMID 11734581. edit
- ^ Hendriks, H.; Veenstra, J.; Van Tol, A.; Groener, J.; Schaafsma, G. (1998). "Moderate doses of alcoholic beverages with dinner and postprandial high density lipoprotein composition". Alcohol and alcoholism (Oxford, Oxfordshire) 33 (4): 403–410. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.alcalc.a008410. PMID 9719399. edit
- ^ Clevidence, B.; Reichman, M.; Judd, J.; Muesing, R.; Schatzkin, A.; Schaefer, E.; Li, Z.; Jenner, J. et al. (1995). "Effects of alcohol consumption on lipoproteins of premenopausal women. A controlled diet study". Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology 15 (2): 179–184. doi:10.1161/01.ATV.15.2.179. PMID 7749823. edit
- ^ Cuvelier, I.; Steinmetz, J.; Mikstacki, T.; Siest, G. (1985). "Variations in total phospholipids and high-density lipoprotein phospholipids in plasma from a general population: Reference intervals and influence of xenobiotics". Clinical chemistry 31 (5): 763–766. PMID 3987006. edit
- ^ Brenn, T. (1986). "The Tromsø heart study: Alcoholic beverages and coronary risk factors". Journal of epidemiology and community health 40 (3): 249–256. doi:10.1136/jech.40.3.249. PMC 1052533. PMID 3772283. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1052533/. edit
- ^ Hermansen K, et al. "Effects of soy and other natural products on LDL:HDL ratio and other lipid parameters: a literature review.", "National Institutes of Health", 2003 Jan–Feb. Retrieved 2011 May 31.
- ^ "The Power of Fish". The Cleveland Clinic Heart and Vascular Institute. http://my.clevelandclinic.org/heart/prevention/nutrition/omega3.aspx. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
- ^ Mensink, Ronald P.; Zock, Peter L.; Kester, Arnold D. M.; Katan, Martijn B. (2003). "Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77 (5): 1146–55. PMID 12716665. http://www.ajcn.org/content/77/5/1146.full.
- ^ http://www.ajcn.org/content/77/5/1146.full
- ^ Yunsheng, Ma; Youfu, Li (April 2006). "Association between Carbohydrate Intake and Serum Lipids". Journal of the American College of Nutrition 25 (2): 155–163. http://www.jacn.org/content/25/2/155.full. Retrieved 1 September 2012.
- ^ Siri-Tarino, Patty W; Qi Sun, Frank B Hu, Ronald Krauss (January 2010). "Saturated fat, carbohydrate, and cardiovascular disease". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/early/2010/01/20/ajcn.2008.26285.abstract. Retrieved 1 September 2012.
- ^ Krauss, Ronald; Patricia J Blanche, Robin S Rawlings, Harriett S Fernstrom, and Paul T Williams (May 2006). "Separate effects of reduced carbohydrate intake and weight loss on atherogenic dyslipidemia". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83 (5): 1025–1031. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/83/5/1025.full. Retrieved 1 September 2012.
- ^ Thijssen, M.A. and R.P. Mensink. (2005). Fatty Acids and Atherosclerotic Risk. In Arnold von Eckardstein (Ed.) Atherosclerosis: Diet and Drugs. Springer. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-3-540-22569-0.
- ^ a b Soudijn, W; Van Wijngaarden, I; Ijzerman, AP (2007). "Nicotinic acid receptor subtypes and their ligands". Medicinal Research Reviews 27 (3): 417–33. doi:10.1002/med.20102. PMID 17238156.
- ^ Benatar, JR; Stewart, RA (2007). "Is it time to stop treating dyslipidaemia with fibrates?". The New Zealand medical journal 120 (1261): U2706. PMID 17853928. http://www.nzma.org.nz/journal/120-1261/2706/.
- ^ Meyers, CD; Kamanna, VS; Kashyap, ML (2004). "Niacin therapy in atherosclerosis". Current opinion in lipidology 15 (6): 659–65. doi:10.1097/00041433-200412000-00006. PMID 15529025.
- ^ Rader, Daniel J. (2004). "Raising HDL in Clinical Practice". Raising HDL in Clinical Practice: Clinical Strategies to Elevate HDL. http://cme.medscape.com/viewarticle/479499_5. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
- ^ a b Brewer, H. Bryan (27 December 2005). "Raising HDL-Cholesterol and Reducing Cardiovascular Risk: An Expert Interview With H. Bryan Brewer, Jr, MD". http://cme.medscape.com/viewarticle/520393. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
- ^ Chapman, M. John; Assmann, Gerd; Fruchart, Jean-Charles; Shepherd, James; Sirtori, Cesare; European Consensus Panel on HDL-C (2004). "Raising high-density lipoprotein cholesterol with reduction of cardiovascular risk: the role of nicotinic acid – a position paper developed by the European Consensus Panel on HDL-C". Current medical research and opinion 20 (8): 1253–68. doi:10.1185/030079904125004402. PMID 15324528.
- ^ Drexel, H. (2006). "Reducing risk by raising HDL-cholesterol: the evidence". European Heart Journal Supplements 8: F23. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/sul037.
- ^ Meyers, C. Daniel; Carr, Molly C.; Park, Sang; Brunzell, John D. (2003). "Varying Cost and Free Nicotinic Acid Content in Over-the-Counter Niacin Preparations for Dyslipidemia". Annals of Internal Medicine 139 (12): 996–1002. PMID 14678919. http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/abstract/139/12/996.
- ^ http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2011/05/28/136678665/study-boosting-good-cholesterol-with-niacin-did-not-cut-heart-risks?ps=sh_sthdl
- ^ "When is treatment indicated for high cholesterol level?". http://www.cholesteroladvice.net/treatment-high-cholesterol-level/.
- ^ http://us.gsk.com/products/assets/us_lovaza.pdf
- ^ Rosanoff A, Seelig MS (October 2004). "Comparison of mechanism and functional effects of magnesium and statin pharmaceuticals". J Am Coll Nutr 23 (5): 501S–505S. PMID 15466951. http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/full/23/5/501S. "HMG CoA Reductase is an important enzyme in lipid and cholesterol metabolism, but it is not the only one. The statins act by inhibiting, temporarily, the enzyme, in a dose response relationship whereas the magnesium ion (Mg2+) is an important part of a complex control and regulation of this important pathway. Both lower LDL-C, some statins can raise HDL-C and lower triglycerides, but Mg supplements do both quite reliably."
External links
- Adult Treatment Panel III Full Report – National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
- ATP III Update 2004 – National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
- HDL: The good, but complex, cholesterol – Harvard Heart Letter
- El hdl (Spanish)
|
Lipids: lipoprotein metabolism
|
|
| Apolipoproteins |
- APOA
- APOB
- APOC (1
- 2
- 3
- 4)
- APOD
- APOE
- APOH
|
|
| Lipoproteins |
- Chylomicron
- HDL
- LDL
- IDL
- VLDL
- Lp(a)
|
|
| Extracellular enzymes |
|
|
| Lipid transfer proteins |
|
|
| Cell surface receptors |
- IDL: LRP (LRP1
- LRP1B
- LRP2
- LRP3
- LRP4
- LRP5
- LRP5L
- LRP6
- LRP8
- LRP10
- LRP11
- LRP12)
|
|
| ATP-binding cassette transporter |
|
|
|
|
mt, k, c/g/r/p/y/i, f/h/s/l/o/e, a/u, n, m
|
k, cgrp/y/i, f/h/s/l/o/e, au, n, m, epon
|
m (A16/C10), i (k, c/g/r/p/y/i, f/h/s/o/e, a/u, n, m)
|
|
|
|
