n.

コード、規範、番号

v.

コードする

関: cord、paradigm

WordNet

attach a code to; "Code the pieces with numbers so that you can identify them later"
a set of rules or principles or laws (especially written ones) (同)codification
(computer science) the symbolic arrangement of data or instructions in a computer program or the set of such instructions (同)computer code
a coding system used for transmitting messages requiring brevity or secrecy
convert ordinary language into code; "We should encode the message for security reasons" (同)encipher, cipher, cypher, encrypt, inscribe, write in code
stack in cords; "cord firewood"
a unit of amount of wood cut for burning; 128 cubic feet
a cut pile fabric with vertical ribs; usually made of cotton (同)corduroy
a light insulated conductor for household use (同)electric cord
a line made of twisted fibers or threads; "the bundle was tied with a cord"
bind or tie with a cord
systematic arrangement of all the inflected forms of a word
the generally accepted perspective of a particular discipline at a given time; "he framed the problem within the psychoanalytic paradigm"
fish-like vertebrate with bony plates on head and upper body; dominant in seas and rivers during the Devonian; considered the earliest vertebrate with jaws
a defendant who has been joined together with one or more other defendants in a single action (同)co-defendant
(telecommunication) a coding system that incorporates extra parity bits in order to detect errors (同)ECC
major food fish of Arctic and cold-temperate waters (同)codfish
lean white flesh of important North Atlantic food fish; usually baked or poached (同)codfish

PrepTutorEJDIC

『法典』 / (社会・階級・団体などを支配する)『規約』,おきて,慣例 / 『信号法』;暗号 / 〈通信など〉'を'暗号(信号)にする
〈U〉〈C〉『綱,ひも』(stringより太くropeより細い) / 〈U〉〈C〉束縛,きずな / 〈C〉〈U〉(電気の)『コード』,線 / (またchord)〈C〉(動物体の)索状組織,腱(けん) / 〈C〉うね織り,(特に)コールテン;(うね織りの)うね;《複数形で》コールテンのズボン / 〈C〉コード(材木の容積の単位で約6.25m) / …'を'綱(ひも)で縛る
範例,規範 / 語形変化表
=dialing
=codfish 1
〈人〉'を'ばかにする

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/08/30 00:59:06」(JST)

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

Morse code, a famous type of code

In communications and information processing, code is a system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form or representation, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a channel or storage in a medium. An early example is the invention of language, which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what he or she saw, heard, felt, or thought to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry, and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. The invention of writing, which converted spoken language into visual symbols, extended the range of communication across space and time

The process of encoding converts information from a source into symbols for communication or storage. Decoding is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into a form that the recipient of that understands time.

One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary plain language, spoken or written, is difficult or impossible. For example, semaphore, where the configuration of flags held by a signaller or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters and numbers. Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent.

Theory

In information theory and computer science, a code is usually considered as an algorithm which uniquely represents symbols from some source alphabet, by encoded strings, which may be in some other target alphabet. An extension of the code for representing sequences of symbols over the source alphabet is obtained by concatenating the encoded strings.

Before giving a mathematically precise definition, this is a brief example. The mapping

is a code, whose source alphabet is the set $\{a,b,c\}$ and whose target alphabet is the set $\{0,1\}$ . Using the extension of the code, the encoded string 0011001011 can be grouped into codewords as 0 011 0 01 011, and these in turn can be decoded to the sequence of source symbols acabc.

Using terms from formal language theory, the precise mathematical definition of this concept is as follows: Let S and T be two finite sets, called the source and target alphabets, respectively. A code $C:\,S\to T^{*}$ is a total function mapping each symbol from S to a sequence of symbols over T, and the extension of $C$ to a homomorphism of $S^{*}$ into $T^{*}$ , which naturally maps each sequence of source symbols to a sequence of target symbols, is referred to as its extension.

Variable-length codes

In this section we consider codes, which encode each source (clear text) character by a code word from some dictionary, and concatenation of such code words give us an encoded string. Variable-length codes are especially useful when clear text characters have different probabilities; see also entropy encoding.

A prefix code is a code with the "prefix property": there is no valid code word in the system that is a prefix (start) of any other valid code word in the set. Huffman coding is the most known algorithm for deriving prefix codes. Prefix codes are widely referred to as "Huffman codes", even when the code was not produced by a Huffman algorithm. Other examples of prefix codes are country calling codes, the country and publisher parts of ISBNs, and the Secondary Synchronization Codes used in the UMTS W-CDMA 3G Wireless Standard.

Kraft's inequality characterizes the sets of codeword lengths that are possible in a prefix code. Virtually any uniquely decodable one-to-many code, not necessary a prefix one, must satisfy Kraft's inequality.

Error-correcting codes

Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant to errors in transmission or storage. Such a "code" is called an error-correcting code, and works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored (or transmitted) data. Examples include Hamming codes, Reed–Solomon, Reed–Muller, Walsh–Hadamard, Bose–Chaudhuri–Hochquenghem, Turbo, Golay, Goppa, low-density parity-check codes, and space–time codes. Error detecting codes can be optimised to detect burst errors, or random errors.

Examples

Codes in communication used for brevity

A cable code replaces words (e.g., ship or invoice) with shorter words, allowing the same information to be sent with fewer characters, more quickly, and most importantly, less expensively.

Codes can be used for brevity. When telegraph messages were the state of the art in rapid long distance communication, elaborate systems of commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single mouths (commonly five-minute groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO ("Are you trying to weasel out of our deal?"), LIOUY ("Why do you not answer my question?"), BMULD ("You're a skunk!"), or AYYLU ("Not clearly coded, repeat more clearly."). Code words were chosen for various reasons: length, pronounceability, etc. Meanings were chosen to fit perceived needs: commercial negotiations, military terms for military codes, diplomatic terms for diplomatic codes, any and all of the preceding for espionage codes. Codebooks and codebook publishers proliferated, including one run as a front for the American Black Chamber run by Herbert Yardley between the First and Second World Wars. The purpose of most of these codes was to save on cable costs. The use of data coding for data compression predates the computer era; an early example is the telegraph Morse code where more-frequently used characters have shorter representations. Techniques such as Huffman coding are now used by computer-based algorithms to compress large data files into a more compact form for storage or transmission.

Character encodings

Probably the most widely known data communications code so far (a.k.a. character representation) in use today is ASCII. In one or another (somewhat compatible) version, it is used by nearly all personal computers, terminals, printers, and other communication equipment. It represents 128 characters with seven-bit binary numbers—that is, as a string of seven 1s and 0s (bits). In ASCII a lowercase "a" is always 1100001, an uppercase "A" always 1000001, and so on. There are many other encodings, which represent each character by a byte (usually referred as code pages), integer code point (Unicode) or a byte sequence (UTF-8).

Genetic code

Biological organisms contain genetic material that is used to control their function and development. This is DNA, which contains units named genes from which messenger RNA is derived. This in turn produces proteins through a code (genetic code) in which a series of triplets (codons) of four possible nucleotides can be translated into one of twenty possible amino acids. A sequence of codons results in a corresponding sequence of amino acids that form a protein molecule; a type of codon called a stop codon signals the end of the sequence.

Gödel code

In mathematics, a Gödel code was the basis for the proof of Gödel's incompleteness theorem. Here, the idea was to map mathematical notation to a natural number (using a Gödel numbering).

Other

There are codes using colors, like traffic lights, the color code employed to mark the nominal value of the electrical resistors or that of the trashcans devoted to specific types of garbage (paper, glass, biological, etc.)

In marketing, coupon codes can be used for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product from an internet retailer.

In military environments, specific sounds with the cornet are used for different uses: to mark some moments of the day, to command the infantry in the battlefield, etc.

Communication systems for sensory impairments, such as sign language for deaf people and braille for blind people, are based on movement or tactile codes.

Musical scores are the most common way to encode music.

Specific games, as chess, have their own code systems to record the matches called chess notation.

Cryptography

In the history of cryptography, codes were once common for ensuring the confidentiality of communications, although ciphers are now used instead. See code (cryptography).

Secret codes intended to obscure the real messages, ranging from serious (mainly espionage in military, diplomatic, business, etc.) to trivial (romance, games) can be any kind of imaginative encoding: flowers, game cards, clothes, fans, hats, melodies, birds, etc., in which the sole requisite is the previous agreement of the meaning by both the sender and the receiver.

Other examples

Other examples of encoding include:

Encoding (in cognition) is a basic perceptual process of interpreting incoming stimuli; technically speaking, it is a complex, multi-stage process of converting relatively objective sensory input (e.g., light, sound) into subjectively meaningful experience.
A content format is a specific encoding format for converting a specific type of data to information.
Text encoding uses a markup language to tag the structure and other features of a text to facilitate processing by computers. (See also Text Encoding Initiative.)
Semantics encoding of formal language A in formal language B is a method of representing all terms (e.g. programs or descriptions) of language A using language B.
Electronic encoding transforms a signal into a code optimized for transmission or storage, generally done with a codec.
Neural encoding is the way in which information is represented in neurons.
Memory encoding is the process of converting sensations into memories.
Television encoding: NTSC, PAL and SECAM

Other examples of decoding include:

Decoding (computer science)
Decoding methods, methods in communication theory for decoding code words sent over a noisy channel
Digital signal processing, the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods of these signals
Digital-to-analog converter, the use of analog circuit for decoding operations
Word decoding, the use of phonics to decipher print patterns and translate them into the sounds of language

Codes and acronyms

Acronyms and abbreviations can be considered codes, and in a sense all languages and writing systems are codes for human thought.

International Air Transport Association airport codes are three-letter codes used to designate airports and used for bag tags. Station codes are similarly used on railways, but are usually national, so the same code can be used for different stations if they are in different countries.

Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word. For example, '30' was widely used in journalism to mean "end of story", and has been used in other contexts to signify "the end".^[1] ^[2]

References

^ Kogan, Hadass "So Why Not 29" American Journalism Review. Retrieved 2012-07-03.
^ "WESTERN UNION "92 CODE" & WOOD'S "TELEGRAPHIC NUMERALS"". Signal Corps Association. 1996. Retrieved 2012-07-03.

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

The European Medicines Agency approval of 5-aminolaevulinic acid (Ameluz) for the treatment of actinic keratosis of mild to moderate intensity on the face and scalp: summary of the scientific assessment of the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use.

Tzogani K1, Straube M, Hoppe U, Kiely P, O'Dea G, Enzmann H, Salmon P, Salmonson T, Pignatti F.Author information 1European Medicines Agency , London.AbstractThe European Commission has recently issued a marketing authorisation valid throughout the European Union for 5-aminolaevulinic acid (Ameluz). The decision was based on the favorable opinion of the CHMP recommending a marketing authorization for 5-aminolaevulinic acid for treatment of actinic keratosis of mild to moderate intensity on the face and scalp. The active substance is a sensitizer used in photodynamic/radiation therapy (ATC code L01XD04). The gel should cover the lesions and approximately 5 mm of the surrounding area with a film of about 1 mm thickness. The entire treatment area should be illuminated with a red light source, either with a narrow spectrum around 630 nm and a light dose of approximately 37 J/cm(2) or a broader and continuous spectrum in the range between 570 and 670 nm with a light dose between 75 and 200 J/cm(2). One session of photodynamic therapy should be administered for single or multiple lesions. Non- or partially responding lesions should be retreated in a second session 3 months after the first treatment. 5-aminolaevulinic acid is metabolized to protoporphyrin IX, a photoactive compound which accumulates intracellularly in the treated actinic keratosis lesions. Protoporphyrin IX is activated by illumination with red light of a suitable wavelength and energy. In the presence of oxygen, reactive oxygen species are formed which causes damage of cellular components and eventually destroys the target cells. The benefit with 5-aminolaevulinic acid is its ability to improve the complete response rate of actinic keratosis lesions. The most common side effects are reactions at the site of application. The objective of this article is to summarize the scientific review of the application. The detailed scientific assessment report and product information, including the summary of product characteristics (SmPC), are available on the EMA website (www.ema.europa.eu).
The Journal of dermatological treatment.J Dermatolog Treat.2014 Oct;25(5):371-4. doi: 10.3109/09546634.2013.789474. Epub 2013 May 21.
The European Commission has recently issued a marketing authorisation valid throughout the European Union for 5-aminolaevulinic acid (Ameluz). The decision was based on the favorable opinion of the CHMP recommending a marketing authorization for 5-aminolaevulinic acid for treatment of actinic kerato
PMID 23550714

microRNA profiling in patients with abdominal aortic aneurysms: the significance of miR-155.

Biros E1, Moran CS1, Wang Y1, Walker PJ2, Cardinal J3, Golledge J.Author information 1*The Vascular Biology Unit, Queensland Research Centre for Peripheral Vascular Disease, School of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia.2†University of Queensland, School of Medicine, Discipline of Surgery, and Centre for Clinical Research and Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Department of Vascular Surgery Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia.3‡Pathology Queensland Chemical Pathology, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, Queensland 4029, Australia.AbstractAAA (abdominal aortic aneurysm) is a potentially life-threatening late-onset degenerative condition. miRNAs (microRNAs), the small non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression, have been shown previously to be associated with a broad range of human pathologies, including cardiovascular diseases. The aim of the present study was to identify AAA-associated miRNAs potentially contributing to AAA pathology. We analysed the expression of 124 miRNAs within AAA biopsies and serum of ten patients undergoing AAA repair, and serum from ten age- and sex-matched subjects without AAA, using the FlexmiR™ MicroRNA Assay. RNA extracted from the site of main AAA dilatation (AAA body) was compared with that extracted from the macroscopically non-dilated neck of the AAA (AAA neck). Similarly, RNA extracted from the serum of AAA patients (AAA serum) was compared with that extracted from age- and sex-matched controls (control serum). qPCR (quantitative real-time PCR), Western blot analysis and histology were performed using an independent set of six paired AAA body and neck biopsies to examine the validity of findings. Seven miRNAs were up-regulated [>2-fold difference, FDR (false discovery rate) <0.5] within AAA biopsies, of which miR-155 was the most differentially expressed (11.32-fold, FDR=0.414). This finding was confirmed by qPCR with the median relative expression of miR-155 being 3.26 and 0.63 within AAA body and AAA neck biopsies respectively (P=0.031). Circulating miR-155 was also increased in AAA patients compared with controls, with a 2.67-fold up-regulation at borderline significance (FDR=0.554). Two immunologically important miR-155 target genes, CTLA4 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein) and SMAD2, were assessed and found to be significantly down-regulated within AAA bodies compared with AAA necks (P=0.032 and P=0.026) as determined by qPCR and Western blotting respectively. Histology demonstrated dense accumulation of T-lymphocytes within the adventitial and outer medial layers of AAA body, but not neck tissue. The results of the present study suggest that miR-155 is overexpressed in AAA with potential implications in the pathogenesis of the condition.
Clinical science (London, England : 1979).Clin Sci (Lond).2014 Jun 1;126(11):795-803. doi: 10.1042/CS20130599.
AAA (abdominal aortic aneurysm) is a potentially life-threatening late-onset degenerative condition. miRNAs (microRNAs), the small non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression, have been shown previously to be associated with a broad range of human pathologies, including cardiovascular dis
PMID 24283299

Sample size determination for paired right-censored data based on the difference of Kaplan-Meier estimates.

Su PF1, Li CI2, Shyr Y3.Author information 1Department of Statistics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan.2Department of Applied Mathematics, National Chiayi University, Chiayi 60004, Taiwan.3Center for Quantitative Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.AbstractSample size determination is essential to planning clinical trials. Jung (2008) established a sample size calculation formula for paired right-censored data based on the logrank test, which has been well-studied for comparing independent survival outcomes. An alternative to rank-based methods for independent right-censored data, advocated by Pepe and Fleming (1989), tests for differences between integrated weighted Kaplan-Meier estimates and is more sensitive to the magnitude of difference in survival times between groups. In this paper, we employ the concept of the Pepe-Fleming method to determine an adequate sample size by calculating differences between Kaplan-Meier estimators considering pair-wise correlation. We specify a positive stable frailty model for the joint distribution of paired survival times. We evaluate the performance of the proposed method by simulation studies and investigate the impacts of the accrual times, follow-up times, loss to follow-up rate, and sensitivity of power under misspecification of the model. The results show that ignoring the pair-wise correlation results in overestimating the required sample size. Furthermore, the proposed method is applied to two real-world studies, and the R code for sample size calculation is made available to users.
Computational statistics & data analysis.Comput Stat Data Anal.2014 Jun 1;74:39-51.
Sample size determination is essential to planning clinical trials. Jung (2008) established a sample size calculation formula for paired right-censored data based on the logrank test, which has been well-studied for comparing independent survival outcomes. An alternative to rank-based methods for in
PMID 24567661

The FOXE1 locus is a major genetic determinant for familial nonmedullary thyroid carcinoma.

Bonora E1, Rizzato C, Diquigiovanni C, Oudot-Mellakh T, Campa D, Vargiolu M, Guedj M; NMTC Consortium, McKay JD, Romeo G, Canzian F, Lesueur F.Author information 1Unit of Medical Genetics Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.AbstractThyroid cancer is the most common endocrine malignancy and nonmedullary thyroid carcinoma (NMTC) represents 90% of all cases. NMTC risk in first-degree relatives of affected cases is elevated fivefold to ninefold. Familial NMTC (FNMTC) accounts for about 3-7% of all thyroid tumors and is a more aggressive clinical entity than its sporadic counterparts. Linkage analysis on high-risk families performed a decade ago mapped several susceptibility loci, but did not lead to the identification of high-penetrance causal germline mutations. More recently, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) affecting the risk of sporadic NMTC. We sought to verify if the newly identified genetic risk factors for NMTC are relevant for FNMTC as well. We genotyped 23 SNPs at 11 candidate loci in 672 subjects belonging to 133 pedigrees with at least two NMTC cases. Statistical analysis was performed using family-based association tests, modified quasi-likelihood score and logistic-normal models. SNPs at 9q22.33 near FOXE1 showed convincing evidence of association with NMTC risk in these high-risk families. The other tested loci resulted negative. These findings confirm the importance of the SNPs identified by recent GWAS on sporadic NMTC on FNMTC as well. However, the proposed FOXE1 causal variants do not show the strongest association signal. Moreover, mutation screening of the FOXE1 coding sequence in the FNMTC cases did not identify rarer causal variants, suggesting that other yet unidentified variants at this locus are involved in FNMTC etiology.
International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer.Int J Cancer.2014 May 1;134(9):2098-107. doi: 10.1002/ijc.28543. Epub 2013 Oct 31.
Thyroid cancer is the most common endocrine malignancy and nonmedullary thyroid carcinoma (NMTC) represents 90% of all cases. NMTC risk in first-degree relatives of affected cases is elevated fivefold to ninefold. Familial NMTC (FNMTC) accounts for about 3-7% of all thyroid tumors and is a more aggr
PMID 24127282

Japanese Journal

耐震診断による上部構造評点を用いた木造在来軸組構法住宅の地震特性能評価

広島工業大学紀要. 研究編 42, 191-197, 39479-00-00
NAID 120005403279

この本! おすすめしますコンピューターサイエンスを教養に[『思考する機械コンピュータ』ダニエル・ヒリス著 ; 倉骨彰訳,『CODE コードから見たコンピュータのからくり』Charles Petzold著 ; 永山操訳,『コンピュータサイエンス計算を通して世界を観る』渡辺治著]

情報管理 59(1), 66-68, 2016-04
NAID 40020777985

明治期前半におけるフランス民法原文訳文３種対照表 : 近代訳語研究のために

日本語学論集 12, 319-343, 2016-03-24
NAID 120005741303

法例の編纂 : ベルギー改正草案の影響とその排除 <論説>

広島法科大学院論集 (12), 55-98, 2016-03-20
NAID 120005733334

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「cord」「規範」「paradigm」「コード」「番号」
拡張検索	「Toxicodendron」「Toxicodendron属」
関連記事	「coding」「cod」