NGO

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1. the 14th letter of the Roman alphabet (同)n

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1. nitrogenの化学記号

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/09/29 14:15:28」(JST)

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非政府組織（ひせいふそしき、英: Non-Governmental Organizations、NGO）は、民間人や民間団体のつくる機構・組織であり、国内・国際の両方がある。日本語では、NGOという言葉が、国際的なものとして使われており、「国際協力に携わる組織」や「政府を補完する側面」というような場合に使用される。ただし、英語ではNGOは可算名詞としてみなされているため、原則としてNGOsと表記される。

歴史

国家間および政府間の協調は同盟、条約、協定という形式をもって存在していたが、当事国の安全保障や国益追求のための方策であり、共通の目的や関心を有する共同体の建設への足がかりとしては言えないものであった。そのためには共通の規則を制定し、共同の利益を守るために制度の創出の必要が迫られた。19世紀になり度量衡の統一、郵便・配達に関する費用の基準化、伝染病予防のため、諸国家の加盟により、万国郵便連合、国際電信連合、国際衛生理事会、のような国際組織の設立につながった。

1815年ウィーン会議で設立されたライン川航行中央委員会 (Central commission for the Navigation of the Rhine) は中央ヨーロッパ諸国に限定されるものであったが、1813年健康理事会 (Super Council of Health) は欧州諸国に加えオスマン帝国も含むものだった。自国民の安全や利益だけでなく、諸国の共同の福祉を促進し、国際協調というものが、自国にも諸国にも得るものが多いということを人々に認識させてきたのである。

19世紀後半におよそ10のNGOが設立され始めた。NGO自体は国家に対峙して設立されたものではなく、政府と協力して活動を展開した。

例としては国際赤十字であるが、当初はNGOではなく政府間組織であった。スイス人アンリ・デュナンはサルディニアとフランスがオーストリアと闘ったソルフェリーノでの戦闘（1859年）を目の当たりにして著述した『ソルフェリーノでの思い出』（1862年）であり、これがスイス政府を動かし、戦傷者の処遇改善へ向けて国際会議を組織し、1864年には赤十字がジュネーヴで民間主導で組織された。

この会議に出席した諸政府は赤十字団体の活動を認める条約に署名したのである。衛生や健康の分野においても汎米衛生事務局 (Pan American Sanitary Bureau) や結核撲滅キャンペーン中央局 (International Central Bureau for the Campaign against Tuberculosis) が1902年に設立された。

第一次大戦後、死傷者数の多さなどの反省から組織化という考え方が戦後国際問題に重要な問題とみなされ、国際連盟が制度として成立される。NGOの数は増え続け1929年には478に上る総数の国際組織が上げられたが、そのうち90%は民間機関であった。

国際主義の精神が1930年代強く根付き、第二次大戦後にもNGOの活動がやむことは無く、軍国主義や無秩序にもNGOは負けることなく奮闘し生きながらえた。

概要・定義

軍縮や飢餓救済、環境保護などの問題に関わる活動をおこなう非営利組織。国際NGOはその数一万七千以上に上るといわれ、多様で広大な広がりをもつ。慣習的に、国際的に活動するものを非政府組織・NGOと呼ぶ場合が多い。特に緊急時の援助活動や地域住民の福祉の向上を目的とするものは民間援助団体ともよばれる。赤十字社連盟、国際商工会議所 (International Chamber of Commerce, ICC)、世界労連 (World Federation of Trade Unions, WFTU)、国際自由労連 (International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, ICFTU)、よく耳にするYMCAや、YWCAなどがある。いずれも本部事務所を持ち、世界に支部をもち、活動国も多くの国々である。ブリュッセルの国際協会連合の国際団体名鑑の7つの基準によれば、

1. 目的 - 真に国際的な目的を有していること。
2. メンバー - 三カ国以上の個人または団体が、完全な投票権を得て会員となっていること。その団体での活動分野での有資格者（団体を含む）に加入が開かれていること。
3. 規約 - 規約を有し、管理機関、および役員を会員が定期的に選出すべきこと。本部事務所を有し、活動に継続性があること。
4. 役員 - 一定期間すべての役員を同一国民が独占している場合には、本部所在地ならびに役員を一定期間ののち、持ち回りとしていること。
5. 財政 - 活動資金の実質部分を三カ国以上から得ていること。会員への利益配分を意図しないこと。
6. 他団体との関係 - 他団体と正式な関係を持っている場合には、独自の活動をなし、別個の役員をもっていること。
7. 活動 - 現在活動していること。

国際NGOは国連憲章第71条の精神から国連憲章における協議資格を持つNGO と 国連憲章における協議資格を持たないNGOがある。国連は経済社会理事会 (ECOSOC)を通して民間団体と協力関係をもつこと。NGOと取り決めを行い、その国の政府と協議のうえ、国内NGOとの間で行うことができる。

NGOの定義

「政府間協定によって成立したものでない国際団体を協議取り決めの対象とし、政府が任命したものを含んだNGOにしても、そのことによって表現の自由が妨げられないことを条件とする。」

国連憲章に基づくNGO

国際連合憲章においては、非政府組織（英語ではNGO）は、国際連合と連携を行う民間組織と定義されている（国際連合憲章の当時の日本政府訳（昭和31年条約第26号）では、単に「民間団体」と訳されている）。そのためこの文脈での非政府組織は、国際連合と協力関係にある国際組織と同義と考えられる。実際に、国際連合が連携・協議する国際的な非政府組織は、国際連合NGOとも呼ばれ、国際政治を動かすほどの影響力を持つ。国連はECOSOCを通して民間団体と協力関係を持ち、協議によりNGOとの間に取り決めを行うことがある。国連で実際上除外されているのは、営利団体、政党、基金の類である。

協議上の地位

決議はNGOの協議上の地位を三つに分類している。

• ECOSOCの活動の大半に関心を持ち、国際経済、社会、文化、教育、衛生、科学、技術、人権の分野で国連の目的達成に貢献し、国際的に知名度があり、多くの人々を代表とする。
• ECOSOCの活動分野の若干に関心を持ち、その分野で国際的に知名度があること。人権に関心あるNGOは人権全般に関心を有するものであること。
• 上記二つに該当しないが、ECOSOC、同下部機関ないしその他の国連機関に有益な貢献をすると認められるもの。

協議上の地位停止と撤回

決議は協議上の地位の停止および撤回を定めている。とくに以下の場合三年間地位停止ないし撤回が決定される。

• 秘密裡に政治資金を受領して、これを国連憲章の目的と原則に反する行為のために使用するとき
• 国連憲章の原則に違反して、計画的に、実体のない政治行為に従事するとき。
• 過去三年間に渡ってECOSOCおよび下部機関の事業に何らかの貢献もないとき

人権NGO

全体主義的な人権抑圧主義にある国が戦争を起こしやすいとの見解から、第二次大戦後は人権擁護を基本精神の一部にすることを連合国側は構想していた。人権、基本的自由を尊重する考え方は国連主要目的の柱の一つになった。（国連憲章一条三項）

人権NGOの舞台は、人権委員会である。委員会は43名の政府代表で構成され、3年を任期とする。日本は1982年以来今日までメンバーである。

国連憲章に基づかないNGO

現在は国連憲章の枠を超えてECOSOC以外の多くの国連諸機関と広範囲で関係するようになってきている。

1. 総会関係

   国連憲章の規定にカバーされないNGOの協力に総会関連機関がある。CONGOに代表されるNGOの最大の不満だからである。ナミビア理事会、非植民地化委員会、反アパルトヘイト特別委員会、パレスチナの権利委員会などは通常総会は出席出来るのみの権利しかないことや、すべての下部機関全体についてECOSOCにおける協議の権利を確保されていないことであり、各機関によって認められた権利は一様でなく、概して消極的なものしか与えられないことなどである。パレスチナについては1983年にICCPが設置された。また、開発のための科学技術委員会も存在する。大学、研究所、多国籍企業らの広い意味でのNGOとの協力を不可欠と考えて設置された。国際連合環境計画 (NEP)があり、関連したもので国際湖沼環境委員会 -ILECがある。国連難民高等弁務官事務所 (UNHCR)もそうである。

2. ECOSOC関係

   国際連合児童基金（ユニセフ）執行理事会の手続き規則は、オブザーバーとして次のものを挙げる。

   • 総会がオブザーバーの地位を与えた民族団体。
   • ユニセフでの協議上の地位をもつNGO
   • ユニセフNGO委員会
   • ユニセフ国内委員会

3. 自由権規約人権委員会

   ECOSOC下部機関である人権委員会におけるNGOとの協議とは別個系列で発達した人権通報(Communication) というものがある。国内の人権侵害を訴える通報には、内政不干渉の立場を国連はとってきたが、1968年の国際人権会議（テヘラン）を経て人権擁護に深く踏み込み、通報の要件を改定した。「一五〇三手続」という。市民的及び政治的権利に関する国際規約とその選択議定書によって扱われるべきもの と 一五〇三の手続きに二分される。日本は規約には加入したが、議定書には加入していない。

4. 婦人の地位委員会

   1970年に決議一五〇三 (XLVIII) が採択されたことに鑑みて1974年以降通報の審議を中断していたが、1982年通報のための特別委員会が設置された。公権力により拘禁中の女性に対する暴力、強姦、性的虐待、妊婦への手荒い扱いなどがみられ、ECOSOCは関係加盟国に対してこのような暴力をなくすよう早急に適切な措置をするよう求めた。

5. 安全保障理事会関係

   安保理事会と軍縮会議も国連憲章の枠を超えた内容になっている。ジンバブエとして1980年に独立する以前の南ローデシア白人少数政権に対する経済制裁に関してである。宗主国のイギリス、欧米諸国らとの経済的結びつきから制裁破りの経済活動が横行した。委員会は制裁破りの活動に関して正確な情報を寄せるよう勧告し、理事会で承認された。1979年9月独立へ向けて制裁会議を開くとの合意が成立し、理事会は制裁解除を決定し80年4月南ローデシアはジンバブエとして独立を達成した。

非政府組織の法人格

上述のとおり、非政府組織は国際的に活動する団体を特に指すことが多い。これは非政府組織と同様に国際的に活動する各国政府や国際機関との対比による。

同一の団体・組織であっても、所属する国内の法人格としてはNPO（Non-Profit Organization, Non-Profitable Organization; 非営利団体）、国際的な通称としてはNGO（非政府組織）と標榜することが多い。その為、国際的には非政府組織として認知され、かつ国内法上は非営利団体や特定非営利活動法人として扱われる。 非政府組織の多くは、所属国内の法律において法人種を非営利団体（特定非営利活動法人）、財団としている場合が多いが、法人格として会社であっても非政府組織となり得る。

呼称による印象と問題点

非政府組織を標榜することにより、その活動は、公共的・公益的であるという印象を受けやすい。しかし、市中の小規模な非政府組織の中には活動が公益に沿わないものも散見される。なかには、特定組織のための圧力集団となり政治的・経済的活動を行う組織もあると主張される。

また、実態が反政府組織や、特定思想や特定政党と連結した政治団体、非合法組織である場合もある。これらの団体は、政治的な立場や信条を除外して客観的にみた場合、公共の利益に貢献しないため、正確には非政府組織とはいえない。

非政府組織の検証は公共の利益を守る上で重要であり、そのため活動の現場における監査がおこなわれている。また、外務省などの公共機関の他に、民間の検査団体も活動内容の検証を行っている。

近年、国内外においてNGOの数が増え、大規模化、専門化も進んでいる。公共の利益のための非政府組織だが、「国家や政府の枠組みに捕らわれず、市民生活に根ざして活動する」というNGOの性質上、こうした高度化によってかえって一般の市民生活と乖離してしまうのではないかとも危惧されており、外部評価、活動内容や会計の透明性、意見交換などの必要性が指摘されている。

アフガニスタンでは、ボランティア活動をしていた伊藤和也が2008年8月26日、ターリバーンの犯行により、拉致され、射殺される事件が発生。現時点ではこのボランティア活動は、伊藤の意思を引き継ぎ続ける方針である。

非政府組織において仕事や活動を行うスタッフやボランティアたちは、非政府組織における仕事や活動が原因で自殺に追い込まれるということは2011年現在までは生じていない。

代表的な日本の非政府組織

• シャプラニール＝市民による海外協力の会
• シャンティ国際ボランティア会(SVA)
• ジョイセフ（JOICFP）
• セーブ・ザ・チルドレン・ジャパン（SCJ）
• 難民を助ける会
• 日本国際ボランティアセンター(JVC)
• ピースウィンズ・ジャパン
• ワールド・ビジョン・ジャパン

国際的な非政府組織

• 国際人権救援機構（AI）
• セーブ・ザ・チルドレン（SC）
• ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチ （HRW）
• 世界身体障害者芸術家協会（AMFPA）
• 国際建設・林業労組連盟（BWI）
• 国線燃焼機関会議（CIMAC）
• 国際歯科連盟（FDI）
• 世界不動産連盟（FIABCI）
• 国際測量者連盟（FIG）
• 国際薬剤師・薬学連合（FIP）
• 国際自動車技術会連盟（FISITA）
• 国際翻訳家連盟（FIT）
• 世界情報基盤委員会（GIIC）
• 国際世界平和教育協会（IAEWP）
• 国際医学検査技師協会（IFBLS）
• 国際鍼灸中医薬学会（IAMTCMS）
• 国際会計基準審議会（IASB）
• 国際航空運送協会（IATA）
• 国際法曹協会（IBA）
• 国際栄養士会義（ICD）
• 国際化学エネルギー鉱山一般労連（ICEM）
• 国際自由労連（ICFTU）
• 医薬品規制ハーモナイゼーション国際会議（ICH）
• 国際助産師連盟（ICM）
• 国際看護師協会（ICN）
• 国際博物館会議（ICOM）
• 赤十字国際委員会（ICRC）
• 国際科学会議（ICSU）
• 国際教育到達度評価学会（IEA）
• 国際電気標準会議（IEC）
• 国際競技連盟（IF）
• 国際赤十字赤新月社連盟（IFRC）
• 国際会計士連盟（IFAC）
• 国際歯科衛生士連盟（IFDH）
• 国際選挙制度財団（IFES）
• 国際ジャーナリスト連盟（IFJ）
• 国際図書館連盟（IFLA）
• 国際ソーシャルワーカー連盟（IFSW）
• Institute for International Cooperation and Development (IICD)
• 国際金融協会（IIF）
• 国際港湾倉庫労働組合（ILWU）
• 国際パイロット協会（IMPA）
• 国際視能訓練士協会（IOA）
• 国際オリンピック委員会（IOC）
• 国際救助隊（IRC）
• 国際道路連盟（IRF）
• 国際種子連盟（ISF）
• 国際標準化機構（ISO）
• 国際スノーモービル製造者協会（ISMA）
• 国際東洋医学会（ISOM）
• 国際義肢装具協会（ISPO）
• 世界放射線技師会（ISRRT）
• 国際種子検査協会（ISTA）
• 国際運輸労連（ITF）
• 国際運輸安全連合（ITSA）
• 国際自治体連合（IULA）
• 国際獣医鍼灸学会（IVAS）
• 国際基準美容養生医学会（KBY）
• 世界歴史都市連盟（LHC）
• 国際舟艇製造者協会（NMMA）
• 国際自動車工業連合会（OICA）
• 世界理容美容機構（OMC）
• 国際交通安全協会（PRI）
• 国際公務員労連（PSI）
• 太平洋電気通信協議会（PTC）
• 国際銀行間通信協会（SWIFT）
• 世界エスペラント協会（UEA）
• 国際建築家連盟（UIA）
• 国際鉄道連合（UIC）
• 世界洋菓子連盟（UIPCG）
• 世界司厨士協会連盟（WACS）
• 世界盲人連合（WBU）
• 世界理学療法士連盟（WCPT）
• 世界鍼灸学会連合会（WFAS）
• 世界作業療法士連盟（WFOT）
• 世界ガイド連盟（WFTGA）
• 世界医師会（WMA）
• 世界中医学会連合会（WFCM）
• 世界中医薬学会連合会（WFCMS）
• 世界ろう連盟（WFD）
• 世界睡眠学会連合会（WFSRS）
• 世界鉄鋼協会（WSA）
• 世界中医指鍼学会（WSCMZ）
• 世界セルフメディケーション協会（WSMI）
• 世界獣医学協会（WVA）
• 特定非営利活動法人ワールド・ビジョン・ジャパン（WVJ)
• 世界自然保護基金（WWF）　

脚注

参考文献

• 福田菊『国連とNGO』1988年
• 入江昭（篠原初枝訳）『グローバル・コミュニティ―国際機関・NGOがつくる世界』2006年

関連項目

• 軍縮NGO
• 開発NGO
• 女性NGO
• NPO
• 国連ボランティア
• 市民活動
• 市民社会
• 1%支援制度
• 利権

wiki en

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"NGO" redirects here. For other uses, see NGO (disambiguation).

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any form of government. The term originated from the United Nations (UN), and is normally used to refer to organizations that are not a part of the government and are not conventional for-profit business. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the organization. The term is usually applied only to organizations that pursue wider social aims that have political aspects, but are not openly political organizations such as political parties.

The number of Nationally operating NGOs is estimated at 40,000. International numbers are even higher: Russia has 277,000 NGOs; India is estimated to have around 3.3 million NGOs in year 2009, which is just over one NGO per 400 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India.

Definition

NGOs are difficult to define and classify, and the term 'NGO' is not used consistently. As a result, there are many different classifications in use. The most common use a framework that includes orientation and level of operation. An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, or development work. An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, international or national. "Confronting the Classification Problem: Toward a Taxonomy of NGOs"

One of the earliest mentions of the acronym "NGO" was in 1945, when the UN was created. The UN, which is an inter-governmental organization, made it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies - or non-governmental organisations - to be awarded observer status at its assemblies and some of its meetings. Later the term became used more widely. Today, according to the UN, any kind of private organization that is independent from government control can be termed an "NGO", provided it is not-profit, non-criminal and not simply an opposition political party.

Professor Peter Willetts, from the University of London, argues the definition of NGOs can be interpreted differently by various organizations and depending on a situation’s context. He defines an NGO as “"an independent voluntary association of people acting together on a continuous basis for some common purpose other than achieving government office, making money or illegal activities." In this view, two main types of NGOs are recognized according to the activities they pursue: operational NGOs that deliver services and campaigning NGOs. Although Willetts proposes the operational and campaigning NGOs as a tool to differentiate the main activities of these organizations, he also explains that a single NGO may often be engaged in both activities. Many NGOs also see them as mutually reinforcing.

Professor Akira Iriye defines NGO as "a voluntary nonstate, nonprofit, nonreligious, and nonmilitary association."

Types

Some find it helpful to classify NGOs by orientation and/or level of co-operation.

NGO type by orientation

• Charitable orientation
• Service orientation
• Participatory
• Professional association

• Empowering orientation;

NGO type by level of co-operation

• Community-based organization
• City-wide organization
• National NGO
• International NGO

Apart from "NGO", there are many alternative or overlapping terms in use, including: third sector organization (TSO), non-profit organization (NPO), voluntary organization (VO), civil society organization (CSO), grassroots organization (GO), social movement organization (SMO), private voluntary organization (PVO), self-help organization (SHO) and non-state actors (NSAs).

Non-governmental organizations are a heterogeneous group. As a result, a long (and sometimes confusing or comical) list of additional acronyms has developed, including:

• BINGO, short for 'business-friendly international NGO' or 'big international NGO'
• TANGO, 'technical assistance NGO'
• TSO, 'third sector organization'
• GONGO, 'government-operated NGOs' (set up by governments to look like NGOs in order to qualify for outside aid or promote the interests of government)
• DONGO: Donor Organized NGO
• INGO stands for international NGO; Oxfam, INSPAD, Institute of Peace and Development "A European Think Tank For Peace Initiatives";
• QUANGOs are quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). (The ISO is actually not purely an NGO, since its membership is by nation, and each nation is represented by what the ISO Council determines to be the 'most broadly representative' standardization body of a nation. That body might itself be a nongovernmental organization; for example, the United States is represented in ISO by the American National Standards Institute, which is independent of the federal government. However, other countries can be represented by national governmental agencies; this is the trend in Europe.)
• National NGO: A non-governmental organization that exists only in one country. This term is rare due to the globalization of non-governmental organizations, which causes an NGO to exist in more than one country.
• CSO, short for civil society organization
• ENGO: short for environmental NGO, such as Greenpeace and WWF
• NNGO, short for 'Northern nongovernmental organization'
• SNGO, short for 'Southern nongovernmental organization'
• SCO, also known as 'social change organizations'
• TNGO, transnational NGO; The term emerged during the 1970s due to the increase of environmental and economic issues in the global community. TNGO includes non-governmental organizations that are not confined to only one country, but exist in two or more countries.
• GSO: Grassroots Support Organization
• MANGO: short for market advocacy NGO
• NGDO: non-governmental development organization

USAID refers to NGOs as private voluntary organizations. However, many scholars have argued that this definition is highly problematic as many NGOs are in fact state and corporate funded and managed projects with professional staff.^{[citation needed]}

NGOs exist for a variety of reasons, usually to further the political or social goals of their members or funders. Examples include improving the state of the natural environment, encouraging the observance of human rights, improving the welfare of the disadvantaged, or representing a corporate agenda. However, there are a huge number of such organizations and their goals cover a broad range of political and philosophical positions. This can also easily be applied to private schools and athletic organizations.

Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs

NGOs are organizations that work in many different fields, but the term is generally associated with those seeking social transformation and improvements in quality of life. Development NGOs is the most highly visible sector, and includes both international and local organizations, as well as those working in humanitarian emergency sector. Many are associated with international aid and voluntary donation, but there are also NGOs that choose not to take funds from donors and try to generate funding in other ways, such as selling handicrafts or charging for services.

Environmental NGOs are another sub-sector, and sometimes overlap with development NGOs. An example is Greenpeace. (see: List of Environmental NGOs). Just like other NGOs networks, transnational environmental networks might acquire a variety of benefits in sharing information with other organizations, campaigning towards an issue, and exchanging contact information. Since Transnational environmental NGOs advocate for different issues like public goods, such as pollution in the air, deforestation of areas and water issues, it is more difficult for them to give their campaigns a human face than NGOs campaigning directly for human rights issues.

Some of the earliest forms of transnational environmental NGOs started to appear after the Second World War with the creation of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). After the UN was formed in 1945, more environmental NGO started to emerge in order to address more specific environmental issues. In 1946, the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was created with the purpose of advocating and representing scientific issues and collaboration among environmental NGOs. In 1969, the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) was funded to increase and improve collaboration among environmentalists. This collaboration was later reinforced and stimulated with the creation of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program in 1971. In 1972, the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, tried to address the issues on Sweden’s plead for international intervention on trans-boundary pollution from other European industrialized nations.

Transnational environmental NGOs have taken on diverse issues around the globe, but one of the best-known cases involving the work of environmental NGO’s can be traced back to Brazil during the 1980s. The United States got involved with deforestation concerns due to the allegations of environmentalists dictating deforestation to be a global concern, and after 1977 the U.S. Foreign Assistance Act added an Environmental and Natural Resources section.

Human rights NGOs may also overlap with those in development, but are another distinct category. Amnesty International is perhaps one of the best-known.

During the early 1980s the Brazilian government created the Polonoreste developing program, which the World Bank agreed to finance. The Polonoreste program aimed to urbanized areas of the Amazon, which were already occupied by local indigenous groups. Rapid deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon called the attention and intervention of UNESCO, who utilized its Program on Man and the Biosphere to advocate against the Polonoreste program, on the grounds of violating the rights of the indigenous groups living in the Amazon. In the case of deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon, the environment NGOs were able to put pressure on the World Bank to cancel the loans for the Polonoreste program. Due to the leverage that the U.S. has over the bank, in 1985 the World Bank suspended the financial aid to the Polonoreste Program. The work of environmental NGOs in the Brazilian case was successful because there was a point of leverage that made the targeted actor vulnerable to international pressure.

Even though NGOs might have common goals relating to development or environment issues, interests and perspectives are diverse. A distinction can be made between the interests and goals among those NGOs located in industrialized countries—often referred to as the states of the North—and NGOs from nations located in developing countries—referred to as states of the South. There is sometimes tension between them. Southern states blame the developed nations for over-consumption and pollution resulting from industrialization, and for sustaining inequalities in the international economic system

There is also a distinction among groups that take on particular and specific socio-economic issues. The Women’s Environment and Development Organization was created in 1990 with the purpose to advocate for gender inclusion in work related to the Earth Summit. Other groups might focus on issues that include racial minorities and individuals from lower income backgrounds.

Track II Diplomacy

Main article: Track II diplomacy

Track II dialogue, or Track II diplomacy, is a transnational coordination that involves non-official members of the government including epistemic communities as well as former policy-makers or analysts. Track II diplomacy aims to get policymakers and policy analysts to come to a common solution through discussions by unofficial figures of the government. Unlike the Track I diplomacy where government officials, diplomats and elected leaders gather to talk about certain issues, Track II diplomacy consists of experts, scientists, professors and other figures that are not involved in government affairs. The members of Track II diplomacy usually have more freedom to exchange ideas and come up with compromise on their own.

Activities

There are also numerous classifications of NGOs. The typology the World Bank uses divides them into Operational and Advocacy:

NGOs vary in their methods. Some act primarily as lobbyists, while others primarily conduct programs and activities. For instance, an NGO such as Oxfam, concerned with poverty alleviation, might provide needy people with the equipment and skills to find food and clean drinking water, whereas an NGO like the FFDA helps through investigation and documentation of human rights violations and provides legal assistance to victims of human rights abuses. Others, such as Afghanistan Information Management Services, provide specialized technical products and services to support development activities implemented on the ground by other organizations.

NGOs were intended to fill a gap in government services, but in countries like India, NGOs are gaining a powerful stronghold in decision making. In the interest of sustainability, most donors require that NGOs demonstrate a relationship with governments. State Governments themselves are vulnerable because they lack strategic planning and vision. They are therefore sometimes tightly bound by a nexus of NGOs, political bodies, commercial organizations and major donors/funders, making decisions that have short term outputs but no long term affect. NGOs in India are under regulated, political, and recipients of large government and international donor funds. NGOs often take up responsibilities outside their skill ambit. Governments have no access to the number of projects or amount of funding received by these NGOs. There is a pressing need to regulate this group while not curtailing their unique role as a supplement to government services.

Operational

Operational NGOs seek to "achieve small scale change directly through projects." They mobilize financial resources, materials and volunteers to create localized programs in the field. They hold large scale fundraising events, apply to governments and organizations for grants and contracts in order to raise money for projects. They often operate in a hierarchical structure; with a main headquarters staffed by professionals who plan projects, create budgets, keep accounts, report, and communicate with operational fieldworkers who work directly on projects Operational NGOs deal with a wide range of issues, but are most often associated with the delivery of services and welfare, emergency relief and environmental issues. Operational NGOs can be further categorized, one frequently used categorization is the division into relief-oriented versus development-oriented organizations; they can also be classified according to whether they stress service delivery or participation; or whether they are religious or secular; and whether they are more public or private-oriented. Operational NGOs can be community-based, national or international. The defining activity of operational NGOs is implementing projects.

Campaigning

Campaigning NGOs seek to "achieve large scale change promoted indirectly through influence of the political system." Campaigning NGOs need an efficient and effective group of professional members who are able to keep supporters informed, and motivated. They must plan and host demonstrations and events that will keep their cause in the media. They must maintain a large informed network of supporters who can be mobilized for events to garner media attention and influence policy changes. The defining activity of campaigning NGOs is holding demonstrations. Campaigning NGOs often deal with issues relating to human rights, women's rights, children's rights. The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or promote a specific cause. As opposed to operational project management, these organizations typically try to raise awareness, acceptance and knowledge by lobbying, press work and activist event.

Both

It is not uncommon for NGOs to make use of both activities. Many times, operational NGOs will use campaigning techniques if they continually face the same issues in the field that could be remedied through policy changes. At the same time, Campaigning NGOs, like human rights organizations often have programs that assist the individual victims they are trying to help through their advocacy work.

Public relations

Non-governmental organisations need healthy relationships with the public to meet their goals. Foundations and charities use sophisticated public relations campaigns to raise funds and employ standard lobbying techniques with governments. Interest groups may be of political importance because of their ability to influence social and political outcomes. A code of ethics was established in 2002 by The World Association of Non Governmental NGOs.

Project management

There is an increasing awareness that management techniques are crucial to project success in non-governmental organizations. Generally, non-governmental organizations that are private have either a community or environmental focus. They address varieties of issues such as religion, emergency aid, or humanitarian affairs. They mobilize public support and voluntary contributions for aid; they often have strong links with community groups in developing countries, and they often work in areas where government-to-government aid is not possible. NGOs are accepted as a part of the international relations landscape, and while they influence national and multilateral policy-making, increasingly they are more directly involved in local action.

Corporate structure

Staffing

Some NGOs are highly professionalized and rely mainly on paid staff. Others are based around voluntary labour and are less formalized. Not all people working for non-governmental organizations are volunteers.

Many NGOs are associated with the use of international staff working in 'developing' countries, but there are many NGOs in both North and South who rely on local employees or volunteers. There is some dispute as to whether expatriates should be sent to developing countries. Frequently this type of personnel is employed to satisfy a donor who wants to see the supported project managed by someone from an industrialized country. However, the expertise these employees or volunteers may be counterbalanced by a number of factors: the cost of foreigners is typically higher, they have no grassroot connections in the country they are sent to, and local expertise is often undervalued.

The NGO sector is an important employer in terms of numbers.^{[citation needed]} For example, by the end of 1995, CONCERN worldwide, an international Northern NGO working against poverty, employed 174 expatriates and just over 5,000 national staff working in ten developing countries in Africa and Asia, and in Haiti.

Funding

Whether the NGOs are small or large, various NGOs need budgets to operate. The amount of budget that they need would differ from NGOs to NGOs. Unlike small NGOs, large NGOs may have annual budgets in the hundreds of millions or billions of dollars. For instance, the budget of the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) was over US$540 million in 1999. Funding such large budgets demands significant fundraising efforts on the part of most NGOs. Major sources of NGO funding are membership dues, the sale of goods and services, grants from international institutions or national governments, and private donations. Several EU-grants provide funds accessible to NGOs.

Even though the term "non-governmental organization" implies independence from governments, many NGOs depend heavily on governments for their funding. A quarter of the US$162 million income in 1998 of the famine-relief organization Oxfam was donated by the British government and the EU. The Christian relief and development organization World Vision United States collected US$55 million worth of goods in 1998 from the American government. Nobel Prize winner Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) (known in the USA as Doctors Without Borders) gets 46% of its income from government sources.

Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according to David Rieff, writing in The New Republic, "the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter." Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace do not accept funding from governments or intergovernmental organizations.

Overhead costs

Overhead is the amount of money that is spent on running an NGO rather than on projects. This includes office expenses, salaries, banking and bookkeeping costs. What percentage of overall budget is spent on overhead is often used to judge an NGO with less than 10% being viewed as good. The World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations states that ideally more than 80% should be spent on programs (less than 20% on overhead). The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria has specific guidelines on how high overhead can be to receive funding based on how the money is to be spent with overhead often needing to be less than 5-7%. While the World Bank typically allows 10%. A high percentage of overhead to total expenditures can make it more difficult to generate funds. High overhead costs may also generate criticism with some claiming the certain NGOs with high overhead are being run simply to benefit the people working for them.

Monitoring and control

In a March 2000 report on United Nations Reform priorities, former U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan wrote in favor of international humanitarian intervention, arguing that the international community has a "right to protect" citizens of the world against ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity. On the heels of the report, the Canadian government launched the Responsibility to Protect R2P project, outlining the issue of humanitarian intervention. While the R2P doctrine has wide applications, among the more controversial has been the Canadian government's use of R2P to justify its intervention and support of the coup in Haiti. Years after R2P, the World Federalist Movement, an organization which supports "the creation of democratic global structures accountable to the citizens of the world and call for the division of international authority among separate agencies", has launched Responsibility to Protect - Engaging Civil Society (R2PCS). A collaboration between the WFM and the Canadian government, this project aims to bring NGOs into lockstep with the principles outlined under the original R2P project.

The governments of the countries an NGO works or is registered in may require reporting or other monitoring and oversight. Funders generally require reporting and assessment, such information is not necessarily publicly available. There may also be associations and watchdog organizations that research and publish details on the actions of NGOs working in particular geographic or program areas.^{[citation needed]}

In recent years, many large corporations have increased their corporate social responsibility departments in an attempt to preempt NGO campaigns against certain corporate practices. As the logic goes, if corporations work with NGOs, NGOs will not work against corporations.

In December 2007, The United States Department of Defense Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs) S. Ward Casscells established an International Health Division under Force Health Protection & Readiness. Part of International Health's mission is to communicate with NGOs in areas of mutual interest. Department of Defense Directive 3000.05, in 2005, requires DoD to regard stability-enhancing activities as a mission of importance equal to combat. In compliance with international law, DoD has necessarily built a capacity to improve essential services in areas of conflict such as Iraq, where the customary lead agencies (State Department and USAID) find it difficult to operate. Unlike the "co-option" strategy described for corporations, the OASD(HA) recognizes the neutrality of health as an essential service. International Health cultivates collaborative relationships with NGOs, albeit at arms-length, recognizing their traditional independence, expertise and honest broker status. While the goals of DoD and NGOs may seem incongruent, the DoD's emphasis on stability and security to reduce and prevent conflict suggests, on careful analysis, important mutual interests.

History

International non-governmental organizations have a history dating back to at least 1839. It has been estimated that by 1914, there were 1083 NGOs. International NGOs were important in the anti-slavery movement and the movement for women's suffrage, and reached a peak at the time of the World Disarmament Conference. However, the phrase "non-governmental organization" only came into popular use with the establishment of the United Nations Organization in 1945 with provisions in Article 71 of Chapter 10 of the United Nations Charter for a consultative role for organizations which are neither governments nor member states—see Consultative Status. The definition of "international NGO" (INGO) is first given in resolution 288 (X) of ECOSOC on February 27, 1950: it is defined as "any international organization that is not founded by an international treaty". The vital role of NGOs and other "major groups" in sustainable development was recognized in Chapter 27 of Agenda 21, leading to intense arrangements for a consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations. It has been observed that the number of INGO founded or dissolved matches the general "state of the world", rising in periods of growth and declining in periods of crisis.

Rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in western countries as a result of the processes of restructuring of the welfare state. Further globalization of that process occurred after the fall of the communist system and was an important part of the Washington consensus.

Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many problems could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international organizations such as the World Trade Organization were centred mainly on the interests of capitalist enterprises. In an attempt to counterbalance this trend, NGOs have developed to emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable development. A prominent example of this is the World Social Forum, which is a rival convention to the World Economic Forum held annually in January in Davos, Switzerland. The fifth World Social Forum in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in January 2005 was attended by representatives from more than 1,000 NGOs. In terms of environmental issues and sustainable development, the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 was the first to show the power of international NGOs, when about 2,400 representatives of NGOs came to play a central role in deliberations. Some have argued that in forums like these, NGOs take the place of what should belong to popular movements of the poor. Whatever the case, NGO transnational networking is now extensive.

Legal status

The legal form of NGOs is diverse and depends upon homegrown variations in each country's laws and practices. However, four main family groups of NGOs can be found worldwide:

• Unincorporated and voluntary association
• Trusts, charities and foundations
• Companies not just for profit
• Entities formed or registered under special NGO or nonprofit laws

The Council of Europe in Strasbourg drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organizations in 1986, which sets a common legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs.

Critiques

Stuart Becker provides the following summary of the primary critiques of NGOs:

There’s a debate that, NGOs take the place of what should belong to popular movements of the poor. Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racist manner in Third World countries and that they fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the colonial era. Philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics."

Issa G. Shivji is one of Africa's leading experts on law and development issues as an author and academic. His critique on NGOs is found in two essays: "Silences in NGO discourse: The role and future of NGOs in Africa" and "Reflections on NGOs in Tanzania: What we are, what we are not and what we ought to be". Shivji argues that despite the good intentions of NGO leaders and activists, he is critical of the "objective effects of actions, regardless of their intentions". Shivji argues also that the sudden rise of NGOs are part of a neoliberal paradigm rather than pure altruistic motivations. He is critical of the current manifestations of NGOs wanting to change the world without understanding it, and that the imperial relationship continues today with the rise of NGOs.

Jessica Mathews once wrote in Foreign Affairs in 1997: "For all their strengths, NGOs are special interests. The best of them ... often suffer from tunnel vision, judging every public act by how it affects their particular interest". Since NGOs do have to worry about policy trade-offs, the overall impact of their cause might bring more harm to society.

Vijay Prashad argues that from the 1970s "The World Bank, under Robert McNamara, championed the NGO as an alternative to the state, leaving intact global and regional relations of power and production."

Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racialized manner in third world countries, and that they fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the high colonial era. The philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics. Popular movements in the global South such as, for instance, the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign in South Africa have sometimes refused to work with NGOs arguing that this will compromise their autonomy.

Another criticism of NGOs is that they are being designed and used as extensions of the normal foreign-policy instruments of certain Western countries and groups of countries. Russian President Vladimir Putin made this accusation at the 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy in 2007, concluding that these NGOs "are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control." Also, Michael Bond wrote "Most large NGOs, such as Oxfam, the Red Cross, Cafod and Action Aid, are striving to make their aid provision more sustainable. But some, mostly in the US, are still exporting the ideologies of their backers." Indeed, whether the NGOs are adiding for evangelical purposes or their ideological intentions, various NGOs are examined and accused of their nature.

There has also been the overwhelming disaster of NGOs using white lies or misinformed advise to enact their campaigns. In other words, NGOs have been quite ignorant about critical issues because, as chief scientist at Greenpeace Doug Parr claims, these organizations have lost their efforts in being trully scientific and are now more self-interested. Rather than operating through science so as to be rationally and effectively practical, NGOs are now abusing the utilization of science in order to gain their own advantages. In the beginning, as Parr indicated, there was "'a tendency among our critics to say that science is the only decision-making tool . . . but political and commerical interests are using science as a cover for getting their way.'" At the same time, NGOs have shown themselves not to be very cooperative with other groups, as the previous policy-maker for the German branch of Friends of the Earth Jens Katjek acknowledged. "If NGOs want the best for the environment, he says, they have to learn to compromise."

Challenges to legitimacy

The issue of the legitimacy of NGOs raises a series of important questions. This is one of the most important assets possessed by an NGO, it is gained through a perception that they are an “independent voice”. Their representation also emerges as an important question. Who bestows responsibilities to NGOs or INGOs and how do they gain the representation of citizens and civil society is still not scrutinized thoroughly. For instance, in the article, it is stated, "To put the point starkly: are the citizens of countries of the South and their needs represented in global civil society, or are citizens as well as their needs constructed by practices of representation? And when we realize that INGOs hardly ever come face to face with the people whose interests and problems they represent, or that they are not accountable to the people they represent, matters become even more troublesome."

Moreover, the legitimacy and the accountability of NGOs on the point of their true nature are also emerging as important issues. Various perceptions and images on NGOs are provided, and usually implemented in an image as 'non-state actors' or 'influential representatives of civil society that advocate the citizen.' Accountability may be able to provide this and also be able to assist activities by providing focus and direction As non-state actors with considerable influence over the governance in many areas, concerns have been expressed over the extent to which they represent the views of the public and the extent to which they allow the public to hold them to account.

The origin of funding can have serious implications for the legitimacy of NGOs. In recent decades NGOs have increased their numbers and range of activities to a level where they have become increasingly dependent on a limited number of donors. Consequently competition has increased for funding, as have the expectations of the donors themselves. This runs the risk of donors adding conditions which can threaten the independence of NGOs, an over-dependence on official aid has the potential to dilute “the willingness of NGOs to speak out on issues which are unpopular with governments”. In these situations NGOs are being held accountable by their donors, which can erode rather than enhance their legitimacy, a difficult challenge to overcome. Some commentators have also argued that the changes in where NGOs receive their funding has ultimately altered their functions.

NGOs have also been challenged on the grounds that they do not necessarily represent the needs of the developing world, through diminishing the so-called “Southern Voice”. Some postulate that the North-South division exists in the arena of NGOs. They question the equality of the relationships between Northern and Southern parts of the same NGOs as well as the relationships between Southern and Northern NGOs working in partnerships. This suggests a division of labour may develop, with the North taking the lead in advocacy and resource mobilisation whilst the South engages in service delivery in the developing world. The potential implications of this may mean that the needs of the developing world are not addressed appropriately as Northern NGOs do not properly consult or participate in partnerships. The real danger in this situation is that western views may take the front seat and assign unrepresentative priorities.

The scale and variety of activities in which NGOs participate has grown rapidly since the 1980s, witnessing particular expansion in the 1990s. This has presented NGOs with need to balance the pressures of centralisation and decentralisation. By centralising NGOs, particularly those that operate at an international level, they can assign a common theme or set of goals. Conversely it is also advantageous to decentralise as this increases the chances of an NGO behaving flexibly and effectively to localised issues.

See also

• Charitable organization
• Civil society
• Community foundation
• NGO-isation
• Non-governmental organizations by country
• Non-profit organization
• Not just for profit
• Occupational health and safety
• Track II diplomacy

References

Further reading

• Mark Butler, with Thulani Ndlazi, David Ntseng, Graham Philpott, and Nomusa Sokhela. NGO Practice and the Possibility of Freedom Church Land Programme, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa 2007 Churchland.co.za
• Olivier Berthoud, NGOs: Somewhere between Compassion, Profitability and Solidarity Envio.org.ni, PDF Edinter.net Envio, Managua, 2001
• Terje Tvedt, 19982/2003: Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats. NGOs & Foreign Aid, Oxford: James Currey
• Steve W. Witt, ed. Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination of Information in Developing Countries (Saur, 2006). ISBN 3-598-22030-8
• Cox, P. N. Shams, G. C. Jahn, P. Erickson and P. Hicks. 2002. Building collaboration between NGOs and agricultural research institutes. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture 6: 1-8. IRRI.org
• Ann Florini, ed. The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Japan Center for International Exchange, 2001).
• Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Cornell University Press
• Rodney Bruce Hall, and Biersteker, Thomas. The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance (Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 2003)
• Dorthea Hilhorst, The Real World of NGOs: Discourses, Diversity and Development, Zed Books, 2003
• Joan Roelofs, Foundations and Public Policy: The Mask of Pluralism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003).
• Ian Smillie, & Minear, Larry, editors. The Charity of Nations: Humanitarian Action in a Calculating World, Kumarian Press, 2004
• Simon Maxwell and Diane Stone. (eds) Global Knowledge Networks and International Development: Bridges Across Boundaries (Routledge, 2005: I-xix; 1-192).
• Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism, New York :Cambridge University Press, 2005
• Thomas Ward, editor. Development, Social Justice, and Civil Society: An Introduction to the Political Economy of NGOs, Paragon House, 2005
• H. Teegen, 2003. ‘International NGOs as Global Institutions: Using Social Capital to Impact Multinational Enterprises and Governments’, Journal of International Management.
• Jennifer Brinkerhoff, Stephen C. Smith, and Hildy Teegen, NGOs and the Millennium Development Goals: Citizen Action to Reduce Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
• S.Goonatilake. Recolonisation: Foreign Funded NGO's in Sri Lanka, Sage Publications 2006.
• Teegen, H. Doh, J., Vachani, S., 2004. “The importance of nongovernmental organisation in global governance and value creation: an international business research agenda“ in Journal of International Business Studies. Washington: Vol. 35, Iss.6.
• K. Rodman, (1998)."‘Think Globally, Punish Locally: Nonstate Actors, Multinational Corporations, and Human Rights Sanctions" in Ethics in International Affairs, vol. 12.
• Grant B. Stillman (2006), NGO Law and Governance: a resource book, ADB Institute, Tokyo, ISBN 4-89974-013-1.

More useful are regional histories and analyses of the experience of NGOs. Specific works (although this is by no means an exhaustive list) include:

• T. R. Davies, The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: The Campaign for Disarmament between the Two World Wars, Brill, 2007. ISBN 3-598-22030-8
• H. Englund, Prisoners of Freedom: Human Rights & the Africa Poor, University of California Press, 2006
• Carrie Meyer, The Economics and Politics of NGOs in Latin America, Praeger Publishers, July 30, 1999
• Chhandasi Pandya. 2006. Private Authority and Disaster Relief: The Cases of Post-Tsunami Aceh and Nias. Critical Asian Studies. Vol. 38, No. 2. Pg. 298-308. Routledge Press: Taylor & Francis Group
• Maha Abdelrahman, Civil Society Exposed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt, The American University in Cairo Press, 2004. Al-Ahram Weekly has done a review of the book.
• Sangeeta Kamat, Development hegemony: NGOs and The State in India, Delhi, New York; Oxford University Press, 2002
• Adama Sow, Chancen und Risiken von NGOs – Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea während der Unruhen 2007 – EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 (German)
• Lyal S. Sunga, "Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq", in Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Bell and Jean-Marc Coicaud, Cambridge Univ. and United Nations Univ. Press, 2007.
• Lyal S. Sunga, "NGO Involvement in International Human Rights Monitoring, International Human Rights Law and Non-Governmental Organizations" (2005) 41-69.
• Werker & Ahmed (2008): What do Non-Governmental Organizations do?
• Steve Charnovitz, "Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance," Michigan Journal of International Law, Vol. 18, Winter 1997, at 183-286.
• Abahlali baseMjondolo Rethinking Public Participation from Below, 'Critical Dialogue', 2006
• Akpan S. M (2010): Establishment of Non-Governmental Organizations (In Press).
• Edward A. L. Turner (2010) Why Has the Number of International Non-Governmental Organizations Exploded since 1960?, Cliodynamics, 1, (1). Retrieved from: [3]
• Eugene Fram & Vicki Brown, How Using the Corporate Model Makes a Nonprofit Board More Effective & Efficient - Third Edition (2011), Amazon Books, Create Space Books.

The de facto reference resource for information and statistics on International NGOs (INGOs) and other transnational organisational forms is the Yearbook of International Organizations, produced by the Union of International Associations.

• David Lewis and Nazneen Kanji (2009): Non-Governmental Organizations and Development. New York: Routledge.
• Issa G. Shivji (2007): Silence in NGO Discourse: The Role and Future of NGOs in Africa. Nairobi: Fahamu.
• Jens Steffek and Kristina Hahn (2010): Evaluating Transnational NGOs: Legitimacy, Accountability, Representation. New York: Palgrave, Macmillan.

External links

• NGO Search: NGO/IGO google custom search engine built by the Govt Documents Round Table (GODORT) of the American Library Association.
• Interface journal special issue on NGOs
• A brief history of Non-Governmental Organizations
• Historical Database of International NGOs
• Duke University NGO Library
• Global Policy Forum: The site includes articles on a wide range of aspects of NGOs.
• NGOs - Non-Governmental Organizations
• What is a Non-Governmental Organization? City University, London
• international association of professional certification, (iaopc)

UpToDate Contents

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• 1. ノーマ（壊疽性口内炎） noma cancrum oris

English Journal

• Five principles for the practice of knowledge exchange in environmental management.

• Reed MS1, Stringer LC2, Fazey I3, Evely AC4, Kruijsen JH5.
• Journal of environmental management.J Environ Manage.2014 Dec 15;146:337-45. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.021. Epub 2014 Sep 6.
• This paper outlines five principles for effective practice of knowledge exchange, which when applied, have the potential to significantly enhance the impact of environmental management research, policy and practice. The paper is based on an empirical analysis of interviews with 32 researchers and st
• PMID 25194520

• The 9-1-1 checkpoint clamp stimulates DNA resection by Dna2-Sgs1 and Exo1.

• Ngo GH1, Balakrishnan L2, Dubarry M1, Campbell JL3, Lydall D4.
• Nucleic acids research.Nucleic Acids Res.2014 Dec 1;42(16):10516-28. doi: 10.1093/nar/gku746. Epub 2014 Aug 13.
• Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) at DNA ends is an important regulator of the DNA damage response. Resection, the generation of ssDNA, affects DNA damage checkpoint activation, DNA repair pathway choice, ssDNA-associated mutation and replication fork stability. In eukaryotes, extensive DNA resection requ
• PMID 25122752

Japanese Journal

• <2013年度研究プロジェクト報告>東アジアの平和と多元的な宗教・ＮＧＯ・市民社会の役割

• 山本 俊正
• 関西学院大学キリスト教と文化研究 (15), 113-115, 22014-03-03
• NAID 120005430136

• 非営利Now NPO/NGO就職・転職合同説明会

• 島村 真佐利
• 公益・一般法人 : 公益社団・財団法人及び一般社団・財団法人の会計・税務・運営の実務専門誌 (867), 44-46, 2014-04-15
• NAID 40020039622

Related Links

• NGOを知る | 国際協力NGOセンター JANIC

[NGOを知る]NGOのことが分かるさまざまなコンテンツをご用意しています。NGOは世界の社会課題の解決に取り組んでいます。貧困・飢餓や紛争、環境破壊や災害など世界で起こっているさまざまな課題に政府や国際機関とは異なる「民間 ...

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Related Pictures

---

★リンクテーブル★

国試過去問	「104G033」「100G010」「098G004」
リンク元	「アムダ」「二国間協力」
関連記事	「N」「NG」

「104G033」

　　[★]

• 我が国の国際保健医療協力について正しいのはどれか。2つ選べ。

• a　非政府機関 NGOの活動の主体は企業である。
• b　世界保健機関 WHOでは東アジア地域に属している。
• c　国際労働機関 ILOに加盟して労働者の健康を擁護している。
• d　国際協力機構 JICAの国際保健協力をWHOを通して行っている。
• e　政府開発援助 ODAによる資金協力を無償と有償とで行っている。

[正答]

CE

※国試ナビ4※　［104G032］←［国試_104］→［104G034］

「100G010」

　　[★]

• 誤っているのはどれか。

• a. 国際疾病分類(ICD)は世界保健機関(WHO)が定めている。
• b. 世界保健機関は発展途上国に対する国際保健協力を行う。
• c. 国際労働機関(ILO)は労働者の健康保護について勧告を行う。
• d. 国際協力機構(JICA)の国際保健協力は世界保健機関を通じて実施される。
• e. 非政府機関(NGO)は民間による国際保健協力を担っている。

[正答]

D

※国試ナビ4※　［100G009］←［国試_100］→［100G011］

「098G004」

　　[★]

• 我が国の国際保健医療協力について正しいのはどれか。

• a. 世界保健機関(WHO)の東アジア地域に属している。
• b. 独立行政法人国際協力機構(JICA)は主に2国間協力の事業を扱う。
• c. 政府開発援助(ODA)の財政協力は先進国の中では低水準である。
• d. 非政府機関(NGO)は主に企業による活動である。
• e. 国際労働機関(ILO)は先進国が交流する場である。

[正答]

B

※国試ナビ4※　［098G003］←［国試_098］→［098G005］

「アムダ」

　　[★]

英

Asian Medical Doctor Association AMDA

正式名称

特定非営利活動法人アムダ

旧名称

アジア医師連絡協議会

• 民間協力団体(NGO)

参考

• 1. wiki ja

http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A2%E5%8C%BB%E5%B8%AB%E9%80%A3%E7%B5%A1%E5%8D%94%E8%AD%B0%E4%BC%9A

「二国間協力」

　　[★]

関

国際保険医療協力、国際協力

二国間協力

• 経済協力

• 政府開発援助(ODA)
• その他の政府資金
• 民間資金

• 技術協力

• 政府機関

• 外務省
• 国際協力機構(JICA)

• 民間組織

• 非政府機関(NGO)

「N」

　　[★]

• アスパラギン asparagine
• 窒素(原子、分子)

　 　

「NG」

　　[★] 腫瘍。新生物 new growth