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| Vertebral column |
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The human vertebral column is divided into regions (labelled)
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| Details |
| Latin |
Columna vertebralis |
| Identifiers |
| TA |
A02.2.00.001 |
| FMA |
13478 |
| Anatomical terminology |
The human vertebral column is the backbone or spine, consisting of twenty-four articulating vertebrae, and nine fused vertebrae in the sacrum and the coccyx.[1] The vertebrae in the column are separated from each other by intervertebral discs. It houses and protects the spinal cord in its spinal canal.
There are normally thirty-three vertebrae; the upper twenty-four are articulating and separated from each other by intervertebral discs, and the lower nine are fused, five in the sacrum and four in the coccyx or tailbone. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae. The number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the cervical region however is only rarely changed.[2]
Contents
- 1 Structure
- 1.1 Shape
- 1.2 Vertebrae
- 1.3 Development
- 2 Function
- 3 Clinical significance
- 3.1 Disease
- 3.2 Curvature
- 3.3 Anatomical landmark
- 4 Other animals
- 5 See also
- 6 References
- 7 External links
Structure
The human vertebral column consists of 33 vertebrae. [3] These are divided into different regions, which correspond to the curves of the spinal column. These regions are called the cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum and coccyx. There are a total of 33 vertebrae in the vertebral column. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae. Vertebrae in these regions are essentially alike, with minor variation.
The number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the cervical region however is only rarely changed.[2]
Individual vertebrae are named according to their region and position. From top to bottom, the vertebrae are:
- Cervical spine: 7 vertebrae (C1–C7)
- Thoracic spine: 12 vertebrae (T1–T12)
- Lumbar spine: 5 vertebrae (L1–L5)
- Sacrum: 5 (fused) vertebrae (S1–S5)
- Coccyx: 4 (3–5) (fused) vertebrae (Tailbone)
Shape
The upper cervical spine has a curve, convex forward, begins at the second cervical vertebra the axis at the apex of the odontoid process known as the dens, and ends at the middle of the second thoracic vertebra; it is the least marked of all the curves.
The thoracic curve, concave forward, begins at the middle of the second and ends at the middle of the twelfth thoracic vertebra. Its most prominent point behind corresponds to the spinous process of the seventh thoracic vertebra. This curve is known as a kyphotic curve.
The lumbar curve is more marked in the female than in the male; it begins at the middle of the last thoracic vertebra, and ends at the sacrovertebral angle. It is convex anteriorly, the convexity of the lower three vertebrae being much greater than that of the upper two. This curve is described as a lordotic curve.
The sacral curve begins at the sacrovertebral articulation, and ends at the point of the coccyx; its concavity is directed downward and forward.
The thoracic and sacral curves are termed primary curves, because they are present in the fetus. The cervical and lumbar curves are compensatory or secondary, and are developed after birth. The cervical curve forms when the infant is able to hold up its head (at three or four months) and to sit upright (at nine months). The lumbar curve forms later from twelve to eighteen months, when the child begins to walk.
- Anterior surface
When viewed from in front, the width of the bodies of the vertebrae is seen to increase from the second cervical to the first thoracic; there is then a slight diminution in the next three vertebrae; below this there is again a gradual and progressive increase in width as low as the sacrovertebral angle. From this point there is a rapid diminution, to the apex of the coccyx.[4]
- Posterior surface
From behind, the vertebral column presents in the median line the spinous processes. In the cervical region (with the exception of the second and seventh vertebrae) these are short, horizontal and bifid. In the upper part of the thoracic region they are directed obliquely downward; in the middle they are almost vertical, and in the lower part they are nearly horizontal. In the lumbar region they are nearly horizontal. The spinous processes are separated by considerable intervals in the lumbar region, by narrower intervals in the neck, and are closely approximated in the middle of the thoracic region. Occasionally one of these processes deviates a little from the median line — which can sometimes be indicative of a fracture or a displacement of the spine. On either side of the spinous processes is the vertebral groove formed by the laminae in the cervical and lumbar regions, where it is shallow, and by the laminae and transverse processes in the thoracic region, where it is deep and broad; these grooves lodge the deep muscles of the back. Lateral to the spinous processes are the articular processes, and still more laterally the transverse processes. In the thoracic region, the transverse processes stand backward, on a plane considerably behind that of the same processes in the cervical and lumbar regions. In the cervical region, the transverse processes are placed in front of the articular processes, lateral to the pedicles and between the intervertebral foramina. In the thoracic region they are posterior to the pedicles, intervertebral foramina, and articular processes. In the lumbar region they are in front of the articular processes, but behind the intervertebral foramina.[4]
- Lateral surfaces
The sides of the vertebral column are separated from the posterior surface by the articular processes in the cervical and thoracic regions, and by the transverse processes in the lumbar region. In the thoracic region, the sides of the bodies of the vertebrae are marked in the back by the facets for articulation with the heads of the ribs. More posteriorly are the intervertebral foramina, formed by the juxtaposition of the vertebral notches, oval in shape, smallest in the cervical and upper part of the thoracic regions, and gradually increasing in size to the last lumbar. They transmit the special spinal nerves and are situated between the transverse processes in the cervical region, and in front of them in the thoracic and lumbar regions.[4]
Vertebrae
Main article: Vertebra
The vertebral column consists of vertebrae. The vertebrae of the cervical, thoraic and lumbar spines are independent bones, and generally quite similar. The vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are usually fused and unable to move independently. Two special vertebrae are the atlas and axis, on which the head rests.
A typical vertebra consists of two parts: the vertebral body and the vertebral arch. The vertebral arch is posterior, meaning it faces the back of a person. Together, these enclose the vertebral foramen, which contains the spinal cord. Because the spinal cord ends in the lumbar spine, and the sacrum and coccyx are fused, they do not contain a central foramen. The vertebral arch is formed by a pair of pedicles and a pair of laminae, and supports seven processes, four articular, two transverse, and one spinous, the latter also being known as the neural spine. Two transverse processes and one spinous process are posterior to (behind) the vertebral body. The spinous process comes out the back, one transverse process comes out the left, and one on the right. The spinous processes of the cervical and lumbar regions can be felt through the skin.
Above and below each vertebrae are joints called Zygapophyseal joints. These restrict the range of movement possible, and are joined by a thin portion of the neural arch called the pars interarticularis. In between each pair of vertebrae are two small holes called intervertebral foramina. The spinal nerves leave the spinal cord through these holes.
Development
The striking segmented pattern of the spine is established during embryogenesis when somites, are rhythmically added to the posterior of the embryo. Somite formation begins around the third week when the embryo begins gastrulation and continues until around 52 somites are formed. The somites are spheres, formed from the paraxial mesoderm that lies at the sides of the neural tube and they contain the precursors of spinal bone, the vertebrae ribs and some of the skull, as well as muscle, ligaments and skin. Somitogenesis and the subsequent distribution of somites is controlled by a clock and wavefront model acting in cells of the paraxial mesoderm. Soon after their formation, sclerotomes, which give rise to some of the bone of the skull, the vertebrae and ribs, migrate, leaving the remainder of the somite now termed a dermamyotome behind. This then splits to give the myotomes which will form the muscles and dermatomes which will form the skin of the back. Sclerotomes become subvidided into an anterior and a posterior compartment. This subdivision plays a key role in the definitive patterning of vertebrae that form when the posterior part of one somite fuses to the anterior part of the consecutive somite during a process termed resegmentation. Disruption of the somitogenesis process in humans results in diseases such as congenital scoliosis. So far, the human homologues of three genes associated to the mouse segmentation clock, (MESP2, DLL3 and LFNG), have been shown to be mutated in cases of congenital scoliosis, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in vertebral segmentation are conserved across vertebrates. In humans the first four somites are incorporated in the base of the occipital bone of the skull and the next 33 somites will form the vertebrae, ribs, muscles, ligaments and skin.[5] The remaining posterior somites degenerate. During the fourth week of embryogenesis, the sclerotomes shift their position to surround the spinal cord and the notochord. This column of tissue has a segmented appearance, with alternating areas of dense and less dense areas.
As the sclerotome develops, it condenses further eventually developing into the vertebral body. Development of the appropriate shapes of the vertebral bodies is regulated by HOX genes.
The less dense tissue that separates the sclerotome segments develop into the intervertebral discs.
The notochord disappears in the sclerotome (vertebral body) segments, but persists in the region of the intervertebral discs as the nucleus pulposus. The nucleus pulposus and the fibers of the anulus fibrosus make up the intervertebral disc.
The primary curves (thoracic and sacral curvatures) form during fetal development. The secondary curves develop after birth. The cervical curvature forms as a result of lifting the head and the lumbar curvature forms as a result of walking.
Function
Spinal cord
The spinal cord nested in the vertebral column.
Main article: Spinal cord
The vertebral column surrounds the spinal cord which travels within the spinal canal, formed from a central hole within each vertebra. The spinal cord is part of the central nervous system that supplies nerves and receives information from the peripheral nervous system within the body. The spinal cord consists of grey and white matter and a central cavity, the central canal. Adjacent to each vertebra emerge spinal nerves. The spinal nerves provide sympathetic nervous supply to the body, with nerves emerging forming the sympathetic trunk and the splanchnic nerves.
The spinal canal follows the different curves of the column; it is large and triangular in those parts of the column which enjoy the greatest freedom of movement, such as the cervical and lumbar regions; and is small and rounded in the thoracic region, where motion is more limited.[citation needed]
The spinal cord terminates in the conus medullaris and cauda equina.
Clinical significance
Disease
Spina bifida is a congenital disorder in which there is a defective closure of the vertebral arch. Sometimes the spinal meninges and also the spinal cord can protrude through this, and this is called Spina bifida cystica. Where the condition does not involve this protrusion it is known as Spina bifida occulta. Sometimes all of the vertebral arches may remain incomplete.[6] Another, though rare, congenital disease is Klippel-Feil syndrome which is the fusion of any two of the cervical vertebrae.
Spondylolisthesis is the forward displacement of a vertebra and retrolisthesis is a posterior displacement of one vertebral body with respect to the adjacent vertebra to a degree less than a dislocation.
Spinal disc herniation, more commonly called a "slipped disc", is the result of a tear in the outer ring (anulus fibrosus) of the intervertebral disc, which lets some of the soft gel-like material, the nucleus pulposus, bulge out in a hernia.
Spinal stenosis is a narrowing of the spinal canal which can occur in any region of the spine though less commonly in the thoracic region. The stenosis can constrict the spinal canal giving rise to a neurological deficit.
Pain at the coccyx (tailbone) is known as coccydynia.[7]
Spinal cord injury
Curvature
Spinal curvature is classed as a spinal disease or dorsopathy and includes the following abnormal curvatures:
- Kyphosis is an exaggerated kyphotic (concave) curvature in the thoracic region, also called hyperkyphosis. This produces the so-called "humpback" or "dowager's hump", a condition commonly resulting from osteoporosis.
- Lordosis as an exaggerated lordotic (convex) curvature of the lumbar region, is known as lumbar hyperlordosis and also as "swayback". Temporary lordosis is common during pregnancy.
- Scoliosis, lateral curvature, is the most common abnormal curvature, occurring in 0.5% of the population. It is more common among females and may result from unequal growth of the two sides of one or more vertebrae, so that they do not fuse properly. It can also be caused by pulmonary atelectasis (partial or complete deflation of one or more lobes of the lungs) as observed in asthma or pneumothorax.
- Kyphoscoliosis, a combination of kyphosis and scoliosis.
Anatomical landmark
Orientation of vertebral column on surface. T3 is at level of medial part of spine of scapula T7 is at inferior angle of the scapula. L4 is at highest point of iliac crest. S2 is at the level of posterior superior iliac spine. Furthermore, C7 is easily localized as a prominence at the lower part of the neck.
[8]
Individual vertebrae of the human vertebral column can be felt and used as surface anatomy. This provides anatomical landmarks that can be used to guide procedures such as lumbar puncture and also as a reference point to describe the locations of other parts of human anatomy, such as the positions of organs.
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The vertebrae may be used as vertical reference points for the locations of the organs of the trunk, taken from the middle of the vertebral body. The transpyloric line is seen at L1
Other animals
Main article: Vertebral column
See also
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Human vertebral column. |
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see anatomical terminology.
- Low back pain
- Neuromechanics of idiopathic scoliosis
- Neutral spine
References
- ^ Dorland's (2012). Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (32nd ed.). Elsevier Saunders. p. 2050. ISBN 978-1-4160-6257-8.
- ^ a b Gray, Henry (1977). Gray's Anatomy. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. p. 34.
- ^ Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W.M. Mitchell; illustrations by Richard; Richardson, Paul (2005). Gray's anatomy for students. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-8089-2306-0.
- ^ a b c Gray's Anatomy (1918)
- ^ Somites, Spinal Ganglia, and Centra
- ^ Dorland's (2012). Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (32nd ed.). Elsevier Saunders. p. 1748. ISBN 978-1-4160-6257-8.
- ^ Patel, R; Appannagari, A; Whang, P.G. (May 2008). "Coccydynia". Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine 1 (3-4): 223–226. doi:10.1007/s12178-008-9028-1. PMID 19468909.
- ^ Anatomy Compendium (Godfried Roomans and Anca Dragomir)
External links
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Look up backbone or spine in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Vertebral column basics
- Spinal Term Glossary
- VIRTUAL Spine - online learning resource
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Bones of torso
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| Vertebrae |
| General structure |
- Body
- Arch
- Vertebral foramen
- Intervertebral foramina
- Processes
- transverse
- articular
- spinous
- Spinal canal
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| Cervical vertebrae |
- Uncinate process of vertebra
- Transverse foramen
- Anterior tubercle
- Carotid tubercle
- Posterior tubercle
- Atlas
- lateral mass
- anterior arch
- posterior arch
- Axis
- Vertebra prominens
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| Thoracic vertebrae |
- Costal facets
- superior
- inferior
- transverse
- Uncinate process of vertebra
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| Lumbar vertebrae |
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| Sacrum |
- Base
- Ala of sacrum
- Lateral surface
- Pelvic surface
- Dorsal surface
- posterior sacral foramina
- Median sacral crest
- Medial sacral crest
- Lateral sacral crest
- Sacral canal
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| Coccyx |
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| Thorax |
| Rib cage |
- Ribs
- true ribs
- false ribs
- floating ribs
- Parts
- angle
- tubercle
- costal groove
- neck
- head
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| Sternum |
- Suprasternal notch
- Manubrium
- Sternal angle
- Body of sternum
- Xiphisternal joint
- Xiphoid process
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| Thoracic cage |
- Thoracic inlet
- Inferior thoracic aperture
- Intercostal space
- Costal margin
- Infrasternal angle
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Index of bones and cartilage
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| Description |
- Anatomy
- bones
- skull
- face
- neurocranium
- compound structures
- foramina
- upper extremity
- torso
- pelvis
- lower extremity
- Physiology
- Development
- Cells
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| Disease |
- Congenital
- Neoplasms and cancer
- Trauma
- Other
- Symptoms and signs
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| Treatment |
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Spinal nerves
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| Cervical |
- anterior
- Cervical plexus
- Brachial plexus
- posterior
- Posterior branches of cervical nerves
- Suboccipital – C1
- Greater occipital – C2
- Third occipital – C3
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| Thoracic |
- T1
- T2
- T3
- T4
- T5
- T6
- T7
- T8
- T9
- T10
- T11
- T12
- anterior
- Intercostal
- Intercostobrachial – T2
- Thoraco-abdominal nerves – T7–T11
- Subcostal – T12
- posterior
- Posterior branches of thoracic nerves
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| Lumbar |
- anterior
- Lumbar plexus
- Lumbosacral trunk
- posterior
- Posterior branches of the lumbar nerves
- Superior cluneal L1–L3
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| Sacral |
- anterior
- posterior
- Posterior branches of sacral nerves
- Medial cluneal nerves
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| Coccygeal |
- anterior
- posterior
- Posterior branch of coccygeal nerve
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Index of the peripheral nervous system
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| Description |
- Anatomy
- Nerves
- cranial
- trigeminal
- cervical
- brachial
- lumbosacral plexus
- somatosensory
- spinal
- autonomic
- Physiology
- reflexes
- proteins
- neurotransmitters
- transporters
- Development
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| Disease |
- Autonomic
- Congenital
- Injury
- Neoplasms and cancer
- Other
- Symptoms and signs
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| Treatment |
- Procedures
- Local anesthetics
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Human regional anatomy
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| Head |
- Ear
- Face
- Cheek
- Chin
- Eye
- Mouth
- Nose
- Forehead
- Jaw
- Occiput
- Scalp
- Temple
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| Neck |
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| Trunk |
- Abdomen
- Back
- Thorax
- Pelvis
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| Limbs |
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Arm
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- Shoulder
- Axilla
- Elbow
- Forearm
- Wrist
- Hand
- Finger
- Thumb
- Index
- Middle
- Ring
- Little
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Leg
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- Buttocks
- Hip
- Thigh
- Knee
- Calf
- Foot
- Toe
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General anatomy: systems and organs, regional anatomy, planes and lines, superficial axial anatomy, superficial anatomy of limbs
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