WordNet

(economics) manufacturing or mining or growing something (usually in large quantities) for sale; "he introduced more efficient methods of production"
(law) the act of exhibiting in a court of law; "the appellate court demanded the production of all documents"
the act or process of producing something; "Shakespeares production of poetry was enormous"; "the production of white blood cells"
the creation of value or wealth by producing goods and services
a display that is exaggerated or unduly complicated; "she tends to make a big production out of nothing"
a presentation for the stage or screen or radio or television; "have you seen the new production of Hamlet?"
(language) communication by word of mouth; "his speech was garbled"; "he uttered harsh language"; "he recorded the spoken language of the streets" (同)speech communication, spoken communication, spoken_language, language, voice communication, oral communication
something spoken; "he could hear them uttering merry speeches"
the exchange of spoken words; "they were perfectly comfortable together without speech"

PrepTutorEJDIC

〈U〉(…を)『生み出すこと』,(…の)『生産』,産出,製造《+『of』+『名』》 / 〈U〉『生産高』,産出額(量) / 〈C〉『産物』,製品 / 〈U〉(…の)提出,提示《+『of』+『名』》 / 〈C〉(劇・映画などの)製作;(文学などの)作品
〈U〉『話す力』,話す能力・〈U〉話すこと,言隆・〈C〉『演説』,話,スピーチ・〈U〉(人の)『話し方』・〈C〉〈U〉(特定の)言語,方言,なまり・〈C〉(役者の)のせりふ・〈U〉話法

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/07/25 18:00:40」(JST)

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Human vocal apparatus used to produce speech

Speech production is the process by which spoken words are selected to be produced, have their phonetics formulated and then finally are articulated by the motor system in the vocal apparatus. Speech production can be spontaneous such as when a person creates the words of a conversation, reaction such as when they name a picture or read aloud a written word, or a vocal imitation such as in speech repetition.

Speech production is not the same as language production since language can also be produced manually by signs.

In ordinary fluent conversation people pronounce each second roughly four syllables, ten or twelve phonemes and two to three words out of a vocabulary that can contain 10 to 100 thousand words.^[1] Errors in speech production are relatively rare occurring at a rate of about once in every 900 words in spontaneous speech.^[2] Words that are commonly spoken or learned early in life or easily imagined are quicker to say than ones that are rarely said, learnt later in life or abstract.^[3]^[4]

Normally speech is created with pulmonary pressure provided by the lungs that generates sound by phonation in the glottis in the larynx that then is modified by the vocal tract into different vowels and consonants. However speech production can occur without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech by using the upper parts of the vocal trait. An example of such alaryngeal speech is Donald Duck talk.^[5]

The vocal production of speech can be associated with the production of synchronized hand gestures that act to enhance the comprehensibility of what is being said.^[6]

Three stages

The production of spoken language involves three major levels of processing: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation.^[1]^[7]^[8]

The first is the processes of conceptualization or conceptual preparation, in which the intention to create speech links a desired concept to a particular spoken word to be expressed. Here the preverbal intended messages are formulated that specify the concepts to be verbally expressed.^[9]

The second stage is formulation in which the linguistic form required for the expression of the desired message is created. Formulation includes grammatical encoding, morpho-phonological encoding, and phonetic encoding.^[9] Grammatical encoding is the process of selecting the appropriate syntactic word or lemma. The selected lemma then activates the appropriate syntactic frame for the conceptualized message. Morpho-phonological encoding is the process of breaking words down into syllables to be produced in overt speech. This syllabification is dependent on the preceding and proceeding words, for instance: I-com-pre-hend vs. I-com-pre-hen-dit.^[9] The final part of the formulation stage is phonetic encoding. This involves the activation of articulatory gestures dependent on the syllables selected in the morpho-phonological process, creating an articulatory score as the utterance is pieced together and the order of movements of the vocal apparatus is completed.^[9]

The third stage of speech production is articulation which is the execution of the articulatory score by the lungs, glottis, larynx, tongue, lips, jaw and other parts of the vocal apparatus resulting in overt speech.^[7]^[9]

Neuroscience

Speech production motor control in right handers depends mostly upon areas in the left cerebral hemisphere. These areas include the bilateral supplementary motor area, the left posterior inferior frontal gyrus, the left insula, the left Primary motor cortex and temporal cortex.^[10] There are also subcortical areas involved such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum.^[11]^[12] The cerebellum aids the sequencing of speech syllables into fast, smooth and rhythmically organized words and longer utterances.^[12]

Disorders

Speech production can be affected by several disorders:

Aphasia
Anomic aphasia
Apraxia of speech
Aprosodia
Auditory processing disorder
Cluttering

Developmental verbal dyspraxia
Dysprosody
Infantile speech
Lisp
Malapropism
Mispronunciation

Speech disorder
Speech error
Speech sound disorder
Spoonerism
Stuttering

References

^ ^a ^b Levelt, WJ (1999). "Models of word production." (PDF). Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3 (6): 223–232. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01319-4. PMID 10354575.
^ Garnham, A, Shillcock RC, Brown GDA, Mill AID, Culter A (1981). "Slips of the tongue in the London–Lund corpus of spontaneous conversation" (PDF). Linguistics 19 (7–8): 805–817. doi:10.1515/ling.1981.19.7-8.805.
^ Oldfield RC, Wingfield A (1965). "Response latencies in naming objects". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 17 (4): 273–281. doi:10.1080/17470216508416445. PMID 5852918.
^ Bird, H; Franklin, S; Howard, D (2001). "Age of acquisition and imageability ratings for a large set of words, including verbs and function words" (PDF). Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 33 (1): 73–9. doi:10.3758/BF03195349. PMID 11296722.
^ Weinberg, B; Westerhouse, J (1971). "A study of buccal speech". Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 14 (3): 652–8. Bibcode:1972ASAJ...51Q..91W. doi:10.1121/1.1981697. PMID 5163900.
^ McNeill D (2005). Gesture and Thought. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-51463-5.
^ ^a ^b Levelt, WJM (1989). Speaking: From Intention to Articulation. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-62089-5.
^ Jescheniak, JD; Levelt, WJM (1994). "Word frequency effects in speech production: retrieval of syntactic information and of phonological form". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 20 (4): 824–843. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.824. CiteSeerX: 10.1.1.133.3919.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Levelt, W. (1999). "The neurocognition of language", p.87 -117. Oxford Press
^ Indefrey, P; Levelt, WJ (2004). "The spatial and temporal signatures of word production components". Cognition 92 (1–2): 101–44. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2002.06.001. PMID 15037128.
^ Booth, JR; Wood, L; Lu, D; Houk, JC; Bitan, T (2007). "The role of the basal ganglia and cerebellum in language processing". Brain Research 1133 (1): 136–44. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.11.074. PMC 2424405. PMID 17189619.
^ ^a ^b Ackermann, H (2008). "Cerebellar contributions to speech production and speech perception: psycholinguistic and neurobiological perspectives". Trends in Neurosciences 31 (6): 265–72. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2008.02.011. PMID 18471906.

UpToDate Contents

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1. 無喉頭言語リハビリテーション alaryngeal speech rehabilitation
2. 小児における発話および言語障害の病因 etiology of speech and language disorders in children
3. 頭頸部癌患者の言語および嚥下リハビリテーション speech and swallowing rehabilitation of the patient with head and neck cancer
4. 小児における発話言語障害の評価および治療 evaluation and treatment of speech and language disorders in children
5. 頭頚部癌の長期生存者に対するアプローチの概要 overview of approach to long term survivors of head and neck cancer

English Journal

Automatic analysis of slips of the tongue: Insights into the cognitive architecture of speech production.

Goldrick M1, Keshet J2, Gustafson E3, Heller J3, Needle J3.
Cognition.Cognition.2016 Apr;149:31-9. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.01.002. Epub 2016 Jan 9.
Traces of the cognitive mechanisms underlying speaking can be found within subtle variations in how we pronounce sounds. While speech errors have traditionally been seen as categorical substitutions of one sound for another, acoustic/articulatory analyses show they partially reflect the intended sou
PMID 26779665

Bihemispheric network dynamics coordinating vocal feedback control.

Kort NS1, Cuesta P2, Houde JF3, Nagarajan SS3,4.
Human brain mapping.Hum Brain Mapp.2016 Apr;37(4):1474-85. doi: 10.1002/hbm.23114. Epub 2016 Feb 25.
Modulation of vocal pitch is a key speech feature that conveys important linguistic and affective information. Auditory feedback is used to monitor and maintain pitch. We examined induced neural high gamma power (HGP) (65-150 Hz) using magnetoencephalography during pitch feedback control. Participa
PMID 26917046

The Neural Basis of Vocal Pitch Imitation in Humans.

Belyk M1, Pfordresher PQ2, Liotti M3, Brown S1.
Journal of cognitive neuroscience.J Cogn Neurosci.2016 Apr;28(4):621-35. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_00914. Epub 2015 Dec 22.
Vocal imitation is a phenotype that is unique to humans among all primate species, and so an understanding of its neural basis is critical in explaining the emergence of both speech and song in human evolution. Two principal neural models of vocal imitation have emerged from a consideration of nonhu
PMID 26696298

Japanese Journal

特別支援教育の知見をいかした学校経営Ⅱ －「安全」で「安心」できる学校文化を創る－

百瀬和夫
教育総合研究叢書 (6), 87-98, 2013-03-31
… A one-eyed step is advancing "an understanding of the children of a gray area" which tends to carry out inconvenient speech and conduct in a school or the group in a class taking advantage of knowledge, such as special support education. … Although it is never easy, I think that the school and the production of a class where whose children and teacher were also safe and were stabilized by repeating such a step tenaciously will be made. …
NAID 120005325832