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関: dextromethorphan

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/05/26 18:54:49」(JST)

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Dextromethorphan (DXM or DM) is an antitussive (cough suppressant) drug. It is one of the active ingredients in many over-the-counter cold and cough medicines, including generic labels and store brands, Benylin DM, Mucinex DM, Robitussin, NyQuil, Dimetapp, Vicks, Coricidin, Delsym, TheraFlu, and others. Dextromethorphan has also found other uses in medicine, ranging from pain relief to psychological applications. It is sold in syrup, tablet, spray, and lozenge forms. In its pure form, dextromethorphan occurs as a white powder.^[3]

DXM is also used recreationally. When exceeding label-specified maximum dosages, dextromethorphan acts as a dissociative hallucinogen. Its mechanism of action is via multiple effects, including actions as a nonselective serotonin reuptake inhibitor^[4] and a sigma-1 receptor agonist.^[5]^[6] The major metabolite of DXM, dextrorphan, also acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist. In high doses this produces effects similar to, yet distinct from, the dissociative states created by other dissociative anaesthetics such as ketamine and phencyclidine.^[7] As well, the metabolite 3-methoxymorphinan of dextrorphan (thus a second-level metabolite of DXM) produces local anesthetic effects in rats with potency above dextrorphan, but below that of DXM.^[8]

Medical use

Generic Dextromethorphan syrup.

The primary use of dextromethorphan is as a cough suppressant, for the temporary relief of cough caused by minor throat and bronchial irritation (such as commonly accompanies the flu and common cold), as well as those resulting from inhaled particle irritants.^[9]

A 2004 study showed that dextromethorphan was no more effective for children than a placebo.^[10] Studies conducted by the American Academy of Pediatrics show that dextromethorphan is not superior to a placebo in providing nocturnal symptom relief for children with cough and sleep difficulty due to upper respiratory infections.^[11]

A combination of dextromethorphan and quinidine, a CYP2D6 inhibitor, has been shown to alleviate symptoms of easy laughing and crying (pseudobulbar affect) in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis.^[12] Dextromethorphan is also being investigated as a possible treatment for neuropathic pain and pain associated with fibromyalgia.^[13] In 2010, the FDA approved the combination product dextromethorphan/quinidine (Nuedexta) for the treatment of pseudobulbar affect (PBA).

Dextromethorphan has been shown to be effective in treating opioid withdrawal. At doses of 2mg/kg in rats all signs of opioid withdrawal were eliminated.^[14]

Recreational use

Dextromethorphan gel capsules

Over-the-counter preparations containing dextromethorphan have been used in manners inconsistent with their labeling, often as a recreational drug.^[15] At doses much higher than medically recommended, dextromethorphan is classified as a dissociative hallucinogen, possessing certain effects that are somewhat similar to the dissociative agents ketamine and phencyclidine. It may produce distortions of the visual field - feelings of dissociation, distorted bodily perception, and excitement, as well as a loss of sense of time. Some users report stimulant-like euphoria, particularly in response to music. Dextromethorphan usually provides its recreational effects in a non-linear fashion, so that they are experienced in significantly varied stages. These stages are commonly referred to as "plateaus".^[16]^[17]^[18]

Adverse effects

Side-effects of dextromethorphan use can include:^[2]^[19]^[9]

At normal doses:

body rash/itching (see below)
Nausea
Vomiting
Drowsiness
Dizziness
Constipation
Sedation
Confusion
Nervousness
Closed-eye hallucination

Rare side effects include respiratory depression.^[9] It is considered less addictive than the other common weak opioid cough suppressant, codeine.^[2]

At dosages 3 to 10 times the recommended therapeutic dose:^[20]

Increased energy
Increased confidence
Slight Nauseousness
Restlessness
Insomnia
"speeding"/talking fast
Feelings of increased strength
Enlargened pupils/glazed eyes (but not red)

At dosages 15 to 75 times the recommended therapeutic dose:^[20]

hallucinations
dissociation
vomiting
blurred vision and/or double vision
bloodshot eyes
dilated pupils
sweating
fever
bruxia
hypotension
hypertension
tachycardia
shallow respiration
diarrhea
urinary retention
muscle spasms
Sedation
euphoria
Paresthesia
blackouts
sight loss
inability to focus eyes
skin rash

Dextromethorphan can also cause other gastrointestinal disturbances. Dextromethorphan had been thought to cause Olney's Lesions when administered intravenously; however, this was later proven inconclusive, due to lack of research on humans. Tests were performed on rats, giving them 50 mg and up every day up to a month. Neurotoxic changes, including vacuolation, have been observed in posterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortices of rats administered other NMDA antagonists such as PCP, but not with dextromethorphan.^[21]^[22] In many documented cases, dextromethorphan has produced psychological dependence in people who used it recreationally. However, it does not produce physical addiction, according to the WHO Committee on Drug Dependence.^[23]

Contraindications

Because dextromethorphan can trigger a histamine release (allergic reaction), atopic children, who are especially susceptible to allergic reactions, should be administered dextromethorphan only if absolutely necessary, and only under the strict supervision of a healthcare professional.^[19]

Drug interactions

Dextromethorphan should not be taken with monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)^[19] due to the potential for serotonin syndrome, which is a potentially life-threatening condition that can occur rapidly, due to a buildup of an excessive amount of serotonin in the body. Dextromethorphan can also cause serotonin syndrome when used with SSRI medicines, an interaction which has been documented in clinical cases where dextromethorphan is taken at recreational doses. It has been suggested that the link between therapeutic dosages of dextromethorphan and serotonin syndrome is less conclusive.^[24]

Food interactions

Caution should be exercised when taking dextromethorphan when drinking grapefruit juice or eating grapefruits, as compounds in grapefruit affect a number of drugs, including dextromethorphan, through the inhibition of the cytochrome p450 system in the liver and can lead to excessive accumulation and prolonged effects. It is generally recommended that grapefruits and grapefruit juices (especially white grapefruit juice, but also including other citrus fruits such as bergamot and lime, as well as a number of non-citrus fruits^[25]) be avoided while using dextromethorphan and numerous other medications.

Lab testing

Testing for this drug is done either by blood or by urine. Blood can be either serum or plasma, serum in a plain red top 2mL preferred. Urine requires only 2mL minimum.

Chemistry

Dextromethorphan is the dextrorotatory enantiomer of levomethorphan, which is the methyl ether of levorphanol, both opioid analgesics. It is named according to IUPAC rules as (+)-3-methoxy-17-methyl-9α,13α,14α-morphinan. As the pure free base, dextromethorphan occurs as an odorless, white to slightly yellow crystalline powder. It is freely soluble in chloroform and insoluble in water. Dextromethorphan is commonly available as the monohydrated hydrobromide salt, however some newer extended-release formulations contain dextromethorphan bound to an ion exchange resin based on polystyrene sulfonic acid. Dextromethorphan's specific rotation in water is +27.6° (20 °C, Sodium D-line).^{[citation needed]}

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Dextromethorphan has been shown to possess the following properties, mainly in binding assays to various receptors of animal tissues. Low K_i values mean strong binding or high affinity; high K_i values mean weak binding to the target or low affinity:

Uncompetitive NMDA receptor (PCP site) antagonist (K_i = 7,253 nM).^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]
σ₁ and σ₂ sigma receptor agonist (K_i = 205 nM and 11,060 nM, respectively). In a comparative investigation of dimemorfan, dextromethorphan and dextrorphan in mouse cells, dextromethorpan binds with relatively high affinity to Sigma-1 receptors and with very low affinity to Sigma-2 receptors.^[26]
α₃β₄-, α₄β₂-, and α₇-nACh receptor (K_i = in the μM range) antagonist. Dextromethorphan binds to nicotinic receptors in frog eggs (Xenopus oocytes), human embryonic kidney cells and mouse tissue. It inhibits the antinociceptive (pain killing) action of nicotine in the tail-flick test in mice, where mouse tails are exposed to heat, which makes the mouse flick its tail if it feels pain.^[30]^[31]^[32]
μ-, δ-, and κ-opioid receptor agonist (K_i = 1,280 nM, 11,500 nM, and 7,000 nM, respectively).^[33]
SERT and NET inhibitor (K_i = 23 nM and 240 nM, respectively).^[34]^[33]^[35]^[36]
NADPH oxidase inhibitor.^[37]

Its affinities for some of the sites listed are relatively very low and are probably insignificant, such as binding to NMDA receptors and opioid receptors, even at high recreational doses.^{[citation needed]} Instead of acting as a direct antagonist of the NMDA receptor itself, it is likely that dextromethorphan functions as a prodrug to its nearly 10-fold more potent metabolite dextrorphan, and this is the true mediator of its dissociative effects.^[26] It is not entirely clear what role, if any, (+)-3-methoxymorphinan, dextromethorphan's other major metabolite, plays in its effects.^[38]

Pharmacokinetics

Following oral administration, dextromethorphan is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, where it enters the bloodstream and crosses the blood–brain barrier.^{[citation needed]}

At therapeutic doses, dextromethorphan acts centrally (meaning that it acts on the brain) as opposed to locally (on the respiratory tract). It elevates the threshold for coughing, without inhibiting ciliary activity. Dextromethorphan is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and converted into the active metabolite dextrorphan in the liver by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2D6. The average dosage necessary for effective antitussive therapy is between 10 mg and 45 mg, depending on the individual. The International Society for the Study of Cough recommend "an adequate first dose of medication is 60 mg in the adult and repeat dosing should be infrequent rather than the qds recommended."^[39]

The duration of action after oral administration is approximately three to eight hours for dextromethorphan-hydrobromide, and ten to twelve hours for dextromethorphan-polistirex. Approximately 1 in 10 of the caucasian population has little or no CYP2D6 enzyme activity leading to long lived high drug levels.^[40]

Because administration of dextromethorphan can trigger a histamine release (an allergic reaction), its use in atopic children is very limited.^[19]

Metabolism

The first-pass through the hepatic portal vein results in some of the drug's being metabolized by O-demethylation into an active metabolite of dextromethorphan called dextrorphan (DXO). DXO is the 3-hydroxy derivative of dextromethorphan. The therapeutic activity of dextromethorphan is believed to be caused by both the drug and this metabolite. Dextromethorphan also undergoes N-demethylation (to 3-methoxymorphinan or MEM),^[41] and partial conjugation with glucuronic acid and sulfate ions. Hours after dextromethorphan therapy, (in humans) the metabolites (+)-3-hydroxy-N-methylmorphinan, (+)-3-morphinan, and traces of the unchanged drug are detectable in the urine.^[19]

A major metabolic catalyst involved is the cytochrome P450 enzyme known as 2D6, or CYP2D6. A significant portion of the population has a functional deficiency in this enzyme and are known as poor CYP2D6 metabolizers. O-demethylation of DXM to DXO contributes to at least 80% of the DXO formed during DXM metabolism.^[41] As CYP2D6 is a major metabolic pathway in the inactivation of dextromethorphan, the duration of action and effects of dextromethorphan can be increased by as much as three times in such poor metabolizers.^[42] In one study on 252 Americans, 84.3% were found to be "fast" (extensive) metabolizers, 6.8% to be "intermediate" metabolizers, and 8.8% were "slow" metabolizers of DXM.^[43] There are a number of known alleles for CYP2D6, including several completely inactive variants. The distribution of alleles is uneven amongst ethnic groups; see also CYP2D6 - Ethnic factors in variability.

A large number of medications are potent inhibitors of CYP2D6. Some types of medications known to inhibit CYP2D6 include certain SSRI and tricyclic antidepressants, some antipsychotics, and the commonly-available antihistamine diphenhydramine. There exists, therefore, the potential of interactions between dextromethorphan and medications that inhibit this enzyme, particularly in slow metabolizers.^{[citation needed]} See also CYP2D6 - Ligands.

DXM is also metabolized by CYP3A4. N-demethylation is primarily accomplished by CYP3A4, contributing to at least 90% of the MEM formed as a primary metabolite of DXM.^[41]

A number of other CYP enzymes are implicated as minor pathways of DXM metabolism. CYP2B6 is actually more effective than CYP3A4 at N-demethylation of DXM, but, since the average individual has a much lower CYP2B6 content in his/her liver relative to CYP3A4, most N-demethylation of DXM is catalyzed by CYP3A4.^[41]

History

Dextromethorphan was identified as one of three compounds tested as part of US Navy and CIA-funded research that sought a "nonaddictive substitute for codeine"; it is implied that the compound was first found to have clinical potential in this study.^[44] It was first patented in 1949.^[45] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved dextromethorphan as a prescription antitussive drug on September 24, 1954, and subsequently as an over-the-counter cough suppressant in 1958. This filled the need for a cough suppressant lacking the sedative side-effects, stronger potential for misuse, and physically addictive properties of codeine phosphate, the most widely used cough medication at the time.^[15]

During the 1960s and 1970s, dextromethorphan became available in an over-the-counter tablet form by the brand name Romilar. In 1973, Romilar was taken off the shelves after a burst in sales because of frequent misuse, and was replaced by cough syrup in an attempt to cut down on abuse^[15] As of January 1, 2012, dextromethorphan is prohibited for sale to minors in the state of California, except with a doctor's prescription.^[46]

References

^ Kukanich, B.; Papich, M. G. (2004). "Plasma profile and pharmacokinetics of dextromethorphan after intravenous and oral administration in healthy dogs". Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 27 (5): 337–41. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2885.2004.00608.x. PMID 15500572.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Balminil DM, Benylin DM (dextromethorphan) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
^ "Reference Tables: Description and Solubility - D". Retrieved 2011-05-06.
^ Schwartz AR, Pizon AF, Brooks DE (September 2008). "Dextromethorphan-induced serotonin syndrome". Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) 46 (8): 771–3. doi:10.1080/15563650701668625. PMID 19238739. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)
^ Shin EJ, Nah SY, Chae JS, Bing G, Shin SW, Yen TP, Baek IH, Kim WK, Maurice T, Nabeshima T, Kim HC (May 2007). "Dextromethorphan attenuates trimethyltin-induced neurotoxicity via sigma1 receptor activation in rats". Neurochemistry International 50 (6): 791–9. doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2007.01.008. PMID 17386960. Retrieved 2011-05-06.
^ Shin EJ, Nah SY, Kim WK, Ko KH, Jhoo WK, Lim YK, Cha JY, Chen CF, Kim HC (April 2005). "The dextromethorphan analog dimemorfan attenuates kainate-induced seizures via sigma1 receptor activation: comparison with the effects of dextromethorphan". British Journal of Pharmacology 144 (7): 908–18. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0705998. PMC 1576070. PMID 15723099. Retrieved 2011-05-06.
^ "Dextromethorphan". Drugs and Chemicals of Concern. Drug Enforcement Administration. August 2010.
^ Hou, C; Tzeng, J; Chen, Y; Lin, C; Lin, M; Tu, C; Wang, J (2006). "Dextromethorphan, 3-methoxymorphinan, and dextrorphan have local anesthetic effect on sciatic nerve blockade in rats". European Journal of Pharmacology 544 (1-3): 10–6. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.06.013. PMID 16844109.
^ ^a ^b ^c Rossi, S, ed. (2013). Australian Medicines Handbook (2013 ed.). Adelaide: The Australian Medicines Handbook Unit Trust. ISBN 978-0-9805790-9-3. edit
^ "Kids' cough medicine no better than placebo" San Francisco Chronicle, July 8, 2004
^ Paul, I. M.; Yoder, KE; Crowell, KR; Shaffer, ML; McMillan, HS; Carlson, LC; Dilworth, DA; Berlin Jr, CM (2004). "Effect of Dextromethorphan, Diphenhydramine, and Placebo on Nocturnal Cough and Sleep Quality for Coughing Children and Their Parents". Pediatrics 114 (1): e85–90. doi:10.1542/peds.114.1.e85. PMID 15231978.
^ Brooks, BR; Thisted, RA; Appel, SH; Bradley, WG; Olney, RK; Berg, JE; Pope, LE; Smith, RA; Avp-923 Als Study, Group (2004). "Treatment of pseudobulbar affect in ALS with dextromethorphan/quinidine: a randomized trial". Neurology 63 (8): 1364–70. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000142042.50528.2f. PMID 15505150.
^ "Cough Drug May Help Fibromyalgia Pain". WebMD.
^ H. Koyuncuoǧlu, M. Güngör, H. Saǧduyu, F. Aricioǧlu (Apr 1990). "Suppression by ketamine and dextromethorphan of precipitated abstinence syndrome in rats". Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 35 (4): 829–32. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(90)90366-P. PMID 2345761.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Dextromethorphan (DXM)". Cesar.umd.edu. Retrieved 2013-07-28.
^ White, William. "The DXM Experience". Erowid.org. Retrieved December 21, 2010.
^ AJ Giannini. Drugs of Abuse--Second Edition. Los Angeles, Practice Management Information Corp, 1997.^{[page needed]}
^ Erowid DXM (Dextromethorphan, DM) Vault, Erowid.org
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Dextromethorphan". NHTSA.
^ ^a ^b http://www.webmd.com/parenting/teen-abuse-cough-medicine-9/teens-and-dxm-drug-abuse?page=3. Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Olney, J.; Labruyere, J; Price, M. (1989). "Pathological changes induced in cerebrocortical neurons by phencyclidine and related drugs". Science 244 (4910): 1360–2. doi:10.1126/science.2660263. PMID 2660263.
^ Carliss, R; Radovsky, A; Chengelis, C; Oneill, T; Shuey, D (2007). "Oral administration of dextromethorphan does not produce neuronal vacuolation in the rat brain". NeuroToxicology 28 (4): 813–8. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2007.03.009. PMID 17573115.
^ WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence (1970). Seventeenth Report (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
^ Schwartz, AR; Pizon, AF (2008). "Dextromethorphan-induced serotonin syndrome". Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia) 46 (8): 771–773. doi:10.1080/15563650701668625. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)
^ "Inhibitors of CYP3A4". http://www.ganfyd.org/index.php?title=About_us. Retrieved 23 August 2013. (primary sources are cited therein but I lack PubMed access to check them)
^ ^a ^b ^c Chou, Y; Liao, JF; Chang, WY; Lin, MF; Chen, CF (1999). "Binding of dimemorfan to sigma-1 receptor and its anticonvulsant and locomotor effects in mice, compared with dextromethorphan and dextrorphan". Brain Research 821 (2): 516–9. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(99)01125-7. PMID 10064839.
^ Wong, B; Coulter, D; Choi, D; Prince, D (1988). "Dextrorphan and dextromethorphan, common antitussives, are antiepileptic and antagonize N-methyl-d-aspartate in brain slices". Neuroscience Letters 85 (2): 261–6. doi:10.1016/0304-3940(88)90362-X. PMID 2897648.
^ Church, J; Jones, MG; Davies, SN; Lodge, D (1989). "Antitussive agents as N-methylaspartate antagonists: further studies". Canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology 67 (6): 561–7. doi:10.1139/y89-090. PMID 2673498.
^ Kamel, Ihab R.; Wendling, Woodrow W.; Chen, Dong; Wendling, Karen S.; Harakal, Concetta; Carlsson, Christer (2008). "N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) Antagonists—S(+)-ketamine, Dextrorphan, and Dextromethorphan—Act as Calcium Antagonists on Bovine Cerebral Arteries". Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology 20 (4): 241–8. doi:10.1097/ANA.0b013e31817f523f. PMID 18812887.
^ Damaj, M. I.; Flood, P; Ho, KK; May, EL; Martin, BR (2004). "Effect of Dextrometorphan and Dextrorphan on Nicotine and Neuronal Nicotinic Receptors: In Vitro and in Vivo Selectivity". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 312 (2): 780–5. doi:10.1124/jpet.104.075093. PMID 15356218.
^ Lee, J; Shin, E; Jeong, S; Kim, J; Lee, B; Yoon, I; Lee, J; Choi, S; Lee, S (2006). "Effects of dextrorotatory morphinans on α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes". European Journal of Pharmacology 536 (1-2): 85–92. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.02.034. PMID 16563374.
^ Hernandez, SC; Bertolino, M; Xiao, Y; Pringle, KE; Caruso, FS; Kellar, KJ (2000). "Dextromethorphan and its metabolite dextrorphan block alpha3beta4 neuronal nicotinic receptors". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 293 (3): 962–7. PMID 10869398.
^ ^a ^b Codd, EE; Shank, RP; Schupsky, JJ; Raffa, RB (1995). "Serotonin and norepinephrine uptake inhibiting activity of centrally acting analgesics: structural determinants and role in antinociception". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 274 (3): 1263–70. PMID 7562497.
^ Schwartz, AR; Pizon, AF; Brooks, DE (2008). "Dextromethorphan-induced serotonin syndrome". Clinical toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) 46 (8): 771–3. doi:10.1080/15563650701668625. PMID 19238739.
^ Henderson, M; Fuller, RW (1992). "Dextromethorphan antagonizes the acute depletion of brain serotonin by p-chloroamphetamine and H75/12 in rats". Brain Research 594 (2): 323–6. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(92)91144-4. PMID 1280529.
^ Gillman, P. K. (2005). "Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, opioid analgesics and serotonin toxicity". British Journal of Anaesthesia 95 (4): 434–41. doi:10.1093/bja/aei210. PMID 16051647.
^ Zhang, W. (2004). "Neuroprotective effect of dextromethorphan in the MPTP Parkinson's disease model: role of NADPH oxidase". The FASEB Journal: 589–91. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0983fje.
^ Schmider, J. R.; Greenblatt, D. J.; Fogelman, S. M.; Von Moltke, L. L.; Shader, R. I. (1997). "Metabolism of Dextromethorphan in vitro: Involvement of Cytochromes P450 2D6 and 3A3/4, with a Possible Role of 2E1". Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition 18 (3): 227–240. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-081X(199704)18:3<227::AID-BDD18>3.0.CO;2-L. PMID 9113345. edit
^ Professor Alyn H Morice paper titled 'Cough' par. 'Dextromethorphan' http://www.issc.info/cough.html
^ Professor Alyn H Morice paper titled 'Cough' http://www.issc.info/cough.html
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Yu, A; Haining, RL (2001). "Comparative contribution to dextromethorphan metabolism by cytochrome P450 isoforms in vitro: can dextromethorphan be used as a dual probe for both CTP2D6 and CYP3A activities?". Drug metabolism and disposition: the biological fate of chemicals 29 (11): 1514–20. PMID 11602530.
^ Capon, Deborah A.; Bochner, Felix; Kerry, Nicole; Mikus, Gerd; Danz, Catherine; Somogyi, Andrew A. (1996). "The influence of CYP2D6 polymorphism and quinidine on the disposition and antitussive effect of dextromethorphan in humans*". Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 60: 295–307. doi:10.1016/S0009-9236(96)90056-9.
^ Woodworth, JR; Dennis, SR; Moore, L; Rotenberg, KS (1987). "The polymorphic metabolism of dextromethorphan". Journal of clinical pharmacology 27 (2): 139–43. doi:10.1002/j.1552-4604.1987.tb02174.x. PMID 3680565.
^ "Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-07-28.
^ "The resolution of 3-hydroxy-and 3-methoxy-n-methyl-morphinanes and process for the manufacture of the latter" Patent No- GB684367A and "Process for the preparation of optically active 3-methoxy-n-methylmorphinans and salts thereof" Schnider O and Grüssner A (inventors). US Patent 2676177. 20 April 1954. Retrieved 2011-02-08
^ http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/11-12/bill/sen/sb_0501-0550/sb_514_bill_20110831_chaptered.pdf

External links

U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal - Dextromethorphan
Nuedexta (dextromethorphan hydrobromide and quinidine sulfate): Prescribing Information (Original Approval Date FDA: October 29, 2010)
DXM at Erowid

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

CYP2D6 and CYP2A6 biotransform dietary tyrosol into hydroxytyrosol.

Rodríguez-Morató J1, Robledo P2, Tanner JA3, Boronat A4, Pérez-Mañá C5, Oliver Chen CY6, Tyndale RF7, de la Torre R8.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2017 Feb 15;217:716-25. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.026. Epub 2016 Sep 7.
The dietary phenol tyrosol has been reported to be endogenously transformed into hydroxytyrosol, a potent antioxidant with multiple health benefits. In this work, we evaluated whether tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and cytochrome P450s (CYPs) catalyzed this process. To assess TH involvement, Wistar rats
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Use of a cocktail probe to assess potential drug interactions with cytochrome P450 after administration of belatacept, a costimulatory immunomodulator.

Williams D1, Tao X1,2, Zhu L1, Stonier M1, Lutz JD1,3, Masson E1,4, Zhang S1,5, Ganguly B1,6, Tzogas Z1, Lubin S1, Murthy B1.
British journal of clinical pharmacology.Br J Clin Pharmacol.2017 Feb;83(2):370-380. doi: 10.1111/bcp.13097. Epub 2016 Nov 2.
AIM: This open-label study investigated the effect of belatacept on cytokine levels and on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine, losartan, omeprazole, dextromethorphan and midazolam, as CYP probe substrates after oral administration of the Inje cocktail in healthy volunteers.METHODS: Twenty-two evaluabl
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The COMT Val158Met Polymorphism Is Associated With Response to Add-on Dextromethorphan Treatment in Bipolar Disorder.

Lee SY1, Chen SL, Wang TY, Chang YH, Chen PS, Huang SY, Tzeng NS, Wang LJ, Lee IH, Chen KC, Yang YK, Lu RB.
Journal of clinical psychopharmacology.J Clin Psychopharmacol.2017 Feb;37(1):94-98. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000633.
PURPOSE/BACKGROUND: We previously conducted a randomized, double-blind, controlled, 12-week study evaluating the effect of add-on dextromethorphan (DM), a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, on patients with bipolar disorder (BD) treated using valproate (VPA), which showed negat
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Japanese Journal

後発医薬品の普及を阻む問題点に関する実態調査

五十嵐信智,勝田朋子,伊藤清美,杉山清
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… To evaluate measures taken by companies against problems preventing the spread of GE, we performed a questionnaire survey in 33 companies selling a GE of omeprazole, pravastatin sodium or dextromethorphan hydrobromide. …
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かぜ症候群後咳嗽に対する麦門冬湯と臭化水素酸デキストロメトルファンの効果の比較 : パイロット試験

藤森勝也,鈴木栄一,下条文武
日本東洋醫學雜誌 51(4), 725-732, 2001-01-20
NAID 110004003691

「デキストロメトルファン」

Dextromethorphan
Systematic (IUPAC) name
	(4bS,8aR,9S)-3-Methoxy-11-methyl-6,7,8,8a,9,10-hexahydro-5H-9,4b-(epiminoethano)phenanthrene
Clinical data
Trade names	Robitussin, Delsym, DM, DexAlone, Duract
AHFS/Drugs.com	monograph
MedlinePlus	a682492
Pregnancy cat.	A (AU) C (US)
Legal status	Pharmacy Only (S2) (AU) OTC (CA) OTC (UK) OTC (US)
Dependence liability	Low
Routes	Oral
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	11%
Metabolism	Hepatic (liver) enzymes: major CYP2D6, minor CYP3A4, and minor CYP3A5
Half-life	2-4 hours (extensive metabolisers); 24 hours (poor metabolisers)
Excretion	Renal
Identifiers
CAS number	125-71-3
ATC code	R05DA09
PubChem	CID 15978238
DrugBank	DB00514
ChemSpider	13109865
UNII	7355X3ROTS
KEGG	D03742
ChEMBL	CHEMBL52440
Chemical data
Formula	C18H25NO
Mol. mass	271.40 g/mol
	SMILES COC1=CC([C@]23[C@@H](CCCC3)[C@@]4([H])N(C)CC2)=C(C4)C=C1;
	InChI InChI=1S/C18H25NO/c1-19-10-9-18-8-4-3-5-15(18)17(19)11-13-6-7-14(20-2)12-16(13)18/h6-7,12,15,17H,3-5,8-11H2,1-2H3/t15-,17+,18+/m1/s1 ; Key:MKXZASYAUGDDCJ-NJAFHUGGSA-N ;
Physical data
Melt. point	111 °C (232 °F)
(what is this?) (verify)

　　[★]

英: dextromethorphan
ラ: dextromethorphanum
化: 臭化水素酸デキストロメトルファン dextromethorphan hydrobromide
商: Robitussin。アストマリ、シーサール、デキストファン、デトメファン、ハイフスタン、メジコン、メゼック
関: 鎮咳剤、鎮咳去たん剤

「臭化水素酸デキストロメトルファン」

　　[★]

英: dextromethorphan hydrobromide
関: デキストロメトルファン

「hydrobromide」

　　[★]

臭化水素酸

関: hydrobromic acid、hydrogen bromide

「dextromethorphan」

　　[★] デキストロメトルファン

[1] Kukanich, B.; Papich, M. G. (2004). "Plasma profile and pharmacokinetics of dextromethorphan after intravenous and oral administration in healthy dogs". Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 27 (5): 337–41. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2885.2004.00608.x. PMID 15500572.

[MSR-2] "Balminil DM, Benylin DM (dextromethorphan) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 15 April 2014.

[urlReference_Tables:_Description_and_Solubility_-_D-3] "Reference Tables: Description and Solubility - D". Retrieved 2011-05-06.

[pmid19238739-4] Schwartz AR, Pizon AF, Brooks DE (September 2008). "Dextromethorphan-induced serotonin syndrome". Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) 46 (8): 771–3. doi:10.1080/15563650701668625. PMID 19238739. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)

[pmid17386960-5] Shin EJ, Nah SY, Chae JS, Bing G, Shin SW, Yen TP, Baek IH, Kim WK, Maurice T, Nabeshima T, Kim HC (May 2007). "Dextromethorphan attenuates trimethyltin-induced neurotoxicity via sigma1 receptor activation in rats". Neurochemistry International 50 (6): 791–9. doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2007.01.008. PMID 17386960. Retrieved 2011-05-06.

[pmid15723099-6] Shin EJ, Nah SY, Kim WK, Ko KH, Jhoo WK, Lim YK, Cha JY, Chen CF, Kim HC (April 2005). "The dextromethorphan analog dimemorfan attenuates kainate-induced seizures via sigma1 receptor activation: comparison with the effects of dextromethorphan". British Journal of Pharmacology 144 (7): 908–18. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0705998. PMC 1576070. PMID 15723099. Retrieved 2011-05-06.

[dea1-7] "Dextromethorphan". Drugs and Chemicals of Concern. Drug Enforcement Administration. August 2010.

[8] Hou, C; Tzeng, J; Chen, Y; Lin, C; Lin, M; Tu, C; Wang, J (2006). "Dextromethorphan, 3-methoxymorphinan, and dextrorphan have local anesthetic effect on sciatic nerve blockade in rats". European Journal of Pharmacology 544 (1-3): 10–6. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.06.013. PMID 16844109.

[AMH-9] Rossi, S, ed. (2013). Australian Medicines Handbook (2013 ed.). Adelaide: The Australian Medicines Handbook Unit Trust. ISBN 978-0-9805790-9-3. edit

[10] "Kids' cough medicine no better than placebo" San Francisco Chronicle, July 8, 2004

[11] Paul, I. M.; Yoder, KE; Crowell, KR; Shaffer, ML; McMillan, HS; Carlson, LC; Dilworth, DA; Berlin Jr, CM (2004). "Effect of Dextromethorphan, Diphenhydramine, and Placebo on Nocturnal Cough and Sleep Quality for Coughing Children and Their Parents". Pediatrics 114 (1): e85–90. doi:10.1542/peds.114.1.e85. PMID 15231978.

[D.2BQ_Trial-12] Brooks, BR; Thisted, RA; Appel, SH; Bradley, WG; Olney, RK; Berg, JE; Pope, LE; Smith, RA; Avp-923 Als Study, Group (2004). "Treatment of pseudobulbar affect in ALS with dextromethorphan/quinidine: a randomized trial". Neurology 63 (8): 1364–70. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000142042.50528.2f. PMID 15505150.

[13] "Cough Drug May Help Fibromyalgia Pain". WebMD.

[14] H. Koyuncuoǧlu, M. Güngör, H. Saǧduyu, F. Aricioǧlu (Apr 1990). "Suppression by ketamine and dextromethorphan of precipitated abstinence syndrome in rats". Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 35 (4): 829–32. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(90)90366-P. PMID 2345761.

[cesar-15] "Dextromethorphan (DXM)". Cesar.umd.edu. Retrieved 2013-07-28.

[16] White, William. "The DXM Experience". Erowid.org. Retrieved December 21, 2010.

[17] AJ Giannini. Drugs of Abuse--Second Edition. Los Angeles, Practice Management Information Corp, 1997.^{[page needed]}

[18] Erowid DXM (Dextromethorphan, DM) Vault, Erowid.org

[nhtsa-19] "Dextromethorphan". NHTSA.

[webmd-20] ttp://www.webmd.com/parenting/teen-abuse-cough-medicine-9/teens-and-dxm-drug-abuse?page=3. Missing or empty |title= (help)

[21] Olney, J.; Labruyere, J; Price, M. (1989). "Pathological changes induced in cerebrocortical neurons by phencyclidine and related drugs". Science 244 (4910): 1360–2. doi:10.1126/science.2660263. PMID 2660263.

[22] Carliss, R; Radovsky, A; Chengelis, C; Oneill, T; Shuey, D (2007). "Oral administration of dextromethorphan does not produce neuronal vacuolation in the rat brain". NeuroToxicology 28 (4): 813–8. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2007.03.009. PMID 17573115.

[23] WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence (1970). Seventeenth Report (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved 2008-12-29.

[24] Schwartz, AR; Pizon, AF (2008). "Dextromethorphan-induced serotonin syndrome". Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia) 46 (8): 771–773. doi:10.1080/15563650701668625. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)

[GANFYD.org-25] "Inhibitors of CYP3A4". http://www.ganfyd.org/index.php?title=About_us. Retrieved 23 August 2013. (primary sources are cited therein but I lack PubMed access to check them)

[pmid10064839-26] Chou, Y; Liao, JF; Chang, WY; Lin, MF; Chen, CF (1999). "Binding of dimemorfan to sigma-1 receptor and its anticonvulsant and locomotor effects in mice, compared with dextromethorphan and dextrorphan". Brain Research 821 (2): 516–9. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(99)01125-7. PMID 10064839.

[pmid2897648-27] Wong, B; Coulter, D; Choi, D; Prince, D (1988). "Dextrorphan and dextromethorphan, common antitussives, are antiepileptic and antagonize N-methyl-d-aspartate in brain slices". Neuroscience Letters 85 (2): 261–6. doi:10.1016/0304-3940(88)90362-X. PMID 2897648.

[pmid2673498-28] Church, J; Jones, MG; Davies, SN; Lodge, D (1989). "Antitussive agents as N-methylaspartate antagonists: further studies". Canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology 67 (6): 561–7. doi:10.1139/y89-090. PMID 2673498.

[pmid18812887-29] Kamel, Ihab R.; Wendling, Woodrow W.; Chen, Dong; Wendling, Karen S.; Harakal, Concetta; Carlsson, Christer (2008). "N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) Antagonists—S(+)-ketamine, Dextrorphan, and Dextromethorphan—Act as Calcium Antagonists on Bovine Cerebral Arteries". Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology 20 (4): 241–8. doi:10.1097/ANA.0b013e31817f523f. PMID 18812887.

[pmid15356218-30] Damaj, M. I.; Flood, P; Ho, KK; May, EL; Martin, BR (2004). "Effect of Dextrometorphan and Dextrorphan on Nicotine and Neuronal Nicotinic Receptors: In Vitro and in Vivo Selectivity". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 312 (2): 780–5. doi:10.1124/jpet.104.075093. PMID 15356218.

[pmid16563374-31] Lee, J; Shin, E; Jeong, S; Kim, J; Lee, B; Yoon, I; Lee, J; Choi, S; Lee, S (2006). "Effects of dextrorotatory morphinans on α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes". European Journal of Pharmacology 536 (1-2): 85–92. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.02.034. PMID 16563374.

[pmid10869398-32] Hernandez, SC; Bertolino, M; Xiao, Y; Pringle, KE; Caruso, FS; Kellar, KJ (2000). "Dextromethorphan and its metabolite dextrorphan block alpha3beta4 neuronal nicotinic receptors". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 293 (3): 962–7. PMID 10869398.

[pmid7562497-33] Codd, EE; Shank, RP; Schupsky, JJ; Raffa, RB (1995). "Serotonin and norepinephrine uptake inhibiting activity of centrally acting analgesics: structural determinants and role in antinociception". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 274 (3): 1263–70. PMID 7562497.

[autogenerated1-34] Schwartz, AR; Pizon, AF; Brooks, DE (2008). "Dextromethorphan-induced serotonin syndrome". Clinical toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) 46 (8): 771–3. doi:10.1080/15563650701668625. PMID 19238739.

[pmid1280529-35] Henderson, M; Fuller, RW (1992). "Dextromethorphan antagonizes the acute depletion of brain serotonin by p-chloroamphetamine and H75/12 in rats". Brain Research 594 (2): 323–6. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(92)91144-4. PMID 1280529.

[pmid16051647-36] Gillman, P. K. (2005). "Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, opioid analgesics and serotonin toxicity". British Journal of Anaesthesia 95 (4): 434–41. doi:10.1093/bja/aei210. PMID 16051647.

[pmid14734632-37] Zhang, W. (2004). "Neuroprotective effect of dextromethorphan in the MPTP Parkinson's disease model: role of NADPH oxidase". The FASEB Journal: 589–91. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0983fje.

[38] Schmider, J. R.; Greenblatt, D. J.; Fogelman, S. M.; Von Moltke, L. L.; Shader, R. I. (1997). "Metabolism of Dextromethorphan in vitro: Involvement of Cytochromes P450 2D6 and 3A3/4, with a Possible Role of 2E1". Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition 18 (3): 227–240. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-081X(199704)18:3<227::AID-BDD18>3.0.CO;2-L. PMID 9113345. edit

[39] Professor Alyn H Morice paper titled 'Cough' par. 'Dextromethorphan' http://www.issc.info/cough.html

[40] Professor Alyn H Morice paper titled 'Cough' http://www.issc.info/cough.html

[DXMdualprobe-41] Yu, A; Haining, RL (2001). "Comparative contribution to dextromethorphan metabolism by cytochrome P450 isoforms in vitro: can dextromethorphan be used as a dual probe for both CTP2D6 and CYP3A activities?". Drug metabolism and disposition: the biological fate of chemicals 29 (11): 1514–20. PMID 11602530.

[42] Capon, Deborah A.; Bochner, Felix; Kerry, Nicole; Mikus, Gerd; Danz, Catherine; Somogyi, Andrew A. (1996). "The influence of CYP2D6 polymorphism and quinidine on the disposition and antitussive effect of dextromethorphan in humans*". Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 60: 295–307. doi:10.1016/S0009-9236(96)90056-9.

[DXMpolymorphicmetabolism-43] Woodworth, JR; Dennis, SR; Moore, L; Rotenberg, KS (1987). "The polymorphic metabolism of dextromethorphan". Journal of clinical pharmacology 27 (2): 139–43. doi:10.1002/j.1552-4604.1987.tb02174.x. PMID 3680565.

[44] "Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-07-28.

[DXM_patent-45] "The resolution of 3-hydroxy-and 3-methoxy-n-methyl-morphinanes and process for the manufacture of the latter" Patent No- GB684367A and "Process for the preparation of optically active 3-methoxy-n-methylmorphinans and salts thereof" Schnider O and Grüssner A (inventors). US Patent 2676177. 20 April 1954. Retrieved 2011-02-08

[46] ttp://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/11-12/bill/sen/sb_0501-0550/sb_514_bill_20110831_chaptered.pdf

リンク元	「デキストロメトルファン」「臭化水素酸デキストロメトルファン」
関連記事	「hydrobromide」「dextromethorphan」

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案内

dextromethorphan hydrobromide