For the use of creatine to increase athletic performance, see Creatine supplements.
Not to be confused with creatinine.
| Creatine |
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|
Systematic name
2-[Carbamimidoyl(methyl)amino]acetic acid
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Other names
N-Carbamimidoyl-N-methylglycine; Methylguanidoacetic acid
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| Identifiers |
| CAS number |
57-00-1 Y |
| PubChem |
586 |
| ChemSpider |
566 Y |
| UNII |
MU72812GK0 Y |
| EC number |
200-306-6 |
| DrugBank |
DB00148 |
| KEGG |
C00300 Y |
| MeSH |
Creatine |
| ChEBI |
CHEBI:16919 N |
| ChEMBL |
CHEMBL283800 Y |
| RTECS number |
MB7706000 |
| ATC code |
C01EB06 |
| Beilstein Reference |
907175 |
| Gmelin Reference |
240513 |
| 3DMet |
B00084 |
| Jmol-3D images |
Image 1
Image 2 |
-
C[n](Cc(:[o]):[oH]):c(:[nH]):[nH2]
CN(CC(O)=O)C(N)=N
|
-
InChI=1S/C4H9N3O2/c1-7(4(5)6)2-3(8)9/h2H2,1H3,(H3,5,6)(H,8,9) Y
Key: CVSVTCORWBXHQV-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y
|
| Properties |
| Molecular formula |
C4H9N3O2 |
| Molar mass |
131.13 g mol−1 |
| Appearance |
White crystals |
| Odor |
Odourless |
| Melting point |
255 °C (491 °F; 528 K) |
| Solubility in water |
13.3 g L−1 (at 18 °C) |
| log P |
−1.258 |
| Acidity (pKa) |
3.429 |
| Basicity (pKb) |
10.568 |
| Isoelectric point |
8.47 |
| Thermochemistry |
Specific
heat capacity C |
171.1 J K−1 mol−1 (at 23.2 °C) |
Std molar
entropy So298 |
189.5 J K−1 mol−1 |
Std enthalpy of
formation ΔfHo298 |
−538.06–−536.30 kJ mol−1 |
Std enthalpy of
combustion ΔcHo298 |
−2.3239–−2.3223 MJ mol−1 |
| Pharmacology |
Elimination
half-life |
3 hours |
| Hazards |
| GHS pictograms |
|
| GHS signal word |
WARNING |
| GHS hazard statements |
H315, H319, H335 |
| GHS precautionary statements |
P261, P305+351+338 |
| EU classification |
Xi |
| R-phrases |
R36/37/38 |
| S-phrases |
S26, S36 |
| Related compounds |
| Related alkanoic acids |
- Sarcosine
- Dimethylglycine
- Glycocyamine
- N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid
- beta-Methylamino-L-alanine
- Guanidinopropionic acid
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| Related compounds |
Dimethylacetamide |
| Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C (77 °F), 100 kPa) |
| N (verify) (what is: Y/N?) |
| Infobox references |
|
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Creatine (// or //[1][2]) is a nitrogenous organic acid that occurs naturally in vertebrates and helps to supply energy to all cells in the body, primarily muscle. This is achieved by increasing the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Creatine was identified in 1832 when Michel Eugène Chevreul isolated it from the basified water-extract of skeletal muscle. He later named the crystallized precipitate after the Greek word for meat, κρέας (kreas). Early analysis showed that human blood is approximately 1% creatine, and the highest concentrations are found in animal blood, brain (0.14%), muscle (0.50%), and testes (0.18%). The liver and kidney contain approximately 0.01% creatine. Today, creatine content (as a percentage of crude protein) can be used as an indicator of meat quality.[3]
In solution, creatine is in equilibrium with creatinine.[4]
Creatine is a derivative of the guanidinium cation.
Contents
- 1 Biosynthesis
- 2 The phosphocreatine system
- 3 Health effects
- 3.1 Use as a supplement
- 3.2 Pharmacokinetics
- 3.3 Pregnancy and breastfeeding
- 4 Treatment of diseases
- 4.1 Treatment of muscle disorders
- 5 Improved cognitive ability
- 6 See also
- 7 References
- 8 External links
Biosynthesis
Creatine is naturally produced in the human body from amino acids primarily in the kidney and liver. It is transported in the blood for use by muscles. Approximately 95% of the human body's total creatine is located in skeletal muscle.[5]
Creatine is not an essential nutrient, as it is manufactured in the human body from L-arginine, glycine, and L-methionine.[6]
In humans and animals, approximately half of stored creatine originates from food (about 1 g/day, mainly from meat).[6] A study, involving 18 vegetarians and 24 non-vegetarians, on the effect of creatine in vegetarians showed that total creatine was significantly lower than in non-vegetarians. Since vegetables are not the primary source of creatine, vegetarians can be expected to show lower levels of directly derived muscle creatine. However, the subjects happened to show the same levels after using supplements.[7] Given the fact that creatine can be synthesized from the above-mentioned amino acids, protein sources rich in these amino acids can be expected to provide adequate capability of native biosynthesis in the human body.[6]
The enzyme L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase (AGAT) is a mitochondrial enzyme responsible for catalyzing the first rate-limiting step of creatine biosynthesis, and is primarily expressed in the kidneys and pancreas.[8]
The second enzyme in the pathway (GAMT, Guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase, EC:2.1.1.2) is primarily expressed in the liver and pancreas.[8]
Genetic deficiencies in the creatine biosynthetic pathway lead to various severe neurological defects.[9] Clinically, there are three distinct disorders of creatine metabolism. Deficiencies of the two synthetic enzymes can cause L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase deficiency and guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency. Both biosynthetic defects are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. A third defect, creatine transporter defect is caused by mutations in SLC6A8 and inherited in a X-linked manner. This condition is related to the transport of creatine into the brain.[10]
The phosphocreatine system
Creatine, synthesized in the liver and kidney, is transported through the blood and taken up by tissues with high energy demands, such as the brain and skeletal muscle, through an active transport system. The concentration of ATP in skeletal muscle is usually 2-5 mM, which would result in a muscle contraction of only a few seconds.[11] Fortunately, during times of increased energy demands, the phosphagen (or ATP/PCr) system rapidly resynthesizes ATP from ADP with the use of phosphocreatine (PCr) through a reversible reaction with the enzyme creatine kinase (CK). In skeletal muscle, PCr concentrations may reach 20-35 mM or more. Additionally, in most muscles, the ATP regeneration capacity of CK is very high and is therefore not a limiting factor. Although the cellular concentrations of ATP are small, changes are difficult to detect because ATP is continuously and efficiently replenished from the large pools of PCr and CK.[11] Creatine has the ability to increase muscle stores of PCr, potentially increasing the muscle’s ability to resynthesize ATP from ADP to meet increased energy demands.[12] For a review of the creatine kinase system and the pleiotropic actions of creatine and creatine supplementation see.[13]
The pathway for the synthesis of creatine
Arg - Arginine; GATM - Glycine amidinotransferase; GAMT - Guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase; Gly - Glycine; Met - Methionine; SAH - S-adenosyl homocysteine; SAM - S-adenosyl methionine.
The color scheme is as follows:
enzymes, coenzymes and the Met part, substrate names, the Gly part, the Arg part
Health effects
Use as a supplement
Main article: Creatine supplements
Creatine has been shown to be an effective antioxidant with supplementation alone and also when associated with resistance training.[14]
Creatine supplements are used by athletes, bodybuilders, wrestlers, sprinters, and others who wish to gain muscle mass, typically consuming 2 to 3 times the amount that could be obtained from a very-high-protein diet.[15][unreliable source?] The Mayo Clinic states that creatine has been associated with asthmatic symptoms and warns against consumption by persons with known allergies to creatine.[16]
A 2009 systematic review discredited concerns that creatine supplementation could affect hydration status and heat tolerance and lead to muscle cramping and diarrhea.[17][18]
There are reports of kidney damage with creatine use, such as interstitial nephritis; patients with kidney disease should avoid use of this supplement.[16] In similar manner, liver function may be altered, and caution is advised in those with underlying liver disease, although studies have shown little or no adverse impact on kidney or liver function from oral creatine supplementation.[19] In 2004 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published a record which stated that oral long-term intake of 3g pure creatine per day is risk-free.[20] The reports of damage to the kidneys by creatine supplementation have been scientifically refuted.[21][22]
Long-term administration of large quantities of creatine is reported to increase the production of formaldehyde, which has the potential to cause serious unwanted side effects. However, this risk is largely theoretical because urinary excretion of formaldehyde, even under heavy creatine supplementation, does not exceed normal limits.[23][24]
Extensive research has shown that oral creatine supplementation at a rate of five to 20 grams per day appears to be very safe and largely devoid of adverse side-effects,[25] while at the same time effectively improving the physiological response to resistance exercise, increasing the maximal force production of muscles in both men and women.[26][27]
A meta analysis performed in 2008 found that creatine treatment resulted in no abnormal renal, hepatic, cardiac, or muscle function.[28]
While some research indicates that supplementation with pure creatine is safe, a survey of 33 commercially available supplements found that over 50% of them exceeded the European Food Safety Authority recommendations in at least one contaminant. The most prevalent of these contaminants was creatinine, a breakdown product of creatine also produced by the body.[29] Creatinine was present in higher concentrations than the European Food Safety Authority recommendations in 44% of the samples. About 15% of the samples had detectable levels of dihydro-1,3,5-triazine or a high dicyandiamide concentration. Heavy metals contamination was not found to be a concern, with only minor levels of mercury being detectable.
A study in 1999 with males ages 22 (+- 2.9) found that males given creatine and males given placebo showed no drastic difference in body mass with the creatine group having a 2 kg change in mass due to higher body water content [30]
Pharmacokinetics
Endogenous serum or plasma creatine concentrations in healthy adults are normally in a range of 2–12 mg/L. A single 5 g (5000 mg) oral dose in healthy adults results in a peak plasma creatine level of approximately 120 mg/L at 1–2 hours post-ingestion. Creatine has a fairly short elimination half-life, averaging just less than 3 hours, so to maintain an elevated plasma level it would be necessary to take small oral doses every 3–6 hours throughout the day. After the "loading dose" period (1–2 weeks, 12-24 g a day), it is no longer necessary to maintain a consistently high serum level of creatine. As with most supplements, each person has their own genetic "preset" amount of creatine they can hold. The rest is eliminated as waste. A typical post-loading dose is 2-5 g daily.[31][32][33]
Pregnancy and breastfeeding
There is a lack of scientific information on the effects of creatine supplementation during pregnancy and breastfeeding.[citation needed] Pasteurized cow's milk contains higher levels of creatine than human milk.[34][35]
Treatment of diseases
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This article or section reads like a scientific review article. It potentially contains biased syntheses of primary sources.
Please replace inadequate primary references with secondary sources such as scientific review articles. See the talk page for details. (February 2009) |
Creatine has been demonstrated to cause modest increases in strength in people with a variety of neuromuscular disorders.[36] Creatine supplementation has been, and continues to be, investigated as a possible therapeutic approach for the treatment of muscular, neuromuscular, neurological and neurodegenerative diseases (arthritis, congestive heart failure, Parkinson's disease, disuse atrophy, gyrate atrophy, McArdle's disease, Huntington's disease, miscellaneous neuromuscular diseases, mitochondrial diseases, muscular dystrophy, and neuroprotection), and depression.[37][citation needed]
A study demonstrated that creatine is twice as effective as the prescription drug riluzole in extending the lives of mice with the degenerative neural disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, or Lou Gehrig's disease). The neuroprotective effects of creatine in the mouse model of ALS may be due either to an increased availability of energy to injured nerve cells or to a blocking of the chemical pathway that leads to cell death.[38] A similarly promising result has been obtained in prolonging the life of transgenic mice affected by Huntington's disease. Creatine treatment lessened brain atrophy and the formation of intranuclear inclusions, attenuated reductions in striatal N-acetylaspartate, and delayed the development of hyperglycemia.[39]
Treatment of muscle disorders
A meta analysis found that creatine treatment increased muscle strength in muscular dystrophies, and potentially improved functional performance.[40] It has also been implicated in decreasing mutagenesis in DNA[41]
Improved cognitive ability
A placebo-controlled double-blind experiment found that a group of subjects composed of vegetarians and vegans who took 5 grams of creatine per day for six weeks showed a significant improvement on two separate tests of fluid intelligence, Raven's Progressive Matrices, and the backward digit span test from the WAIS. The treatment group was able to repeat longer sequences of numbers from memory and had higher overall IQ scores than the control group. The researchers concluded that "supplementation with creatine significantly increased intelligence compared with placebo."[42] A subsequent study found that creatine supplements improved cognitive ability in the elderly.[43] A study on young adults (0.03 g/kg/day for six weeks, e.g., 2 g/day for a 70-kilogram (150 lb) individual) failed to find any improvements.[44]
See also
- Adenosine triphosphate
- Beta-Alanine
- Creatine phosphate
References
- ^ Entry "creatine" in Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
- ^ Wells, J. C. (2000). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Ltd.
- ^ http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf60128a026?journalCode=jafcau
- ^ Cannan, R. K.; Shore, A. (1928). "The creatine-creatinine equilibrium. The apparent dissociation constants of creatine and creatinine". Biochem. J. 22 (4): 920–29. PMC 1252207. PMID 16744118. Retrieved 2010-10-29.
- ^ "Creatine". MedLine Plus Supplements. U.S. National Library of Medicine. 20 July 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- ^ a b c "Creatine". Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
- ^ Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, Candow DG, Mahoney D, Tarnopolsky M; Chilibeck; Parise; Candow; Mahoney; Tarnopolsky (2003). "Effect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetarians". Medicine and science in sports and exercise 35 (11): 1946–55. doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000093614.17517.79. PMID 14600563.
- ^ a b "ETH ETH E-Collection: Methylglyoxal, creatine and mitochondrial micro-compartments - ETH E-Collection". E-collection.ethbib.ethz.ch. 19 April 2008. doi:10.3929/ethz-a-004636659 (inactive 2014-10-11). Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- ^ "L-Arginine:Glycine Amidinotransferase". Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- ^ Braissant, O.; Henry, H.; Béard, E.; Uldry, J. P. (2011). "Creatine deficiency syndromes and the importance of creatine synthesis in the brain". Amino Acids 40 (5): 1315–1324. doi:10.1007/s00726-011-0852-z. PMID 21390529. edit
- ^ a b Wallimann, T; Wyss, M; Brdiczka, D; Nicolay, K; Eppenberger, HM (January 1992). "Intracellular compartmentation, structure and function of creatine kinase isoenzymes in tissues with high and fluctuating energy demands: the 'phosphocreatine circuit' for cellular energy homeostasis". The Biochemical journal 281 (Pt 1): 21–40. PMC 1130636. PMID 1731757.
- ^ Spillane, M; Schoch, R; Cooke, M; Harvey, T; Greenwood, M; Kreider, R; Willoughby, DS (2009). "The effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with heavy resistance training on body composition, muscle performance, and serum and muscle creatine levels". Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 6: 6. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-6-6. PMC 2649889. PMID 19228401.
- ^ doi:10.1007/s00726-011-0877-3.
- ^ http://www.jissn.com/content/11/1/11
- ^ "Creatine - Sources in the Diet". Examine.com. Retrieved 22 January 2013.
- ^ a b "Creatine: Safety". MayoClinic.com. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- ^ Lopez RM, Casa DJ, McDermott BP, Ganio MS, Armstrong LE, Maresh CM; Casa; McDermott; Ganio; Armstrong; Maresh (2009). "Does Creatine Supplementation Hinder Exercise Heat Tolerance or Hydration Status? A Systematic Review With Meta-Analyses". Journal of Athletic Training 44 (2): 215–23. doi:10.4085/1062-6050-44.2.215. PMC 2657025. PMID 19295968.
- ^ Dalbo VJ, Roberts MD, Stout JR, Kerksick CM; Roberts; Stout; Kerksick (July 2008). "Putting to rest the myth of creatine supplementation leading to muscle cramps and dehydration". British Journal of Sports Medicine 42 (7): 567–73. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2007.042473. PMID 18184753.
- ^ Poortmans JR, Francaux M; Francaux (September 2000). "Adverse effects of creatine supplementation: fact or fiction?". Sports Medicine 30 (3): 155–70. doi:10.2165/00007256-200030030-00002. PMID 10999421.
- ^ http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753824_1178620761727.htm
- ^ doi:10.1007/s00421-007-0669-3.
- ^ doi:10.1023/A:1022469320296.
- ^ Francaux M, Poortmans JR; Poortmans (December 2006). "Side effects of creatine supplementation in athletes". International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 1 (4): 311–23. PMID 19124889.
- ^ "International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: creatine supplementation and exercise". jissn. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
- ^ Bizzarini E, De Angelis L; De Angelis (December 2004). "Is the use of oral creatine supplementation safe?". The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 44 (4): 411–6. PMID 15758854.
- ^ Bemben MG, Lamont HS; Lamont (2005). "Creatine supplementation and exercise performance: recent findings". Sports Medicine 35 (2): 107–25. doi:10.2165/00007256-200535020-00002. PMID 15707376.
- ^ Kreider RB (February 2003). "Effects of creatine supplementation on performance and training adaptations". Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 244 (1–2): 89–94. doi:10.1023/A:1022465203458. PMID 12701815.
- ^ Persky, A. M.; Rawson, E. S. (2007). "Safety of creatine supplementation". Sub-cellular biochemistry. Subcellular Biochemistry 46: 275–289. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6486-9_14. ISBN 978-1-4020-6485-2. PMID 18652082. edit
- ^ Moreta S, Prevarin A, Tubaro F.; Prevarin; Tubaro (June 2011). "Levels of creatine, organic contaminants and heavy metals in creatine dietary supplements". Food Chemistry 126 (3): 1232–1238. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.12.028.
- ^ http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s004210050575
- ^ Kamber M, Koster M, Kreis R, Walker G, Boesch C, Hoppeler H. Creatine supplementation--part I: performance, clinical chemistry, and muscle volume. Med. Sci. Sports Exer. 31: 1763-1769, 1999.
- ^ Deldicque L, Décombaz J, Zbinden Foncea H, Vuichoud J, Poortmans JR, Francaux M. Kinetics of creatine ingested as a food ingredient. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 102: 133-143, 2008.
- ^ R. Baselt, Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, 2008, pp. 366-368.
- ^ Hülsemann J, Manz F, Wember T, Schöch G; Manz; Wember; Schöch (1987). "[Administration of creatine and creatinine with breast milk and infant milk preparations]". Klinische Pädiatrie (in German) 199 (4): 292–5. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1026805. PMID 3657037.
- ^ Wallimann, Theo; Tokarska-Schlattner, Malgorzata; Schlattner, Uwe (1 May 2011). "The creatine kinase system and pleiotropic effects of creatine". Amino Acids (Springer Wien) 40 (5): 1271–1296. doi:10.1007/s00726-011-0877-3. ISSN 0939-4451. PMC 3080659. PMID 21448658.
- ^ Tarnopolsky M, Martin J; Martin (March 1999). "Creatine monohydrate increases strength in patients with neuromuscular disease". Neurology 52 (4): 854–7. doi:10.1212/WNL.52.4.854. PMID 10078740.
- ^ Lyoo, I. K.; Yoon, S.; Kim, T. S.; Hwang, J.; Kim, J. E.; Won, W.; Bae, S.; Renshaw, P. F. (2012). "A Randomized, Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial of Oral Creatine Monohydrate Augmentation for Enhanced Response to a Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor in Women with Major Depressive Disorder". American Journal of Psychiatry 169 (9): 937–945. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12010009. PMID 22864465. edit
- ^ Klivenyi P, Ferrante RJ, Matthews RT et al. (March 1999). "Neuroprotective effects of creatine in a transgenic animal model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". Nature Medicine 5 (3): 347–50. doi:10.1038/6568. PMID 10086395.
- ^ Andreassen OA, Dedeoglu A, Ferrante RJ et al. (June 2001). "Creatine increase survival and delays motor symptoms in a transgenic animal model of Huntington's disease". Neurobiology of Disease 8 (3): 479–91. doi:10.1006/nbdi.2001.0406. PMID 11447996.
- ^ Kley, R. A.; Tarnopolsky, M. A.; Vorgerd, M. (2011). "Creatine for treating muscle disorders". In Kley, Rudolf A. "Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) (2): CD004760. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004760.pub3. PMID 21328269. edit
- ^ Rahimi, R. (2011). "Creatine Supplementation Decreases Oxidative DNA Damage and Lipid Peroxidation Induced by a Single Bout of Resistance Exercise". Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25 (12): 3448–3455. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182162f2b. PMID 22080314. edit
- ^ Rae C, Digney AL, McEwan SR, Bates TC; Digney; McEwan; Bates (October 2003). "Oral creatine monohydrate supplementation improves brain performance: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial". Proceedings. Biological Sciences / the Royal Society 270 (1529): 2147–50. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2492. PMC 1691485. PMID 14561278.
- ^ McMorris T, Mielcarz G, Harris RC, Swain JP, Howard A; Mielcarz; Harris; Swain; Howard (September 2007). "Creatine supplementation and cognitive performance in elderly individuals". Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section B, Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition 14 (5): 517–28. doi:10.1080/13825580600788100. PMID 17828627.
- ^ Rawson ES, Lieberman HR, Walsh TM, Zuber SM, Harhart JM, Matthews TC; Lieberman; Walsh; Zuber; Harhart; Matthews (September 2008). "Creatine supplementation does not improve cognitive function in young adults". Physiology & Behavior 95 (1–2): 130–4. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.05.009. PMID 18579168.
External links
- Creatine bound to proteins in the PDB
- International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Creatine
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Dietary supplements
|
|
| Types |
- Amino acids
- Bodybuilding supplement
- Energy drink
- Energy bar
- Fatty acids
- Herbal Supplements
- Minerals
- Prebiotics
- Probiotics (Lactobacillus
- Bifidobacterium)
- Protein bar
- Vitamins
|
|
Vitamins and
"minerals" (chemical elements) |
- Retinol (Vitamin A)
- B vitamins: Thiamine (B1)
- Riboflavin (B2)
- Niacin (B3)
- Pantothenic acid (B5)
- Pyridoxine (B6)
- Biotin (B7)
- Folic acid (B9)
- Cyanocobalamin (B12)
- Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
- Ergocalciferol and Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D)
- Tocopherol (Vitamin E)
- Naphthoquinone (Vitamin K)
- Calcium
- Choline
- Chromium
- Cobalt
- Copper
- Fluorine
- Iodine
- Iron
- Magnesium
- Manganese
- Molybdenum
- Phosphorus
- Potassium
- Selenium
- Sodium
- Sulfur
- Zinc
|
|
| Other common ingredients |
- AAKG
- Carnitine
- Chondroitin sulfate
- Cod liver oil
- Copper gluconate
- Creatine/Creatine supplements
- Dietary fiber
- Echinacea
- Elemental calcium
- Ephedra
- Fish oil
- Folic acid
- Ginseng
- Glucosamine
- Glutamine
- Grape seed extract
- Guarana
- Iron supplements
- Japanese Honeysuckle
- Krill oil
- Lingzhi
- Linseed oil
- Lipoic acid
- Milk thistle
- Melatonin
- Red yeast rice
- Royal jelly
- Saw palmetto
- Spirulina
- St John's wort
- Taurine
- Wheatgrass
- Wolfberry
- Yohimbine
- Zinc gluconate
|
|
| Related articles |
- Codex Alimentarius
- Enzyte
- Hadacol
- Herbal tea
- Nutraceutical
- Multivitamin
- Nutrition
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