DNA replication

• DNA複製

関

autonomous replication

WordNet

1. (genetics) the process whereby DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division
2. the repetition of an experiment in order to test the validity of its conclusion; "scientists will not believe an experimental result until they have seen at least one replication"
3. (law) a pleading made by a plaintiff in reply to the defendants plea or answer
4. the 4th letter of the Roman alphabet (同)d

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 写し,複写,複製 / 《文》(被告の訴答に対する)原告の訴答
2. deuteriumの化学記号
3. deoxyribonucleic acidディオキシリボ核酸

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/04/28 14:04:55」(JST)

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DNA replication. The double helix is unwound and each strand acts as a template for the next strand. Bases are matched to synthesize the new partner strands.

DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their DNA. DNA replication during mitosis is the basis for biological inheritance. The process of DNA replication starts when one double-stranded DNA molecule produces two identical copies of the molecule. Each strand of the original double-stranded DNA molecule serves as template for the production of the complementary strand, a process referred to as semiconservative replication. Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication.

In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origin of replication, in the genome. Unwinding of DNA at the origin, and synthesis of new strands, forms a replication fork. A number of proteins are associated with the fork and assist in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis. Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes the new DNA by adding matching nucleotides to the template strand.

DNA replication can also be performed in vitro (artificially, outside a cell). DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to initiate DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common laboratory technique, cyclically apply such artificial synthesis to amplify a specific target DNA fragment from a pool of DNA.

Background on DNA structure

DNA usually exists as a double-stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double-helix. Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides. Nucleotides in DNA contain a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nucleobase. The four types of nucleotide correspond to the four nucleobases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, commonly notated as A,C, G and T. These nucleotides form phosphodiester bonds, creating the phosphate-deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the nucleobases pointing inward. Nucleotides (bases) are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine (two hydrogen bonds), and cytosine pairs with guanine (three hydrogen bonds) because a purine must pair with a pyrimidine.

DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the "3' (three-prime) end" and the "5' (five-prime) end" with the direction of the naming going 5 prime to the 3 prime region. The strands of the helix are anti-parallel with one being 5 prime to 3 then the opposite strand 3 prime to 5. These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches. Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a DNA strand.

The pairing of bases in DNA through hydrogen bonding means that the information contained within each strand is redundant. The nucleotides on a single strand can be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand.

DNA polymerase

Main article: DNA polymerase

DNA polymerases adds nucleotides to the 3' end of a strand of DNA. If a mismatch is accidentally incorporated, the polymerase is inhibited from further extension. Proofreading removes the mismatched nucleotide and extension continues.

DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication. However, a DNA polymerase can only extend an existing DNA strand paired with a template strand; it cannot begin the synthesis of a new strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of DNA or RNA, called a primer, must be created and paired with the template DNA strand.

DNA polymerase then synthesizes a new strand of DNA by extending the 3' end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand one at a time via the creation of phosphodiester bonds. The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from two of the three total phosphates attached to each unincorporated base. (Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates.) When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand, two of the phosphates are removed and the energy produced creates a phosphodiester bond that attaches the remaining phosphate to the growing chain. The energetics of this process also help explain the directionality of synthesis—if DNA were synthesized in the 3' to 5' direction, the energy for the process would come from the 5' end of the growing strand rather than from free nucleotides.

In general, DNA polymerases are extremely accurate, making less than one mistake for every 10⁷ nucleotides added. Even so, some DNA polymerases also have proofreading ability; they can remove nucleotides from the end of a strand in order to correct mismatched bases. If the 5' nucleotide needs to be removed during proofreading, the triphosphate end is lost. Hence, the energy source that usually provides energy to add a new nucleotide is also lost.

The rate of DNA replication in a living cell was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage-infected E. coli. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 30°C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second. The mutation rate per base pair per replication during phage T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 10⁻⁸. Thus DNA replication is both impressively fast and accurate.

Replication process

Main articles: Prokaryotic DNA replication and Eukaryotic DNA replication

DNA Replication, like all biological polymerization processes, proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps: initiation, elongation and termination.

Replication origin

For a cell to divide, it must first replicate its DNA. This process is initiated at particular points in the DNA, known as "origins", which are targeted by proteins that initiate DNA synthesis. Origins contain DNA sequences recognized by replication initiator proteins (e.g., DnaA in E. coli and the Origin Recognition Complex in yeast). Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be "AT-rich" (rich in adenine and thymine bases), because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair). AT-rich sequences are easier to unzip since less energy is required to break relatively fewer hydrogen bonds. Once the origin has been located, these initiators recruit other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, which unzips, or separates, the DNA strands at the origin.

Extensions

All known DNA replication systems require a free 3' hydroxyl group before synthesis can be initiated (Important note: DNA is read in 3' to 5' direction whereas a new strand is synthesised in the 5' to 3' direction—this is entirely logical but is often confused). Four distinct mechanisms for synthesis have been described.

1. All cellular life forms and many DNA viruses, phages and plasmids use a primase to synthesize a short RNA primer with a free 3′ OH group which is subsequently elongated by a DNA polymerase.
2. The retroelements (including retroviruses) employ a transfer RNA that primes DNA replication by providing a free 3′ OH that is used for elongation by the reverse transcriptase.
3. In the adenoviruses and the φ29 family of bacteriophages, the 3' OH group is provided by the side chain of an amino acid of the genome attached protein (the terminal protein) to which nucleotides are added by the DNA polymerase to form a new strand.
4. In the single stranded DNA viruses — a group that includes the circoviruses, the geminiviruses, the parvoviruses and others — and also the many phages and plasmids that use the rolling circle replication (RCR) mechanism, the RCR endonuclease creates a nick the genome strand (single stranded viruses) or one of the DNA strands (plasmids). The 5′ end of the nicked strand is transferred to a tyrosine residue on the nuclease and the free 3′ OH group is then used by the DNA polymerase for new strand synthesis.

The first is the best known of these mechanisms and is used by the cellular organisms. In this mechanism, once the two strands are separated, primase adds an RNA primers to the template strands. The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several. The leading strand is extended from the primer in one motion by DNA polymerase, while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer, forming Okazaki fragments. RNase removes the primer RNA fragments, and another DNA Polymerase enters to fill the gaps. When this is complete, a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found. Ligase works to fill these nicks in, thus completing the newly replicated DNA molecule.

The primase used in this process differs significantly between bacteria and archaea/eukaryotes. Bacteria use a primase belonging to the DnaG protein superfamily which contains a catalytic domain of the TOPRIM fold type. The TOPRIM fold contains an α/β core with four conserved strands in a Rossmann-like topology. This structure is also found in the catalytic domains of topoisomerase Ia, topoisomerase II, the OLD-family nucleases and DNA repair proteins related to the RecR protein.

The primase used by archaea and eukaryotes in contrast contains a highly derived version of the RNA recognition motif (RRM). This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A/B/Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair. All these proteins share a catalytic mechanism of di-metal-ion-mediated nucleotide transfer, whereby two acidic residues located at the end of the first strand and between the second and third strands of the RRM-like unit respectively, chelate two divalent cations.

As DNA synthesis continues, the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble, forming a replication fork with two prongs. In bacteria, which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome, this process eventually creates a "theta structure" (resembling the Greek letter theta: θ). In contrast, eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these.

DNA replication proteins

List of major DNA replication enzymes in the Replisome:

Enzyme	Function in DNA replication
DNA Helicase	Also known as helix destabilizing enzyme. Unwinds the DNA double helix at the Replication Fork.
DNA Polymerase	Builds a new duplex DNA strand by adding nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction. Also performs proof-reading and error correction.
DNA clamp	A protein which prevents DNA polymerase III from dissociating from the DNA parent strand.
Single-Strand Binding (SSB) Proteins	Bind to ssDNA and prevent the DNA double helix from re-annealing after DNA helicase unwinds it thus maintaining the strand separation.
Topoisomerase	Relaxes the DNA from its super-coiled nature.
DNA Gyrase	Relieves strain of unwinding by DNA helicase; this is a specific type of topisomerase
DNA Ligase	Re-anneals the semi-conservative strands and joins Okazaki Fragments of the lagging strand.
Primase	Provides a starting point of RNA (or DNA) for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis of the new DNA strand.
Telomerase	Lengthens telomeric DNA by adding repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes.

Replication fork

Scheme of the replication fork.

a: template, b: leading strand, c: lagging strand, d: replication fork, e: primer, f: Okazaki fragments

Many enzymes are involved in the DNA replication fork.

The replication fork is a structure that forms within the nucleus during DNA replication. It is created by helicases, which break the hydrogen bonds holding the two DNA strands together. The resulting structure has two branching "prongs", each one made up of a single strand of DNA. These two strands serve as the template for the leading and lagging strands, which will be created as DNA polymerase matches complementary nucleotides to the templates; the templates may be properly referred to as the leading strand template and the lagging strand templates

Leading strand

The leading strand is the template strand of the DNA double helix so that the replication fork moves along it in the 3' to 5' direction. This allows the newly synthesized strand complementary to the original strand to be synthesized 5' to 3' in the same direction as the movement of the replication fork.

On the leading strand, a polymerase "reads" the DNA and adds nucleotides to it continuously. This polymerase is DNA polymerase III (DNA Pol III) in prokaryotes and presumably Pol ε in yeasts. In human cells the leading and lagging strands are synthesized by Pol α and Pol δ within the nucleus and Pol γ in the mitochondria. Pol ε can substitute for Pol δ in special circumstances.

Lagging strand

The lagging strand is the strand of the template DNA double helix that is oriented so that the replication fork moves along it in a 5' to 3' manner. Because of its orientation, opposite to the working orientation of DNA polymerase III, which moves on a template in a 3' to 5' manner, replication of the lagging strand is more complicated than that of the leading strand.

On the lagging strand, primase "reads" the DNA and adds RNA to it in short, separated segments. In eukaryotes, primase is intrinsic to Pol α. DNA polymerase III or Pol δ lengthens the primed segments, forming Okazaki fragments. Primer removal in eukaryotes is also performed by Pol δ. In prokaryotes, DNA polymerase I "reads" the fragments, removes the RNA using its flap endonuclease domain (RNA primers are removed by 5'-3' exonuclease activity of polymerase I [weaver, 2005]), and replaces the RNA nucleotides with DNA nucleotides (this is necessary because RNA and DNA use slightly different kinds of nucleotides). DNA ligase joins the fragments together.

Dynamics at the replication fork

The assembled human DNA clamp, a trimer of the protein PCNA.

As helicase unwinds DNA at the replication fork, the DNA ahead is forced to rotate. This process results in a build-up of twists in the DNA ahead. This build-up would form a resistance that would eventually halt the progress of the replication fork. DNA Gyrase is an enzyme that temporarily breaks the strands of DNA, relieving the tension caused by unwinding the two strands of the DNA helix; DNA Gyrase achieves this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix.

Bare single-stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself and form secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase. To prevent this, single-strand binding proteins bind to the DNA until a second strand is synthesized, preventing secondary structure formation.

Clamp proteins form a sliding clamp around DNA, helping the DNA polymerase maintain contact with its template, thereby assisting with processivity. The inner face of the clamp enables DNA to be threaded through it. Once the polymerase reaches the end of the template or detects double-stranded DNA, the sliding clamp undergoes a conformational change that releases the DNA polymerase. Clamp-loading proteins are used to initially load the clamp, recognizing the junction between template and RNA primers.^:274-5

Regulation

The cell cycle of eukaryotic cells.

Eukaryotes

Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle. As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication occurs during the S phase (synthesis phase). The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints. Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases.

The G1/S checkpoint (or restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division. Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA.

Replication of chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes occurs independent of the cell cycle, through the process of D-loop replication.

Bacteria

Most bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrences of multiple rounds of replication. In E. coli, the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of ATP to ADP, and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the process of initiator proteins binding to the origin sequences.

Because E. coli methylates GATC DNA sequences, DNA synthesis results in hemimethylated sequences. This hemimethylated DNA is recognized by the protein SeqA, which binds and sequesters the origin sequence; in addition, DnaA (required for initiation of replication) binds less well to hemimethylated DNA. As a result, newly replicated origins are prevented from immediately initiating another round of DNA replication.

ATP builds up when the cell is in a rich medium, triggering DNA replication once the cell has reached a specific size. ATP competes with ADP to bind to DnaA, and the DnaA-ATP complex is able to initiate replication. A certain number of DnaA proteins are also required for DNA replication — each time the origin is copied, the number of binding sites for DnaA doubles, requiring the synthesis of more DnaA to enable another initiation of replication.

Termination

Eukaryotes initiate DNA replication at multiple points in the chromosome, so replication forks meet and terminate at many points in the chromosome; these are not known to be regulated in any particular way. Because eukaryotes have linear chromosomes, DNA replication is unable to reach the very end of the chromosomes, but ends at the telomere region of repetitive DNA close to the end. This shortens the telomere of the daughter DNA strand. This is a normal process in somatic cells. As a result, cells can only divide a certain number of times before the DNA loss prevents further division. (This is known as the Hayflick limit.) Within the germ cell line, which passes DNA to the next generation, telomerase extends the repetitive sequences of the telomere region to prevent degradation. Telomerase can become mistakenly active in somatic cells, sometimes leading to cancer formation.

Additionally, to aid termination, the progress of the DNA replication fork must stop or be blocked. Essentially, there are two methods that organisms do this, firstly, it is to have a termination site sequence in the DNA, and secondly, it is to have a protein which binds to this sequence to physically stop DNA replication proceeding. This is named the DNA replication terminus site-binding protein or in other words, Ter protein.

Because bacteria have circular chromosomes, termination of replication occurs when the two replication forks meet each other on the opposite end of the parental chromosome. E coli regulate this process through the use of termination sequences that, when bound by the Tus protein, enable only one direction of replication fork to pass through. As a result, the replication forks are constrained to always meet within the termination region of the chromosome.

Polymerase chain reaction

Main article: Polymerase chain reaction

Researchers commonly replicate DNA in vitro using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase. Repeating this process through multiple cycles produces amplification of the targeted DNA region. At the start of each cycle, the mixture of template and primers is heated, separating the newly synthesized molecule and template. Then, as the mixture cools, both of these become templates for annealing of new primers, and the polymerase extends from these. As a result, the number of copies of the target region doubles each round, increasing exponentially.

References

UpToDate Contents

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• 1. 分子遺伝学の原理 principles of molecular genetics
• 2. 遺伝性疾患の基本原則 basic principles of genetic disease
• 3. 肺移植後の免疫抑制の維持 maintenance immunosuppression following lung transplantation
• 4. DNAによる親子鑑定 parentage testing using dna
• 5. ミトコンドリアの構造、機能、および遺伝学 mitochondrial structure function and genetics

English Journal

• The helicase domain and C-terminus of human RecQL4 facilitate replication elongation on DNA templates damaged by ionizing radiation.

• Kohzaki M, Chiourea M, Versini G, Adachi N, Takeda S, Gagos S, Halazonetis TD.SourceDepartment of Molecular Biology, University of Geneva, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland.
• Carcinogenesis.Carcinogenesis.2012 Nov;33(6):1203-10. Epub 2012 Apr 16.
• The vertebrate RECQL4 (RECQ4) gene is thought to be the ortholog of budding yeast SLD2. However, RecQL4 contains within its C-terminus a RecQ-like helicase domain, which is absent in Sld2. We established human pre-B lymphocyte Nalm-6 cells, in which the endogenous RECQL4 gene was homozygously target
• PMID 22508716

• Rbf1 degron dysfunction enhances cellular DNA replication.

• Raj N, Zhang L, Wei Y, Arnosti DN, Henry RW.SourceProgram in Genetics; Michigan State University; East Lansing, MI USA; These authors contributed equally to this work.
• Cell cycle (Georgetown, Tex.).Cell Cycle.2012 Oct 15;11(20). [Epub ahead of print]
• The E2F family of transcription factors contributes to oncogenesis through activation of multiple genes involved in cellular proliferation, a process that is opposed by the Retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (RB). RB also increases E2F1 stability by inhibiting its proteasome-mediated degradatio
• PMID 22895052

Japanese Journal

• Quick replication fork stop by overproduction of Escherichia coli DinB produces non-proliferative cells with an aberrant chromosome

• Ikeda Mio,Shinozaki Yutaka,Uchida Kaori [他]
• Genes & genetic systems 87(4), 221-231, 2012-08
• NAID 40019482056

• Effect of an MCM4 mutation that causes tumours in mouse on human MCM4/6/7 complex formation

• Watanabe Emi,Ohara Rie,Ishimi Yukio
• Journal of Biochemistry 152(2), 191-198, 2012-08
• NAID 40019378223

• Diurnal infection patterns and impact of Microcystis cyanophages in a Japanese pond.

• Kimura Shigeko,Yoshida Takashi,Hosoda Naohiko,Honda Takashi,Kuno Sotaro,Kamiji Rikae,Hashimoto Ryoya,Sako Yoshihiko
• Applied and environmental microbiology 78(16), 5805-5811, 2012-08
• … The phage g91 DNA copy numbers in host cell fractions, which are predicted to indicate phage replication, increased in the afternoon, followed by an increase in the free-phage fractions. … In all fractions, at least 1 of 71 g91 genotypes was observed (in tested host cell, free-phage, and RNA fractions), indicating that the replication cycle of the cyanophage (i.e., injection, transcription, replication, and release of progeny phages) was occurring. …
• NAID 120004873991

Related Links

• Essential Biochemistry - DNA Replication - Wiley: Home

1. To understand the functions of the proteins responsible for DNA replication, including helicase, SSB protein, primase, the sliding clamp, DNA polymerase ... 2. To understand the process of DNA replication, and why the leading ...

• DNA makes DNA

Animated overview of DNA replication iOS > Puffin Android > Puffin DNA anatomy DNA transcription RNA translation INDEX Friday, 10 December 2010

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「DNA複製」「autonomous replication」
関連記事	「D」「DNA」

「DNA複製」

　　[★]

英

DNA replication, DNA duplication

関

DNA生合成

「autonomous replication」

　　[★]

• 自律増殖

関

DNA replication

「D」

　　[★]

• アスパラギン酸
• ジヒドロウリジン
• 遠位の distal,
• うつ病 depression
• 下行結腸 descending colon(大腸内視鏡検査の結果を記載するときに用いる)

　 　

「DNA」

　　[★]

英

deoxyribonucleic acid

同

デオキシリボ核酸

関

リボ核酸 RNA