elevated railway

　

WordNet

1. a railway that is powered by electricity and that runs on a track that is raised above the street level (同)elevated railroad, elevated, el, overhead railway
2. line that is the commercial organization responsible for operating a system of transportation for trains that pull passengers or freight (同)railroad, railroad line, railway line, railway system
3. raised above the ground; "an elevated platform"

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. (ある高さに)…‘を'『上げる』,‘の'程度を高める《『名』+『to』+『名』》 / (知的・精神的に)…‘を'向上させる,高める / (…から…に)〈人〉‘を'昇進させる《+『from』+『名』+『to』+『名』》
2. 《英》=railroad / 〈C〉《米》(一般に)線路,軌道
3. 『高く上げられた』,高い / (思想などが)高尚な,気品のある / 高架鉄道

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/02/27 11:36:50」(JST)

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"Elevated" redirects here. For the short film by Vincenzo Natali, see Elevated (film).

Liverpool Overhead Railway, 1951.

J train crosses the East River separating Brooklyn and Manhattan via the Williamsburg Bridge.

An elevated railway (also known in Europe as overhead railway) is a rapid transit railway with the tracks above street level on a viaduct or other steel, concrete or brick structure. The railway may be standard gauge, narrow gauge, light rail, monorail or a suspension railway. Elevated railways are usually used in urban areas where otherwise there would be a large number of level crossings.

History

The earliest elevated railway was the London and Greenwich Railway on a brick viaduct of 878 arches, built between 1836 and 1838. The first 2.5 miles (4.0 km) of the London and Blackwall Railway (1840) was also on a viaduct. During the 1840s there were other schemes for elevated railways in London which did not come to fruition.

From the late 1860s elevated railways became popular in US cities. The New York West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway operated with cable cars from 1868 to 1870, thereafter locomotive-hauled. This was followed by the Manhattan Railway in 1875, the Boston Elevated Railway (1887-), and the South Side Elevated Railroad, Chicago (1892-). The Berlin Stadtbahn (1882) is also mainly elevated.

The first electric elevated railway was the Liverpool Overhead Railway, which operated through Liverpool docks from 1893 until 1956.

In London the Docklands Light Railway is a modern elevated railway, opened in 1987 and since expanded. The trains are driverless and automatic.

Suspension railways

During the 1890s there was some interest in suspension railways, particularly in Germany, with the Schwebebahn Dresden, (1891-) and the Wuppertal Schwebebahn (1901). H-Bahn suspension railways were built in Dortmund and Düsseldorf airport, 1975. The Memphis Suspension Railway opened in 1982.

Monorail systems

Most monorails are elevated railways, such as the Disneyland Monorail System (1959), the Tokyo Monorail (1964) and the Sydney Monorail (1988-2013). Maglev railways are also elevated.

Gallery

• Green Line train in Downtown Chicago.

• Market Frankford train in West Philadelphia

• Chinatown station in Los Angeles.

• A Queens bound 7 train in New York City.

• Elevated section of the Docklands Light Railway in London.

• Bimanbandar station of the Kolkata Suburban Railway.

• Thiruvanmiyur station of the Chennai MRTS.

• LRT Line 1 heading to EDSA station of Manila Metro.

See also

• Railway
• Rapid transit
• Grade separation
• Chicago 'L'
• Detroit People Mover

SkyTrain

• SkyTrain (Vancouver), a partly elevated rapid transit system in Vancouver, Canada
• BTS Skytrain, an elevated rapid transit line in Bangkok, Thailand
• Changi Airport Skytrain, an inter-terminal people mover in Singapore
• PHX Sky Train, a people mover at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport
• Düsseldorf SkyTrain, an automated inter-terminal people mover at Düsseldorf International Airport, Germany
• ATL Skytrain, a people mover at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport
• MIA Mover, a people mover at Miami International Airport

Proposed Designs

• MonoMetro

References

UpToDate Contents

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• 1. 職業性喘息：定義、疫学、原因、および危険因子occupational asthma definitions epidemiology causes and risk factors [show details]
  … plating and coating workers. For the women, the risk was highest among shoemakers and repairers, railway and station personnel, jewelry engravers, engine room crew, molders, round-timber workers, and bakers … intermittent short-term exposure to elevated levels of diisocyanates may represent the greatest risk for the subsequent development of OA .…
• 2. 環境および兵器による電気的損傷environmental and weapon related electrical injuries [show details]
  … With direct current (DC), the direction of flow remains constant. DC current is found in batteries, railway tracks, automobile electrical systems, and lightning. The force that drives the electrons across … Incidence is increased among children younger than six years, often because of contact with electric cords or outlets ; older children generally suffer high-voltage injuries…

English Journal

• Physicochemical characterization of airborne particulate matter at a mainline underground railway station.

• Loxham M, Cooper MJ, Gerlofs-Nijland ME, Cassee FR, Davies DE, Palmer MR, Teagle DA.SourceThe Brooke Laboratory, Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, University Hospital Southampton, Tremona Road, Southampton, SO16 6YD, United Kingdom. m.loxham@soton.ac.uk
• Environmental science & technology.Environ Sci Technol.2013 Apr 16;47(8):3614-22. doi: 10.1021/es304481m. Epub 2013 Apr 2.
• Underground railway stations are known to have elevated particulate matter (PM) loads compared to ambient air. As these particles are derived from metal-rich sources and transition metals may pose a risk to health by virtue of their ability to catalyze generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), th
• PMID 23477491

• [Obstetrical ultrasound: can the fetus hear the wave and feel the heat?].

• Abramowicz JS, Kremkau FW, Merz E.Abstract"Fetuses can hear ultrasound and the sound is as loud as a subway train entering a station." This statement originates in a single report in a non-peer reviewed journal, despite its name 1, of a presentation at a scientific meeting by researchers who reported measuring the sound intensity in the uterus of pregnant women and being able to demonstrate the above. This was later published in a peer-review journal 2 probably not very widely read by clinicians or the general public. From time to time, the popular press or various pregnancy-related websites repeat the assertion or a worried pregnant patient inquires about the truthfulness of this statement. A second, oft-quoted concern is that ultrasound leads to heating of the amniotic fluid. These two assertions may be very concerning to expectant parents and merit scientific scrutiny. In this editorial, we shall examine the known facts about the physical properties of ultrasound as they relate to these two issues. Diagnostic ultrasound employs a pulsed sound wave with positive and negative pressures and the Mayo team, quoted in the New Scientist, predicted that the pulsing would translate into a "tapping" effect 1. According to their report, they placed a tiny hydrophone inside a woman's uterus while she was undergoing an ultrasound examination. They stated that they picked up a hum at around the frequency of the pulsing generated when the ultrasound is switched on and off. The sound was similar to the highest notes on a piano. They also indicated that when the ultrasound probe was pointed right at the hydrophone, it registered a level of 100 decibels, as loud as a subway train coming into a station. Sound levels in decibels are defined for audible frequencies with the reference level being the threshold for hearing at a given frequency. Although the operating frequencies used in sonography are inaudible, it is possible for the pulsing rate (pulse repetition frequency, PRF) to be heard, thus falling in the audible range. A previous report had hinted at similar phenomena 3.Ultrasound is a pressure wave with a frequency beyond (ultra) that detectable in the human auditory system. The human ear can discern sound at roughly 20 - 20 000 cycles (hertz) per second. The frequencies of diagnostic ultrasound are roughly 1 - 10 megahertz (MHz) or 1 000 000 to 10 000 000 cycles per second. It is a form of energy and, as such, may have effects in tissues it traverses. Any consequences occurring in living tissues secondary to an external influence are called biological effects or bioeffects. This term does not imply damage or harm. The two major mechanisms for bioeffects are thermal and non-thermal. Thermal effects are secondary to ultrasound energy being converted into heat in the tissue (indirect effect of ultrasound) and non-thermal effects are secondary to the alternating positive and negative pressures generated by the wave (direct effect). The definition of moderately loud sound is 60 - 70 dB (2 × 10-3-2 × 10-2 Pa), defined as high urban ambient sound, normal conversation at 1 m, or living room music 4. In comparison, quiet conversation is 40 dB, a railway diesel engine passing at 45 mph at 100 feet is 80 - 85 dB and a rock band is 110 dB 4. There have been a few publications describing harm to fetuses exposed to elevated levels of ambient noise, particularly industrial noise 567, specifically in the aircraft and textile industries, but while there have been reports of impaired hearing in infants who were exposed to ultrasound in the womb, several rigorous studies have disproved that notion 891011. Furthermore, a study of fetuses exposed in utero to vibroacoustic stimulation 12 and a recent study of fetuses exposed to noise generated during an MR exam of the pregnant women 13 showed no ill effect on the auditory system. There have been some reports of being able to hear a "hum" during transcranial ultrasound. This may be the pulse-repetition frequency (PRF), but, if so, it would be described as a higher pitch, and probably not a "hum". To our knowledge, this phenomenon has not been investigated. Although the report mentioned above suggested that diagnostic ultrasound is detectable at measurable levels in the uterus, there is no independently confirmed, peer-reviewed, published evidence that the fetus actually hears the PRF, responds to it or is harmed by it."The fetus cannot regulate its own body temperature, so amniotic fluid can reach very high temperatures over long periods" 14. Does this statement reflect a real risk? What does it mean if this statement is scientifically true? The fear is, of course, that this will raise the temperature of the fetus. Thermally induced teratogenesis has been demonstrated in many animal studies, as well as several controlled human studies 1516. A temperature increase of 1.5 °C above the normal value has been suggested as a universal threshold 17. It is important to note that diagnostic ultrasound was not the source of the temperature elevation in any of these studies. Some believe that there are temperature thresholds for hyperthermia-induced birth defects (hence the ALARA [as low as reasonably achievable] principle), but there is some evidence that any positive temperature differential for any period of time has some effect, in other words there may be no thermal threshold for hyperthermia-induced birth defects 18. In experimental animals the most common defects are microcephaly with associated functional and behavioral problems 17, microphthalmia and cataracts. There are reports on the effects of hyperthermia and measurements of in vivo temperature induced by pulsed ultrasound but not in humans 192021. Temperature increases of 1 °C are easily reached in routine scanning 22. Elevation of up to 1.5 °C can be obtained in the first trimester and up to 4 °C in the second and third trimesters, particularly with the use of pulsed Doppler 23. When the ultrasound wave travels through tissue, its intensity diminishes with distance (attenuation). In completely homogeneous materials, the signal amplitude is reduced only by beam divergence and absorption (conversion of sound to heat). However, biologic tissues are non-homogeneous and further weakening occurs due to scattering. The issue of temperature increase in the amniotic fluid is based on the fact that the energy of the ultrasound waves is partially converted to heat in the tissue traversed by the waves. Tissues with a high absorption coefficient (such as bone) will produce a high conversion rate while the conversion will be lower in tissues with low absorption. Fluids have very low absorption characteristics and, therefore, the risk of temperature elevation in the amniotic fluid is minimal. The only available study on the topic did not demonstrate any increase in temperature in the amniotic fluid when performing diagnostic ultrasound, both in grayscale anatomic imaging (sonography) and Doppler ultrasound 24. ConclusionWhile ultrasound is a sound wave which can produce mechanical effects and temperature elevation in tissues that it traverses, the risk to human fetuses when using diagnostic ultrasound appears to be minimal if certain rules are followed, such as performing a scan when medically indicated, and observing the ALARA principle (using the lowest output power consistent with acquiring the necessary diagnostic information and keeping the exposure time as low as possible for accurate diagnosis).
• Ultraschall in der Medizin (Stuttgart, Germany : 1980).Ultraschall Med.2012 Jun;33(3):215-7. doi: 10.1055/s-0032-1312759. Epub 2012 Jun 14.
• "Fetuses can hear ultrasound and the sound is as loud as a subway train entering a station." This statement originates in a single report in a non-peer reviewed journal, despite its name 1, of a presentation at a scientific meeting by researchers who reported measuring the sound intensity in the ute
• PMID 22700164

• Dump truck-related deaths in construction, 1992-2007.

• McCann M, Cheng MT.SourceCPWR-The Center for Construction Research and Training, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA. michael.mccann@att.net
• American journal of industrial medicine.Am J Ind Med.2012 May;55(5):450-7. doi: 10.1002/ajim.21028. Epub 2011 Nov 23.
• BACKGROUND: Dump trucks are universally used in construction and other industries to haul materials to the location and to remove waste materials.METHODS: The source for dump truck-related fatality data was the Bureau of Labor Statistics Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) Research File.RES
• PMID 22113947

Japanese Journal

• 小学校の通学路に面する建物の分布と街路の特性が通学児童に対する保護者の犯罪不安に与える影響

• 出口 寛子,吉村 英祐
• 日本建築学会計画系論文集 80(709), 537-546, 2015
• … (3)Parks, roads under the elevated railway, complicated narrow roads in old built-up areas are pointed out as the areas with a fear of crime. …
• NAID 130005062891

• 埼玉県の新幹線高架におけるヒナコウモリVespertilio sinensisの越冬期と出産哺育期の分布

• 大沢 啓子,佐藤 顕義,勝田 節子 [他]
• 埼玉県立自然の博物館研究報告 (8), 49-52, 2014-03
• NAID 40020131842

• Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Topography Around the Tunnel Portal on Micro-pressure Waves

• ,
• Quarterly Report of RTRI 55(4), 235-240, 2014
• … Four types of topographic models, infinite flat ground, excavation on one side, excavation on both sides and elevated bridge, were used to measure the spatial distribution of the peak values of the micro-pressure waves. …
• NAID 130004704729

Related Links

• Elevated railway | Define Elevated railway at Dictionary.com

Elevated railway definition at Dictionary.com, a free online dictionary with pronunciation, synonyms and translation. Look it up now! Thesaurus Translate Puzzles & Games Word of the Day Blog Slideshows Apps by Dictionary ...

• elevated railwayの意味 - 英和辞書 - 英語辞書 - goo辞書

elevated railwayとは。意味や和訳。⇒élevated ráilroad [ráilway] - goo英和辞書は14万項目以上を収録し、発音、音声、慣用句、例文が分かる英和辞書です。 ... "How long time have you been doing yoga?" このフレーズの間違いは？

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関連記事

「elevate」

「elevate」

　　[★]

• v.

• 上昇させる、増加させる、上げる、高める

関

ascending、ascent、elevation、gain、increase、increment、multiply、raise、rise、rose、up-regulation、upregulation