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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/06/20 22:03:29」(JST)

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Levonorgestrel (or l-norgestrel or D-norgestrel) (NOGESTAT, AfterPill, Plan B, Next Choice, Postinor, "the morning after pill," and others^[1]) is a second generation progestin (synthetic progestogen) used as an active ingredient in some hormonal contraceptives, including combined oral contraceptive pills, progestogen only pills, emergency contraceptive pills, intrauterine systems, contraceptive implants, and hormone replacement therapy.

It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, a list of the most important medication needed in a basic health system.^[2]

Usage

Oral contraception

At low doses, levonorgestrel is used in monophasic and triphasic formulations of combined oral contraceptive pills, with available monophasic doses ranging from 100-250 µg, and triphasic doses of 50 µg/75 µg/125 µg.

At very low daily dose of 30 µg, levonorgestrel is used in some progestogen only pill formulations.

Emergency contraception

Levonorgestrel is used in emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs), both in a combined Yuzpe regimen which includes estrogen, and as a levonorgestrel-only method. The levonorgestrel-only method uses levonorgestrel 1.5 mg (as a single dose or as two 0.75 mg doses 12 hours apart) taken within 3 days of unprotected sex, with one study indicating that beginning as late as 120 hours (5 days) after intercourse could be effective.

The primary mechanism of action of levonorgestrel as a progestogen-only emergency contraceptive pill is, according to FIGO, to prevent fertilization by inhibition of ovulation.^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) has issued a statement that: "review of the evidence suggests that LNG [levonorgestreol] ECPs cannot prevent implantation of a fertilized egg. Language on implantation should not be included in LNG ECP product labeling."^[7]^[8] In November 2013, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) approved a change to the label for HRA Pharma's NorLevo saying it cannot prevent implantation of a fertilized egg.^[9]

In November 2013, the EMA also approved a change to the label for HRA Pharma's NorLevo saying: "In clinical trials, contraceptive efficacy was reduced in women weighing 75 kg [165 pounds] or more, and levonorgestrel was not effective in women who weighed more than 80 kg [176 pounds]."^[9]^[10]^[11] In November 2013 and January 2014, the FDA and the EMA said they were reviewing whether increased weight and body mass index (BMI) reduce the efficacy of emergency contraceptives.^[9]

Intrauterine system

Levonorgestrel is the active ingredient in the Mirena & Skyla (Jaydess) intrauterine system.

Contraceptive implants

Levonorgestrel is the active ingredient in Norplant and Jadelle.

Hormone replacement therapy

Levenorgestrel is combined with 17-beta estradiol in the Climara Pro hormonal patch.

Side effects

After intake of levonorgestrel 1.5 mg in clinical trials, very common effects (reported by 10% or more) included: dizziness, headache, nausea, abdominal pain, uterine pain, delay of menstruation, heavy menstruation, uterine bleeding, or fatigue; common effects (reported by 1% to 10%) included diarrhea, vomiting, or painful menstruation; these effects usually disappeared within 48 hours.^[12]

Chemistry

Levonorgestrel (levo=left) is one form of a hormone that exists in two mirror image left and right forms. (See Chirality (chemistry).)

Chemically, it is a hormonally active levorotatory enantiomer of the racemic mixture norgestrel. It is a gonane progestin derived from 19-nortestosterone.^[13]

Its in vitro relative binding affinities at human steroid hormone receptors are: 323% that of progesterone at the progesterone receptor, 58% that of testosterone at the androgen receptor, 17% that of aldosterone at the mineralocorticoid receptor, 7.5% that of cortisol at the glucocorticoid receptor, and <0.02% that of estradiol at the estrogen receptor.^[14]

If taken together with drugs that induce the CYP3A4 cytochrome liver enzyme, levonorgestrel may be metabolized faster and may have lower efficacy.^{[citation needed]}

Brand names

There are many brand names of levonorgestrel-only ECPs, including: Nogestat, AfterPill, Escapelle, Plan B, Levonelle, Glanique, NorLevo, Postinor-2, i-pill, "Next Choice" and 72-HOURS.^[15]

Over-the-counter availability

In 2013 the FDA approved Plan B One-Step to be sold without a prescription to women of all ages. ^[16]

References

^ http://ec.princeton.edu/questions/dose.html#dose
^ "WHO Model List of EssentialMedicines" (PDF). World Health Organization. October 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
^ Trussell, James; Schwarz, Eleanor Bimla (2011). "Emergency contraception". In Hatcher, Robert A.; Trussell, James; Nelson, Anita L.; Cates, Willard Jr.; Kowal, Deborah; Policar, Michael S. Contraceptive technology (20th revised ed.). New York: Ardent Media. pp. 113–145. ISBN 978-1-59708-004-0. ISSN 0091-9721. OCLC 781956734. p. 121:

Mechanism of action
Copper-releasing IUCs
When used as a regular or emergency method of contraception, copper-releasing IUCs act primarily to prevent fertilization. Emergency insertion of a copper IUC is significantly more effective than the use of ECPs, reducing the risk of pregnancy following unprotected intercourse by more than 99%.^2,3 This very high level of effectiveness implies that emergency insertion of a copper IUC must prevent some pregnancies after fertilization.
Emergency contraceptive pills
To make an informed choice, women must know that ECPs—like the birth control pill, patch, ring, shot, and implant,⁷⁶ and even like breastfeeding⁷⁷—prevent pregnancy primarily by delaying or inhibiting ovulation and inhibiting fertilization, but may at times inhibit implantation of a fertilized egg in the endometrium. However, women should also be informed that the best available evidence indicates that ECPs prevent pregnancy by mechanisms that do not involve interference with post-fertilization events.
ECPs do not cause abortion⁷⁸ or harm an established pregnancy. Pregnancy begins with implantation according to medical authorities such as the US FDA, the National Institutes of Health⁷⁹ and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG).⁸⁰
Ulipristal acetate (UPA). One study has demonstrated that UP can delay ovulation.⁸¹... Another study found that UPA altered the endometrium, but whether this change would inhibit implantation is unknown.⁸²
p. 122:
Progestin-only emergency contraceptive pills. Early treatment with ECPs containing only the progestin levonorgestrel has been show to impair the ovulatory process and luteal function.^83–87
p. 123:
Combined emergency contraceptive pills. Several clinical studies have shown that combined ECPs containing ethinyl estradiol and levonorgestrel can inhibit or delay ovulation.^107–110
^ RCOG Faculty of Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, Clinical Effectiveness Unit (January 2012). Clinical guidance: emergency contraception (PDF). London: Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. ISSN 1755-103X. Retrieved 2012-04-30. p.3:

How does EC work?
In 2002, a judicial review ruled that pregnancy begins at implantation, not fertilisation.⁸ The possible mechanisms of action should be explained to the patient as some methods may not be acceptable, depending on individual beliefs about the onset of pregnancy and abortion.
Copper-bearing intrauterine device (Cu-IUD). Copper is toxic to the ovum and sperm and thus the copper-bearing intrauterine device (Cu-IUD) is effective immediately after insertion and works primarily by inhibiting fertilisation.^9–11 A systematic review on mechanisms of action of IUDs showed that both pre- and postfertilisation effects contribute to efficacy.¹¹ If fertilisation has already occurred, it is accepted that there is an anti-implantation effect,^12,13
Levonorgestrel (LNG). The precise mode of action of levonorgestrel (LNG) is incompletely understood but it is thought to work primarily by inhibition of ovulation.^16,17
Ulipristal acetate (UPA). UPA’s primary mechanism of action is thought to be inhibition or delay of ovulation.²
^ UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP) (March 25, 2010). "Fact sheet on the safety of levonorgestrel-alone emergency contraceptive pills (LNG ECPs)" (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization.

Can LNG ECPs cause an abortion?
LNG ECPs do not interrupt an established pregnancy or harm a developing embryo.¹⁵ The evidence available to date shows that LNG ECP use does not prevent a fertilized egg from attaching to the uterine lining. The primary mechanism of action is to stop or disrupt ovulation; LNG ECP use may also prevent the sperm and egg from meeting.¹⁶
^ Speroff, Leon; Darney, Philip D. (2011). "Special uses of oral contraception: emergency contraception, the progestin-only minipill". A clinical guide for contraception (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 153–166. ISBN 978-1-60831-610-6. p. 155:

Emergency postcoital contraception
Levonorgestrel
Mechanism and efficacy
^ Belluck, Pam (June 6, 2012). "No abortion role seen for morning-after pill". The New York Times. p. A1.
Belluck, Pam (June 6, 2012). "Drug's nickname may have aided politicization". The New York Times. p. A14.
^ International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) and International Consortium for Emergency Contraception (ICEC) (April 4, 2011). "Mechanism of action: How do levonorgestrel-only emergency contraceptive pills (LNG ECPs) prevent pregnancy?" (PDF). London: International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics.

Levonorgestrel-only emergency contraceptive pills:
• Interfere with the process of ovulation;
• May possibly prevent the sperm and the egg from meeting.
Implications of the research:
• Inhibition or delay of ovulation is LNG ECPs principal and possibly only mechanism of action.
• Review of the evidence suggests that LNG-ECs cannot prevent implantation of a fertilized egg. Language on implantation should not be included in LNG ECP product labeling.
• The fact that LNG-ECs have no demonstrated effect on implantation explains why they are not 100% effective in preventing pregnancy, and are less effective the later they are taken. Women should be given a clear message that LNG-ECs are more effective the sooner they are taken.
• LNG ECPs do not interrupt a pregnancy (by any definition of the beginning of pregnancy). However, LNG ECPs can prevent abortions by reducing unwanted pregnancies.
^ ^a ^b ^c Belluck, Pam (November 26, 2013). "New birth control label counters lawsuit claim; European authorities found that a drug like Plan B One-Step cannot prevent fertilized eggs from implanting in the womb". The New York Times. Retrieved March 5, 2014.
HRA Pharma (November 2013). "NorLevo 1.5 mg tablet Patient Information Leaflet (PIL)" (PDF). Dublin: Irish Medicines Board. Retrieved March 5, 2014. NorLevo works by stopping your ovaries from releasing an egg. It cannot stop a fertilized egg from attaching to the womb.
HRA Pharma (November 2013). "NorLevo 1.5 mg tablet Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC)". Dublin: Irish Pharmaceutical Healthcare Association. Retrieved March 5, 2014. Missing or empty |url= (help); |chapter= ignored (help)
European Medicines Agency (January 24, 2014). "Review of emergency contraceptives started". London: European Medicines Agency. Retrieved March 5, 2014.
^ Glasier, Anna; Cameron, Sharon T.; Blithe, Diana; Scherrer, Bruno; Mathe, Henri; Levy, Delphine; Gainer, Erin; Ulmann, Andre (October 2011). "Can we identify women at risk of pregnancy despite using emergency contraception? Data from randomized trials of ulipristal acetate and levonorgestrel". Contraception 84 (4): 363–367. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2011.02.009. PMID 21920190.
^ Trussell, James; Raymond, Elizabeth G.; Cleland, Kelly (February 2014). "Emergency contraception: a last chance to prevent unintended pregnancy" (PDF). Princeton: Office of Population Research at Princeton University, Association of Reproductive Health Professionals. Retrieved April 9, 2014.
^ HRA Pharma (November 2013). "NorLevo 1.5 mg tablet Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC)". Dublin: Irish Pharmaceutical Healthcare Association. Retrieved April 9, 2014. Missing or empty |url= (help); |chapter= ignored (help)
^ Edgren RA, Stanczyk FZ (1999). "Nomenclature of the gonane progestins". Contraception 60 (6): 313. doi:10.1016/S0010-7824(99)00101-8. PMID 10715364.
^ Sitruk-Ware R (2006). "New progestagens for contraceptive use". Hum Reprod Update 12 (2): 169–78. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmi046. PMID 16291771.
^ Trussell, James; Cleland, Kelly (2007-04-10). "Emergency Contraceptive Pills Worldwide". Princeton University. Retrieved 2007-05-28.
^ http://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm358082.htm

External links

Levonelle manufacturer's product information from Schering
Monograph for levonorgestrel - Uk Medicines Information
U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal - Levonorgestrel

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. 子宮内避妊（IUD）：概要 intrauterine contraception iud overview
2. 緊急避妊剤 emergency contraception
3. 避妊の概要 overview of contraception
4. 周産期心筋症：治療および予後 peripartum cardiomyopathy treatment and prognosis
5. 子宮内膜アブレーションの概要 an overview of endometrial ablation

English Journal

The levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system: its effect on the number of hysterectomies performed in perimenopausal women with uterine fibroids.

Machado RB, de Souza IM, Beltrame A, Bernardes CR, Morimoto MS, Santana N.SourceDepartment of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Jundiaí School of Medicine , Jundiaí, São Paulo , Brazil.
Gynecological endocrinology : the official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology.Gynecol Endocrinol.2013 May;29(5):492-5. doi: 10.3109/09513590.2013.769517. Epub 2013 Mar 6.
Abstract This prospective observational study was designed to determine the percentage of hysterectomies avoided following insertion of a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS) in perimenopausal women with uterine fibroids and a prior indication for surgery. The study also compared t
PMID 23461277

What the world needs now…is more access to the levonorgestrel IUD.

Turok DK.SourceDepartment of Obstetrics and Gynecology University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. Electronic address: David.Turok@hsc.utah.edu.
Contraception.Contraception.2013 Apr;87(4):391-2. doi: 10.1016/j.contraception.2013.02.005. Epub 2013 Feb 22.
PMID 23518257

Japanese Journal

薬剤の臨床レボノルゲストレル徐放型子宮内避妊システム(LNG-IUS)の人工妊娠中絶後使用者における使用実態と満足度の検討

濱田貴,石原政芳,井橋俊彦
産科と婦人科 80(1), 131-140, 2013-01
NAID 40019541750

Assessment of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS) in the long-term contraceptive use : A survey of Japanese patient's experience and satisfaction

太田郁子,石原政芳,泉康二
産科と婦人科 79(12), 1579-1591, 2012-12
NAID 40019497720

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「レボノルゲストレル」

「レボノルゲストレル」

Levonorgestrel
Systematic (IUPAC) name
	(8R,9S,10R,13S,14S,17R)-13-ethyl-17-ethynyl-17-hydroxy-1,2,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17-tetradecahydrocyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-one
Clinical data
Trade names	Norplant
AHFS/Drugs.com	monograph
MedlinePlus	a610021
Pregnancy; category	X;
Legal status	Rx-OTC;
Routes of; administration	Implant; insert (extended-release); oral
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	~100%
Protein binding	55%
Metabolism	Hepatic via CYP3A4[citation needed]
Half-life	36 ± 13 hours
Excretion	Renal: 45%; Fecal:32%
Identifiers
CAS Registry Number	797-63-7
ATC code	G03AC03 G03AD01
PubChem	CID: 13109
IUPHAR/BPS	2881
DrugBank	DB00367
ChemSpider	12560
UNII	5W7SIA7YZW
KEGG	D00950
ChEBI	CHEBI:6443
ChEMBL	CHEMBL1389
Chemical data
Formula	C21H28O2
Molecular mass	312.446 g/mol
	SMILES [H][C@]12CCC(=O)C=C1CC[C@]1([H])[C@]2([H])CC[C@@]2(CC)[C@@]1([H])CC[C@@]2(O)C#C;
	InChI InChI=1S/C21H28O2/c1-3-20-11-9-17-16-8-6-15(22)13-14(16)5-7-18(17)19(20)10-12-21(20,23)4-2/h2,13,16-19,23H,3,5-12H2,1H3/t16-,17+,18+,19-,20-,21-/m0/s1 ; Key:WWYNJERNGUHSAO-XUDSTZEESA-N ;
(what is this?) (verify)

　　[★]

英: levonorgestrel
商: アンジュ21、ウェールナラ配合、トリキュラー、ノルレボ、ミレーナ、ラベルフィーユ
関: 避妊薬

[1] ttp://ec.princeton.edu/questions/dose.html#dose

[2] "WHO Model List of EssentialMedicines" (PDF). World Health Organization. October 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2014.

[Trussell_2011-3] Trussell, James; Schwarz, Eleanor Bimla (2011). "Emergency contraception". In Hatcher, Robert A.; Trussell, James; Nelson, Anita L.; Cates, Willard Jr.; Kowal, Deborah; Policar, Michael S. Contraceptive technology (20th revised ed.). New York: Ardent Media. pp. 113–145. ISBN 978-1-59708-004-0. ISSN 0091-9721. OCLC 781956734. p. 121:

Mechanism of action
Copper-releasing IUCs
When used as a regular or emergency method of contraception, copper-releasing IUCs act primarily to prevent fertilization. Emergency insertion of a copper IUC is significantly more effective than the use of ECPs, reducing the risk of pregnancy following unprotected intercourse by more than 99%.^2,3 This very high level of effectiveness implies that emergency insertion of a copper IUC must prevent some pregnancies after fertilization.
Emergency contraceptive pills
To make an informed choice, women must know that ECPs—like the birth control pill, patch, ring, shot, and implant,⁷⁶ and even like breastfeeding⁷⁷—prevent pregnancy primarily by delaying or inhibiting ovulation and inhibiting fertilization, but may at times inhibit implantation of a fertilized egg in the endometrium. However, women should also be informed that the best available evidence indicates that ECPs prevent pregnancy by mechanisms that do not involve interference with post-fertilization events.
ECPs do not cause abortion⁷⁸ or harm an established pregnancy. Pregnancy begins with implantation according to medical authorities such as the US FDA, the National Institutes of Health⁷⁹ and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG).⁸⁰
Ulipristal acetate (UPA). One study has demonstrated that UP can delay ovulation.⁸¹... Another study found that UPA altered the endometrium, but whether this change would inhibit implantation is unknown.⁸²
p. 122:
Progestin-only emergency contraceptive pills. Early treatment with ECPs containing only the progestin levonorgestrel has been show to impair the ovulatory process and luteal function.^83–87
p. 123:
Combined emergency contraceptive pills. Several clinical studies have shown that combined ECPs containing ethinyl estradiol and levonorgestrel can inhibit or delay ovulation.^107–110

[FSRH_EC_2012-4] RCOG Faculty of Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, Clinical Effectiveness Unit (January 2012). Clinical guidance: emergency contraception (PDF). London: Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. ISSN 1755-103X. Retrieved 2012-04-30. p.3:

How does EC work?
In 2002, a judicial review ruled that pregnancy begins at implantation, not fertilisation.⁸ The possible mechanisms of action should be explained to the patient as some methods may not be acceptable, depending on individual beliefs about the onset of pregnancy and abortion.
Copper-bearing intrauterine device (Cu-IUD). Copper is toxic to the ovum and sperm and thus the copper-bearing intrauterine device (Cu-IUD) is effective immediately after insertion and works primarily by inhibiting fertilisation.^9–11 A systematic review on mechanisms of action of IUDs showed that both pre- and postfertilisation effects contribute to efficacy.¹¹ If fertilisation has already occurred, it is accepted that there is an anti-implantation effect,^12,13
Levonorgestrel (LNG). The precise mode of action of levonorgestrel (LNG) is incompletely understood but it is thought to work primarily by inhibition of ovulation.^16,17
Ulipristal acetate (UPA). UPA’s primary mechanism of action is thought to be inhibition or delay of ovulation.²

[WHO_2010-5] UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP) (March 25, 2010). "Fact sheet on the safety of levonorgestrel-alone emergency contraceptive pills (LNG ECPs)" (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization.

Can LNG ECPs cause an abortion?
LNG ECPs do not interrupt an established pregnancy or harm a developing embryo.¹⁵ The evidence available to date shows that LNG ECP use does not prevent a fertilized egg from attaching to the uterine lining. The primary mechanism of action is to stop or disrupt ovulation; LNG ECP use may also prevent the sperm and egg from meeting.¹⁶

[Speroff_2011-6] Speroff, Leon; Darney, Philip D. (2011). "Special uses of oral contraception: emergency contraception, the progestin-only minipill". A clinical guide for contraception (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 153–166. ISBN 978-1-60831-610-6. p. 155:

Emergency postcoital contraception
Levonorgestrel
Mechanism and efficacy

[Belluck_2012b-7] Belluck, Pam (June 6, 2012). "No abortion role seen for morning-after pill". The New York Times. p. A1.
Belluck, Pam (June 6, 2012). "Drug's nickname may have aided politicization". The New York Times. p. A14.

[FIGO_2011-8] International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) and International Consortium for Emergency Contraception (ICEC) (April 4, 2011). "Mechanism of action: How do levonorgestrel-only emergency contraceptive pills (LNG ECPs) prevent pregnancy?" (PDF). London: International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics.

Levonorgestrel-only emergency contraceptive pills:
• Interfere with the process of ovulation;
• May possibly prevent the sperm and the egg from meeting.
Implications of the research:
• Inhibition or delay of ovulation is LNG ECPs principal and possibly only mechanism of action.
• Review of the evidence suggests that LNG-ECs cannot prevent implantation of a fertilized egg. Language on implantation should not be included in LNG ECP product labeling.
• The fact that LNG-ECs have no demonstrated effect on implantation explains why they are not 100% effective in preventing pregnancy, and are less effective the later they are taken. Women should be given a clear message that LNG-ECs are more effective the sooner they are taken.
• LNG ECPs do not interrupt a pregnancy (by any definition of the beginning of pregnancy). However, LNG ECPs can prevent abortions by reducing unwanted pregnancies.

[Belluck_2013-9] Belluck, Pam (November 26, 2013). "New birth control label counters lawsuit claim; European authorities found that a drug like Plan B One-Step cannot prevent fertilized eggs from implanting in the womb". The New York Times. Retrieved March 5, 2014.
HRA Pharma (November 2013). "NorLevo 1.5 mg tablet Patient Information Leaflet (PIL)" (PDF). Dublin: Irish Medicines Board. Retrieved March 5, 2014. NorLevo works by stopping your ovaries from releasing an egg. It cannot stop a fertilized egg from attaching to the womb.
HRA Pharma (November 2013). "NorLevo 1.5 mg tablet Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC)". Dublin: Irish Pharmaceutical Healthcare Association. Retrieved March 5, 2014. Missing or empty |url= (help); |chapter= ignored (help)
European Medicines Agency (January 24, 2014). "Review of emergency contraceptives started". London: European Medicines Agency. Retrieved March 5, 2014.

[Glasier_2011-10] Glasier, Anna; Cameron, Sharon T.; Blithe, Diana; Scherrer, Bruno; Mathe, Henri; Levy, Delphine; Gainer, Erin; Ulmann, Andre (October 2011). "Can we identify women at risk of pregnancy despite using emergency contraception? Data from randomized trials of ulipristal acetate and levonorgestrel". Contraception 84 (4): 363–367. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2011.02.009. PMID 21920190.

[Trussell_2014-11] Trussell, James; Raymond, Elizabeth G.; Cleland, Kelly (February 2014). "Emergency contraception: a last chance to prevent unintended pregnancy" (PDF). Princeton: Office of Population Research at Princeton University, Association of Reproductive Health Professionals. Retrieved April 9, 2014.

[12] HRA Pharma (November 2013). "NorLevo 1.5 mg tablet Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC)". Dublin: Irish Pharmaceutical Healthcare Association. Retrieved April 9, 2014. Missing or empty |url= (help); |chapter= ignored (help)

[13] Edgren RA, Stanczyk FZ (1999). "Nomenclature of the gonane progestins". Contraception 60 (6): 313. doi:10.1016/S0010-7824(99)00101-8. PMID 10715364.

[14] Sitruk-Ware R (2006). "New progestagens for contraceptive use". Hum Reprod Update 12 (2): 169–78. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmi046. PMID 16291771.

[ecp_worldwide-15] Trussell, James; Cleland, Kelly (2007-04-10). "Emergency Contraceptive Pills Worldwide". Princeton University. Retrieved 2007-05-28.

[16] ttp://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm358082.htm

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levonorgestrel