WordNet

of or relating to the stomach and intestines; "a gastrointestinal disorder" (同)GI
a highly infectious animal disease (especially cattle and sheep); it can be transmitted to people (同)splenic_fever
a disease of humans that is not communicable; caused by infection with Bacillus anthracis followed by septicemia

PrepTutorEJDIC

胃腸の,胃腸に影響する
炭疽(たんそ)熱(家畜の伝染病であるが人にもうつる)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/06/02 10:11:07」(JST)

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Anthrax is an acute disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Most forms of the disease are lethal, and it affects mostly animals. It is not contagious but can be transmitted through contact or consumption of infected meat. Effective vaccines against anthrax are available, and some forms of the disease respond well to antibiotic treatment.

Like many other members of the genus Bacillus, B. anthracis can form dormant endospores (often referred to as "spores" for short, but not to be confused with fungal spores) that are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades or even centuries.^[1] Such spores can be found on all continents, even Antarctica.^[2] When spores are inhaled, ingested, or come into contact with a skin lesion on a host, they may become reactivated and multiply rapidly.

Anthrax commonly infects wild and domesticated herbivorous mammals that ingest or inhale the spores while grazing. Ingestion is thought to be the most common route by which herbivores contract anthrax. Carnivores living in the same environment may become infected by consuming infected animals. Diseased animals can spread anthrax to humans, either by direct contact (e.g., inoculation of infected blood to broken skin) or by consumption of a diseased animal's flesh.

Anthrax does not spread directly from one infected animal or person to another; rather, it is spread by spores. These spores can be transported by clothing or shoes. The body of an animal that had active anthrax at the time of death can also be a source of anthrax spores. Owing to the hardiness of anthrax spores, and their ease of production in vitro, they are extraordinarily well suited to use (in powdered and aerosol form) as biological weapons. Such weaponization has been accomplished in the past by at least five state bioweapons programs — those of the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States, Russia, and Iraq — and has been attempted by several others.^[3]

Until the 20th century, anthrax infections killed hundreds of thousands of animals and people worldwide each year.^[4] French scientist Louis Pasteur developed the first effective vaccine for anthrax in 1881.^[5]^[6]^[7] As a result of over a century of animal vaccination programs, sterilization of raw animal waste materials, and anthrax eradication programs in United States, Canada, Russia, Eastern Europe, Oceania, and parts of Africa and Asia, anthrax infection is now relatively rare in domestic animals.^{[citation needed]} Anthrax is especially rare in dogs and cats, as is evidenced by a single reported case in the United States in 2001.^[8]

Anthrax outbreaks occur in some wild animal populations with some regularity.^[9] The disease is more common in countries without widespread veterinary or human public health programs. In the 21st century, anthrax is still a problem in less developed countries. An outbreak of anthrax in humans who had eaten meat from a dead carabao was reported in Cagayan Province in the Philippines in early 2010, with over 400 cases of illness and at least two fatalities.^[10]

B. anthracis bacterial spores are soil-borne. Because of their long lifespan, spores are present globally and remain at the burial sites of animals killed by anthrax for many decades. Disturbed grave sites of infected animals have caused reinfection over 70 years after the animal's interment.^[11]

1 Signs and symptoms
- 1.1 Pulmonary
- 1.2 Gastrointestinal
- 1.3 Cutaneous
2 Cause
- 2.1 Bacteria
- 2.2 Exposure
- 2.3 Mode of infection
3 Diagnosis
4 Prevention
- 4.1 Vaccines
- 4.2 Prophylaxis
5 Treatment
- 5.1 Antibiotics
- 5.2 Monoclonal antibodies
6 History
- 6.1 Etymology
- 6.2 Discovery
- 6.3 First vaccination
7 Society and culture
- 7.1 Site cleanup and decontamination
- 7.2 Biological warfare
8 2014 anthrax outbreak in India
9 See also
10 References
11 External links

Signs and symptoms

Pulmonary

Respiratory infection in humans is relatively rare and initially presents with cold or flu-like symptoms for several days, followed by pneumonia and severe (and often fatal) respiratory collapse. Historical mortality rates were over 85%,^[12] but, when treated early (seen in the 2001 anthrax attacks), observed case fatality rate dropped to 45%.^[12]^[13] Distinguishing pulmonary anthrax from more common causes of respiratory illness is essential to avoiding delays in diagnosis and thereby improving outcomes. An algorithm for this purpose has been developed.^[14]

A lethal infection is reported to result from inhalation of about 10,000–20,000 spores, though this dose varies among host species.^[15] As with all diseases, a wide variation in susceptibility is presumed, with evidence indicating some people may die from much lower exposures; little documented evidence is available to verify the exact or average number of spores needed for infection. Inhalational anthrax is also known as woolsorters' or ragpickers' disease. These professions were more susceptible to the disease due to their exposure to infected animal products. Other practices associated with exposure include the slicing up of animal horns for the manufacture of buttons, the handling of hair bristles used for the manufacturing of brushes, and the handling of animal skins. Whether these animal skins came from animals that died of the disease or from animals that had simply lain on ground with spores on it is unknown.

Gastrointestinal

Gastrointestinal (GI) infection in humans is most often caused by consuming anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by serious GI difficulty, vomiting of blood, severe diarrhea, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite.^[16] Lesions have been found in the intestines and in the mouth and throat. After the bacterium invades the bowel system, it spreads through the bloodstream throughout the body, while also continuing to make toxins. GI infections can be treated, but usually result in fatality rates of 25% to 60%, depending upon how soon treatment commences. This form of anthrax is the rarest form. In the United States, only two official cases have occurred, the first reported in 1942 by the CDC and the second reported in 2010 that was treated at the Massachusetts General Hospital.^[17]^[18]^[19] It is the only known case of survival from GI anthrax in the United States. An outbreak of anthrax among people who had eaten meat from a dead carabao was reported in Cagayan Province in the Philippines in early 2010, with over 400 cases of illness and at least two fatalities.^[10]

Cutaneous

Skin reaction to anthrax

A skin lesion caused by anthrax

Cutaneous anthrax, also known as Hide porter's disease, is the cutaneous (on the skin) manifestation of anthrax infection in humans. It presents as a boil-like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center (eschar). The black eschar often shows up as a large, painless necrotic ulcer (beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot, somewhat resembling bread mold) at the site of infection. In general, cutaneous infections form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure. Unlike bruises or most other lesions, cutaneous anthrax infections normally do not cause pain.^[20]

Cutaneous anthrax is typically caused when B. anthracis spores enter through cuts on the skin. This form is found most commonly when humans handle infected animals and/or animal products.

Cutaneous anthrax is rarely fatal if treated,^[13] because the infection area is limited to the skin, preventing the lethal factor, edema factor, and protective antigen from entering and destroying a vital organ. Without treatment, about 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to toxemia and death.

Cause

Bacteria

Color-enhanced scanning electron micrograph shows splenic tissue from a monkey with inhalational anthrax; featured are rod-shaped bacilli (yellow) and an erythrocyte (red).

Gram-positive anthrax bacteria (purple rods) in cerebrospinal fluid sample: If present, a Gram-negative bacterial species would appear pink. (The other cells are white blood cells).

Bacillus anthracis is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive, aerobic bacterium about 1 by 9 μm in size. It was shown to cause disease by Robert Koch in 1876 when he took a blood sample from an infected cow, isolated the bacteria and put them into a mouse.^[21] The bacterium normally rests in endospore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. Herbivores are often infected whilst grazing, especially when eating rough, irritant, or spiky vegetation: the vegetation has been hypothesized to cause wounds within the gastrointestinal tract permitting entry of the bacterial endospores into the tissues, though this has not been proven. Once ingested or placed in an open wound, the bacterium begins multiplying inside the animal or human and typically kills the host within a few days or weeks. The endospores germinate at the site of entry into the tissues and then spread by the circulation to the lymphatics, where the bacteria multiply.

The production of two powerful exotoxins and lethal toxin by the bacteria causes death. Veterinarians can often tell a possible anthrax-induced death by its sudden occurrence, and by the dark, nonclotting blood that oozes from the body orifices. Most anthrax bacteria inside the body after death are outcompeted and destroyed by anaerobic bacteria within minutes to hours post mortem. However, anthrax vegetative bacteria that escape the body via oozing blood or through the opening of the carcass may form hardy spores. One spore forms per one vegetative bacterium. The triggers for spore formation are not yet known, though oxygen tension and lack of nutrients may play roles. Once formed, these spores are very hard to eradicate.

The infection of herbivores (and occasionally humans) by the inhalational route normally proceeds as follows: Once the spores are inhaled, they are transported through the air passages into the tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. The spores are then picked up by scavenger cells (macrophages) in the lungs and are transported through small vessels (lymphatics) to the lymph nodes in the central chest cavity (mediastinum). Damage caused by the anthrax spores and bacilli to the central chest cavity can cause chest pain and difficulty in breathing. Once in the lymph nodes, the spores germinate into active bacilli that multiply and eventually burst the macrophages, releasing many more bacilli into the bloodstream to be transferred to the entire body. Once in the blood stream, these bacilli release three proteins named lethal factor, edema factor, and protective antigen. The three are not toxic by themselves, but the combination is incredibly lethal to humans.^[22] Protective antigen combines with these other two factors to form lethal toxin and edema toxin, respectively. These toxins are the primary agents of tissue destruction, bleeding, and death of the host. If antibiotics are administered too late, even if the antibiotics eradicate the bacteria, some hosts will still die of toxemia because the toxins produced by the bacilli remain in their system at lethal dose levels.

The lethality of the anthrax disease is due to the bacterium's two principal virulence factors: the poly-D-glutamic acid capsule, which protects the bacterium from phagocytosis by host neutrophils, and the tripartite protein toxin, called anthrax toxin. Anthrax toxin is a mixture of three protein components: protective antigen (PA), edema factor (EF), and lethal factor (LF). PA plus LF produces lethal toxin, and PA plus EF produces edema toxin. These toxins cause death and tissue swelling (edema), respectively.

To enter the cells, the edema and lethal factors use another protein produced by B. anthracis called protective antigen, which binds to two surface receptors on the host cell. A cell protease then cleaves PA into two fragments: PA₂₀ and PA₆₃. PA₂₀ dissociates into the extracellular medium, playing no further role in the toxic cycle. PA₆₃ then oligomerizes with six other PA₆₃ fragments forming a heptameric ring-shaped structure named a prepore. Once in this shape, the complex can competitively bind up to three EFs or LFs, forming a resistant complex.^[22] Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs next, providing the newly formed toxic complex access to the interior of the host cell. The acidified environment within the endosome triggers the heptamer to release the LF and/or EF into the cytosol.^[23] It is unknown how exactly the complex results in the death of the cell.

Edema factor is a calmodulin-dependent adenylate cyclase. Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP into cyclic AMP (cAMP) and pyrophosphate. The complexation of adenylate cyclase with calmodulin removes calmodulin from stimulating calcium-triggered signaling, thus inhibiting the immune response.^[22] To be specific, LF inactivates neutrophils (a type of phagocytic cell) by the process just described so they cannot phagocytose bacteria. Throughout history, lethal factor was presumed to caused macrophages to make TNF-alpha and interleukin 1, beta (IL1B). TNF-alpha is a cytokine whose primary role is to regulate immune cells, as well as to induce inflammation and apoptosis or programmed cell death. Interleukin 1, beta is another cytokine that also regulates inflammation and apoptosis. The overproduction of TNF-alpha and IL1B ultimately leads to septic shock and death. However, recent evidence indicates anthrax also targets endothelial cells that line serous cavities such as the pericardial cavity, pleural cavity, and the peritoneal cavity, lymph vessels, and blood vessels, causing vascular leakage of fluid and cells, and ultimately hypovolemic shock and septic shock.

Exposure

Occupational exposure to infected animals or their products (such as skin, wool, and meat) is the usual pathway of exposure for humans. Workers who are exposed to dead animals and animal products are at the highest risk, especially in countries where anthrax is more common. Anthrax in livestock grazing on open range where they mix with wild animals still occasionally occurs in the United States and elsewhere. Many workers who deal with wool and animal hides are routinely exposed to low levels of anthrax spores, but most exposure levels are not sufficient to develop anthrax infections. The body's natural defenses presumably can destroy low levels of exposure. These people usually contract cutaneous anthrax if they catch anything. Throughout history, the most dangerous form of inhalational anthrax was called woolsorters' disease because it was an occupational hazard for people who sorted wool. Today, this form of infection is extremely rare, as almost no infected animals remain. The last fatal case of natural inhalational anthrax in the United States occurred in California in 1976, when a home weaver died after working with infected wool imported from Pakistan. To minimize the chance of spreading the disease, the deceased was transported to UCLA in a sealed plastic body bag within a sealed metal container for autopsy.^[24]

In November 2008, a drum maker in the United Kingdom who worked with untreated animal skins died from anthrax.^[25] Gastrointestinal anthrax is exceedingly rare in the United States, with only one case on record, reported in 1942, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.^[17] In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred amongst heroin addicts in Glasgow, Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths.^[26] The source of the anthrax is believed to be dilution of the heroin with bone meal in Afghanistan.^[27]

Also during December 2009, the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services confirmed a case of gastrointestinal anthrax in an adult female. The CDC investigated the source and the possibility that it was contracted from an African drum recently used by the woman taking part in a drumming circle.^[28] The woman apparently inhaled anthrax [in spore form] from the hide of the drum. She became critically ill, but with gastrointestinal anthrax rather than inhaled anthrax, which made her unique in American medical history. The building where the infection took place was cleaned and reopened to the public and the woman recovered. Jodie Dionne-Odom, New Hampshire state epidemiologist, stated, "It is a mystery. We really don't know why it happened."^[29]

Mode of infection

Inhalational anthrax, mediastinal widening

Anthrax can enter the human body through the intestines (ingestion), lungs (inhalation), or skin (cutaneous) and causes distinct clinical symptoms based on its site of entry. In general, an infected human will be quarantined. However, anthrax does not usually spread from an infected human to a noninfected human. But, if the disease is fatal to the person's body, its mass of anthrax bacilli becomes a potential source of infection to others and special precautions should be used to prevent further contamination. Inhalational anthrax, if left untreated until obvious symptoms occur, may be fatal.

Anthrax can be contracted in laboratory accidents or by handling infected animals or their wool or hides. It has also been used in biological warfare agents and by terrorists to intentionally infect as exemplified by the 2001 anthrax attacks.

Diagnosis

Various techniques are used for the direct identification of B. anthracis in clinical material. Firstly, specimens may be Gram stained. Bacillus spp. are quite large in size (3 to 4 μm long), they grow in long chains, and they stain Gram-positive. To confirm the organism is B. anthracis, rapid diagnostic techniques such as polymerase chain reaction-based assays and immunofluorescence microscopy may be used.^[30]

All Bacillus species grow well on 5% sheep blood agar and other routine culture media. Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA-thallous acetate can be used to isolate B. anthracis from contaminated specimens, and bicarbonate agar is used as an identification method to induce capsule formation. Bacillus spp. usually grow within 24 hours of incubation at 35 °C, in ambient air (room temperature) or in 5% CO₂. If bicarbonate agar is used for identification, then the medium must be incubated in 5% CO₂. B. anthracis colonies are medium-large, gray, flat, and irregular with swirling projections, often referred to as having a "medusa head" appearance, and are not hemolytic on 5% sheep blood agar. The bacteria are not motile, susceptible to penicillin, and produce a wide zone of lecithinase on egg yolk agar. Confirmatory testing to identify B. anthracis includes gamma bacteriophage testing, indirect hemagglutination, and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay to detect antibodies.^[31] The best confirmatory precipitation test for anthrax is the Ascoli test.

Prevention

Vaccines

Vaccines against anthrax for use in livestock and humans have had a prominent place in the history of medicine, from Pasteur's pioneering 19th-century work with cattle (the second effective vaccine ever) to the controversial 20th century use of a modern product (BioThrax) to protect American troops against the use of anthrax in biological warfare. Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current FDA-approved US vaccine was formulated in the 1960s.

Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include acellular (United States) and live spore (Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general reactogenicity (erythema, induration, soreness, fever) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients.^[32] The American product, BioThrax, is licensed by the FDA and was formerly administered in a six-dose primary series at 0, 2, 4 weeks and 6, 12, 18 months, with annual boosters to maintain immunity. In 2008, the FDA approved omitting the week-2 dose, resulting in the currently recommended five-dose series.^[33] New second-generation vaccines currently being researched include recombinant live vaccines and recombinant subunit vaccines.

Prophylaxis

If a person is suspected as having died from anthrax, every precaution should be taken to avoid skin contact with the potentially contaminated body and fluids exuded through natural body openings. The body should be put in strict quarantine. A blood sample should then be collected and sealed in a container and analyzed in an approved laboratory to ascertain if anthrax is the cause of death. Then, the body should be incinerated. Microscopic visualization of the encapsulated bacilli, usually in very large numbers, in a blood smear stained with polychrome methylene blue (McFadyean stain) is fully diagnostic, though culture of the organism is still the gold standard for diagnosis. Full isolation of the body is important to prevent possible contamination of others. Protective, impermeable clothing and equipment such as rubber gloves, rubber apron, and rubber boots with no perforations should be used when handling the body. No skin, especially if it has any wounds or scratches, should be exposed. Disposable personal protective equipment is preferable, but if not available, decontamination can be achieved by autoclaving. Disposable personal protective equipment and filters should be autoclaved, and/or burned and buried. B. anthracis bacillii range from 0.5–5.0 μm in size. Anyone working with anthrax in a suspected or confirmed victim should wear respiratory equipment capable of filtering this size of particle or smaller. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – and Mine Safety and Health Administration-approved high-efficiency respirator, such as a half-face disposable respirator with a high-efficiency particulate air filter, is recommended.^[34] All possibly contaminated bedding or clothing should be isolated in double plastic bags and treated as possible biohazard waste. The victim should be sealed in an airtight body bag. Dead victims who are opened and not burned provide an ideal source of anthrax spores. Cremating victims is the preferred way of handling body disposal. No embalming or autopsy should be attempted without a fully equipped biohazard laboratory and trained, knowledgeable personnel.

Delays of only a few days may make the disease untreatable, so treatment should be started even without symptoms if possible contamination or exposure is suspected. Animals with anthrax often just die without any apparent symptoms. Initial symptoms may resemble a common cold—sore throat, mild fever, muscle aches, and malaise. After a few days, the symptoms may progress to severe breathing problems and shock, and ultimately death. Death can occur from about two days to a month after exposure, with deaths apparently peaking at about eight days after exposure.^[35] Antibiotic-resistant strains of anthrax are known.

Early detection of sources of anthrax infection can allow preventive measures to be taken. In response to the anthrax attacks of October 2001, the United States Postal Service (USPS) installed biodetection systems (BDSs) in their large-scale mail cancellation facilities. BDS response plans were formulated by the USPS in conjunction with local responders including fire, police, hospitals and public health. Employees of these facilities have been educated about anthrax, response actions, and prophylactic medication. Because of the time delay inherent in getting final verification that anthrax has been used, prophylactic antibiotic treatment of possibly exposed personnel must be started as soon as possible.

Treatment

Anthrax cannot be spread directly from person to person, but a person's clothing and body may be contaminated with anthrax spores. Effective decontamination of people can be accomplished by a thorough wash-down with antimicrobial soap and water. Waste water should be treated with bleach or other antimicrobial agent. Effective decontamination of articles can be accomplished by boiling them in water for 30 minutes or longer. Chlorine bleach is ineffective in destroying spores and vegetative cells on surfaces, though formaldehyde is effective. Burning clothing is very effective in destroying spores. After decontamination, there is no need to immunize, treat, or isolate contacts of persons ill with anthrax unless they were also exposed to the same source of infection.

Antibiotics

Early antibiotic treatment of anthrax is essential; delay significantly lessens chances for survival.

Treatment for anthrax infection and other bacterial infections includes large doses of intravenous and oral antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin), doxycycline, erythromycin, vancomycin, or penicillin. FDA-approved agents include ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin.^[36]

In possible cases of pulmonary anthrax, early antibiotic prophylaxis treatment is crucial to prevent possible death.

In May 2009, Human Genome Sciences submitted a Biologic License Application (BLA, permission to market) for its new drug, raxibacumab (brand name ABthrax) intended for emergency treatment of inhaled anthrax.^[37] If death occurs from anthrax, the body should be isolated to prevent possible spread of anthrax germs. Burial does not kill anthrax spores.

In recent years, many attempts have been made to develop new drugs against anthrax, but existing drugs are effective if treatment is started soon enough.

Monoclonal antibodies

On 14 December 2012, the US Food and Drug Administration approved raxibacumab injection to treat inhalational anthrax. Raxibacumab is a monoclonal antibody that neutralizes toxins produced by B. anthracis that can cause massive and irreversible tissue injury and death. A monoclonal antibody is a protein that closely resembles a human antibody, and identifies and neutralizes foreign material such as bacteria and viruses.^[38]

History

Etymology

The name comes from anthrax [άνθραξ], the Greek word for coal, because of the black skin lesions developed by victims with a cutaneous anthrax infection. It was discovered and analyzed by Robert Koch (1876).

Alternative names include Siberian plague, charbon, splenic fever, malignant edema, and woolsorter's disease.

Discovery

Robert Koch, a German physician and scientist, first identified the bacterium that caused the anthrax disease in 1875 in Wolsztyn.^[21]^[39] His pioneering work in the late 19th century was one of the first demonstrations that diseases could be caused by microbes. In a groundbreaking series of experiments, he uncovered the lifecycle and means of transmission of anthrax. His experiments not only helped create an understanding of anthrax, but also helped elucidate the role of microbes in causing illness at a time when debates still took place over spontaneous generation versus cell theory. Koch went on to study the mechanisms of other diseases and won the 1905 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the bacterium causing tuberculosis.

First vaccination

Louis Pasteur inoculating sheep against anthrax

In May 1881, Louis Pasteur performed a public experiment to demonstrate his concept of vaccination. He prepared two groups of 25 sheep, one goat, and several cows. The animals of one group were injected with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur twice, at an interval of 15 days; the control group was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the unvaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived.^[40]

The human vaccine for anthrax became available in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine instead of the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine used for veterinary purposes. An improved cell-free vaccine became available in 1970.^[41]

Society and culture

The virulent Ames strain, which was used in the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, has received the most news coverage of any anthrax outbreak. The Ames strain contains two virulence plasmids, which separately encode for a three-protein toxin, called anthrax toxin, and a polyglutamic acid capsule. Nonetheless, the Vollum strain, developed but never used as a biological weapon during the Second World War, is much more dangerous. The Vollum (also incorrectly referred to as Vellum) strain was isolated in 1935 from a cow in Oxfordshire. This same strain was used during the Gruinard bioweapons trials. A variation of Vollum known as "Vollum 1B" was used during the 1960s in the US and UK bioweapon programs. Vollum 1B is widely believed^[42] to have been isolated from William A. Boyles, a 46-year-old scientist at the U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories at Camp (later Fort) Detrick, Maryland, (precursor to USAMRIID), who died in 1951 after being accidentally infected with the Vollum strain. The Sterne strain, named after the Trieste-born immunologist Max Sterne, is an attenuated strain used as a vaccine, which contains only the anthrax toxin virulence plasmid and not the polyglutamic acid capsule expressing plasmid.

Site cleanup and decontamination

Anthrax spores can survive for very long periods of time in the environment after release. Chemical methods for cleaning anthrax-contaminated sites or materials may use oxidizing agents such as peroxides, ethylene oxide, Sandia Foam,^[43] chlorine dioxide (used in the Hart Senate Office Building), peracetic acid, ozone gas, hypochlorous acid, sodium persulfate, and liquid bleach products containing sodium hypochlorite. Nonoxidizing agents shown to be effective for anthrax decontamination include methyl bromide, formaldehyde, and metam sodium. These agents destroy bacterial spores. All of the aforementioned anthrax decontamination technologies have been demonstrated to be effective in laboratory tests conducted by the US EPA or others.^[44] A bleach solution for treating hard surfaces has been approved by the EPA.^[45]

Chlorine dioxide has emerged as the preferred biocide against anthrax-contaminated sites, having been employed in the treatment of numerous government buildings over the past decade. Its chief drawback is the need for in situ processes to have the reactant on demand.

To speed the process, trace amounts of a nontoxic catalyst composed of iron and tetroamido macrocyclic ligands are combined with sodium carbonate and bicarbonate and converted into a spray. The spray formula is applied to an infested area and is followed by another spray containing tert-butyl hydroperoxide.^[46]

Using the catalyst method, a complete destruction of all anthrax spores can be achieved in under 30 minutes.^[46] A standard catalyst-free spray destroys fewer than half the spores in the same amount of time. They can be heated and exposed to the harshest chemicals, but they do not easily die.^[vague]

Cleanups at a Senate office building, several contaminated postal facilities, and other US government and private office buildings showed decontamination to be possible, but it is time-consuming and costly. Clearing the Senate office building of anthrax spores cost $27 million, according to the Government Accountability Office. Cleaning the Brentwood postal facility outside Washington cost $130 million and took 26 months. Since then, newer and less costly methods have been developed.^[47]

Cleanup of anthrax-contaminated areas on ranches and in the wild is much more problematic. Carcasses may be burned, though it often takes up to three days to burn a large carcass and this is not feasible in areas with little wood. Carcasses may also be buried, though the burying of large animals deeply enough to prevent resurfacing of spores requires much manpower and expensive tools. Carcasses have been soaked in formaldehyde to kill spores, though this has environmental contamination issues. Block burning of vegetation in large areas enclosing an anthrax outbreak has been tried; this, while environmentally destructive, causes healthy animals to move away from an area with carcasses in search of fresh grass. Some wildlife workers have experimented with covering fresh anthrax carcasses with shadecloth and heavy objects. This prevents some scavengers from opening the carcasses, thus allowing the putrefactive bacteria within the carcass to kill the vegetative B. anthracis cells and preventing sporulation. This method also has drawbacks, as scavengers such as hyenas are capable of infiltrating almost any exclosure.

The experimental site at Gruinard Island is said to have been decontaminated with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater by the Ministry of Defence. It is not clear whether similar treatments had been applied to US test sites.

Biological warfare

Colin Powell giving a presentation to the United Nations Security Council

Anthrax spores can and have been used as a biological warfare weapon. Its first modern incidence occurred when Scandinavian rebels, supplied by the German General Staff, used anthrax with unknown results against the Imperial Russian Army in Finland in 1916.^[48] Anthrax was first tested as a biological warfare agent by Unit 731 of the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria during the 1930s; some of this testing involved intentional infection of prisoners of war, thousands of whom died. Anthrax, designated at the time as Agent N, was also investigated by the Allies in the 1940s.

A long history of practical bioweapons research exists in this area. For example, in 1942, British bioweapons trials^[49] severely contaminated Gruinard Island in Scotland with anthrax spores of the Vollum-14578 strain, making it a no-go area until it was decontaminated in 1990.^[50]^[51] The Gruinard trials involved testing the effectiveness of a submunition of an "N-bomb" — a biological weapon containing dried anthrax spores. Additionally, five million "cattle cakes" (animal feed pellets impregnated with anthrax spores) were prepared and stored at Porton Down for "Operation Vegetarian" — antilivestock attacks against Germany to be made by the Royal Air Force.^[52] The plan was for anthrax-based biological weapons to be dropped on Germany in 1944. However, the edible cattle cakes and the bomb were not used; the cattle cakes were incinerated in late 1945.

Weaponized anthrax was part of the US stockpile prior to 1972, when the United States signed the Biological Weapons Convention.^[53] President Nixon ordered the dismantling of US biowarfare programs in 1969 and the destruction of all existing stockpiles of bioweapons. In 1978–1979, the Rhodesian government used anthrax against cattle and humans during its campaign against black rebels.^[54] The Soviet Union created and stored 100 to 200 tons of anthrax spores at Kantubek on Vozrozhdeniya Island. They were abandoned in 1992 and destroyed in 2002.

American military and British Army personnel are routinely vaccinated against anthrax prior to active service in places where biological attacks are considered a threat.

Sverdlovsk incident (2 April 1979)

Despite signing the 1972 agreement to end bioweapon production, the government of the Soviet Union had an active bioweapons program that included the production of hundreds of tons of weapons-grade anthrax after this period. On 2 April 1979, some of the over one million people living in Sverdlovsk (now called Ekaterinburg, Russia), about 850 miles east of Moscow, were exposed to an accidental release of anthrax from a biological weapons complex located near there. At least 94 people were infected, of whom at least 68 died. One victim died four days after the release, 10 over an eight-day period at the peak of the deaths, and the last six weeks later. Extensive cleanup, vaccinations, and medical interventions managed to save about 30 of the victims.^[55] Extensive cover-ups and destruction of records by the KGB continued from 1979 until Russian President Boris Yeltsin admitted this anthrax accident in 1992. Jeanne Guillemin reported in 1999 that a combined Russian and United States team investigated the accident in 1992.^[55]^[56]^[57]

Nearly all of the night-shift workers of a ceramics plant directly across the street from the biological facility (compound 19) became infected, and most died. Since most were men, some NATO governments suspected the Soviet Union had developed a sex-specific weapon.^[58] The government blamed the outbreak on the consumption of anthrax-tainted meat, and ordered the confiscation of all uninspected meat that entered the city. They also ordered all stray dogs to be shot and people not have contact with sick animals. Also, a voluntary evacuation and anthrax vaccination program was established for people from 18–55.^[59]

To support the cover-up story, Soviet medical and legal journals published articles about an outbreak in livestock that caused GI anthrax in people having consumed infected meat, and cutaneous anthrax in people having come into contact with the animals. All medical and public health records were confiscated by the KGB.^[59] In addition to the medical problems the outbreak caused, it also prompted Western countries to be more suspicious of a covert Soviet bioweapons program and to increase their surveillance of suspected sites. In 1986, the US government was allowed to investigate the incident, and concluded the exposure was from aerosol anthrax from a military weapons facility.^[60] In 1992, President Yeltsin admitted he was "absolutely certain" that "rumors" about the Soviet Union violating the 1972 Bioweapons Treaty were true. The Soviet Union, like the US and UK, had agreed to submit information to the UN about their bioweapons programs, but omitted known facilities and never acknowledged their weapons program.^[58]

Anthrax bioterrorism

In theory, anthrax spores can be cultivated with minimal special equipment and a first-year collegiate microbiological education.^[61] To make large amounts of an aerosol form of anthrax suitable for biological warfare requires extensive practical knowledge, training, and highly advanced equipment.^{[citation needed]}

Concentrated anthrax spores were used for bioterrorism in the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, delivered by mailing postal letters containing the spores.^[62] The letters were sent to several news media offices and two Democratic senators: Tom Daschle of South Dakota and Patrick Leahy of Vermont. As a result, 22 were infected and five died.^[22] Only a few grams of material were used in these attacks and in August 2008, the US Department of Justice announced they believed that Dr. Bruce Ivins, a senior biodefense researcher employed by the United States government, was responsible.^[63] These events also spawned many anthrax hoaxes.

Due to these events, the U.S. Postal Service installed biohazard detection systems at its major distribution centers to actively scan for anthrax being transported through the mail.^[64]

Decontaminating mail

In response to the postal anthrax attacks and hoaxes, the Postal Service sterilized some mail using gamma irradiation and treatment with a proprietary enzyme formula supplied by Sipco Industries Ltd.^[65]

A scientific experiment performed by a high school student, later published in The Journal of Medical Toxicology, suggested a domestic electric iron at its hottest setting (at least 400 °F) used for at least 5 minutes should destroy all anthrax spores in a common postal envelope.^[66]

2014 anthrax outbreak in India

In October 2014, an outbreak of anthrax in a village in India allegedly killed seven people. The village was located in the Simdega district within the Indian state of Jharkhand. Indian government health personnel quarantined 30 houses as a result. Officials traced the anthrax spores to a cow, and found that people who had touched the dead cow or eaten from it became infected. The Indian equivalent of the CDC said at the time that the outbreak was one of the biggest in recent years in terms of deaths.^[67]

Government officials sent samples of the suspected anthrax to a laboratory in Delhi for confirmation testing. People with the victims reported that the victims vomited blood and complained of chest and stomach aches.^[68]

The Hindustan Times, an English-language newspaper in India,^[69] reported that village residents lynched a man who had treated some anthrax patients with herbs.^[70]

References

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^ Hudson, JA; Daniel, RM; Morgan, HW (2006). "Acidophilic and thermophilic Bacillus strains from geothermally heated antarctic soil". FEMS Microbiology Letters 60 (3): 279–282. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1989.tb03486.x.
^ Zilinskas, Raymond A. (1999), "Iraq's Biological Warfare Program: The Past as Future?", Chapter 8 in: Lederberg, Joshua (editor), Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat (1999), The MIT Press, pp. 137–158.
^ Cherkasskiy, B. L. (1999). "A national register of historic and contemporary anthrax foci". Journal of Applied Microbiology 87 (2): 192–195. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00868.x. PMID 10475946.
^ David V. Cohn (11 February 1996). "Life and Times of Louis Pasteur". School of Dentistry, University of Louisville. Archived from the original on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
^ Mikesell, P.; Ivins, B. E.; Ristroph, J. D.; Vodkin, M. H.; Dreier, T. M.; Leppla, S. H. (1983). "Plasmids, Pasteur, and Anthrax" (PDF). ASM News 49: 320–2.
^ "Robert Koch (1843–1910)". About.com. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
^ "Can Dogs Get Anthrax?" Canine Nation, 30 October 2001. Retrieved 17 February 2007.
^ Dragon, D. C.; Elkin, BT; Nishi, JS; Ellsworth, TR (1999). "A review of anthrax in Canada and implications for research on the disease in northern bison". Journal of Applied Microbiology 87 (2): 208–13. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00872.x. PMID 10475950.
^ ^a ^b "Travel Health Brief". Masta.edu.au. 8 March 2013. Retrieved 2014-03-17.
^ Guillemin 1999, p. 3
^ ^a ^b USAMRIID (2011). "USAMRIID's Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook" (PDF) (7th ed.). U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160900150. For the attacks of 2001, CFR was only 45%, while before this time CFRs for IA were >85% (Page 37)
^ ^a ^b Bravata, DM; Holty, JE; Liu, H; McDonald, KM; Olshen, RA; Owens, DK (February 2006). "Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005". Annals of Internal Medicine 144 (4): 270–80. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009. PMID 16490913.
^ Kyriacou, DN; Yarnold, PR; Stein, AC; Schmitt, BP; Soltysik, RC; Nelson, RR; Frerichs, RR; Noskin, GA et al. (February 2007). "Discriminating inhalational anthrax from community-acquired pneumonia using chest radiograph findings and a clinical algorithm". Chest 131 (2): 489–96. doi:10.1378/chest.06-1687. PMID 17296652.
^ "Anthrax, Then and Now". MedicineNet.com. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
^ "Gastrointestinal Anthrax". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 23 August 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
^ ^a ^b Sarah Schweitzer (4 January 2010). "Drummer's anthrax case spurs a public health hunt". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
^ "Case 25-2010 – A 24-year-old Woman with Abdominal Pain and Shock".
^ "Gastrointestinal Anthrax after an Animal-Hide Drumming Event --- New Hampshire and Massachusetts, 2009".
^ "Anthrax Q & A: Signs and Symptoms". Emergency Preparedness and Response. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
^ ^a ^b Koch, R (1876). "Untersuchungen über Bakterien: V. Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus anthracis" (PDF). Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen 2 (2): 277–310. [Investigations into bacteria: V. The etiology of anthrax, based on the ontogenesis of Bacillus anthracis], Cohns
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Pimental, RA; Christensen, KA; Krantz, BA; Collier, RJ (September 2004). "Anthrax toxin complexes: heptameric protective antigen can bind lethal factor and edema factor simultaneously". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 322 (1): 258–62. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.07.105. PMID 15313199.
^ Chvyrkova, I; Zhang, XC; Terzyan, S (August 2007). "Lethal Factor of Anthrax Toxin Binds Monomeric Form of Protective Antigen". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 360 (3): 690–5. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.06.124. PMC 1986636. PMID 17617379.
^ Suffin, S. C.; Carnes, W. H.; Kaufmann, A. F. (September 1978). "Inhalation anthrax in a home craftsman". Human Pathology 9 (5): 594–7. doi:10.1016/S0046-8177(78)80140-3. PMID 101438.
^ "Man who breathed in anthrax dies". BBC News. 2 November 2008.
^ "An Outbreak of Anthrax Among Drug Users in Scotland, December 2009 to December 2010. A report on behalf of the National Anthrax Outbreak Control Team" (PDF). HPS. December 2011. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
^ McNeil Jr, Donald G. (12 January 2010). "Anthrax: In Scotland, Six Heroin Users Die of Anthrax Poisoning". The New York Times.
^ "PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire) 26 December 2009". Promedmail.org. Retrieved 2014-03-17.
^ "PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire) 18 April 2010". Promedmail.org. Retrieved 2014-03-17.
^ Levinson, W. (2010). Review of Medical Microbiology and Immunology (11th ed.).
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^ Guillemin 1999, p. 27 chart of Russian deaths at Sverdlovsk, 1979
^ "CDC Anthrax Q & A: Treatment". Retrieved 4 April 2011.
^ "HGSI asks for FDA approval of anthrax drug ABthrax". Forbes. Associated Press. 21 May 2009.
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^ Madigan, M.; Martinko, J., eds. (2005). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (11th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-144329-1.
^ Decker, Janet (2003). Deadly Diseases and Epidemics, Anthrax. Chelesa House Publishers. pp. 27–28. ISBN 0-7910-7302-5.
^ "Anthrax and Anthrax Vaccine – Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases", National Immunization Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, January 2006. (PPT format)
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^ "Sandia decon formulation, best known as an anthrax killer, takes on household mold". 26 April 2007. Archived from the original on 5 September 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
^ "Remediating Indoor and Outdoor Environments". Retrieved 10 October 2013.
^ "Using Bleach to Destroy Anthrax and Other Microbes". Society for Applied Microbiology. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
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^ The Bulletin Vol. 57 – No. 36, 17 October 2003 PDF (332 KB)^{[verification needed]}
^ Bisher, Jamie, "During World War I, Terrorists Schemed to Use Anthrax in the Cause of Finnish Independence", Military History, August 2003, pp. 17–22. Anthrax Sabotage in Finland. Archived 25 October 2009.
^ [1]^{[dead link]}
^ Cole, Leonard A. (1990). Clouds of Secrecy: The Army's Germ Warfare Tests Over Populated Areas. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-8226-3001-X.
^ Robertson, David. "Saddam's germ war plot is traced back to one Oxford cow". The Times.
^ "UK planned to wipe out Germany with anthrax". Sunday Herald (Glasgow). 14 October 2001. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)
^ Croddy, Eric; Wirtz, James J. (2005). Weapons of mass destruction: an encyclopedia of worldwide policy, technology, and history. ABC-CLIO. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-85109-490-5.
^ David Martin (16 November 2001). "Traditional Medical Practitioners Seek International Recognition". Southern African News Features. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
^ ^a ^b Guillemin 1999, pp. 275–7
^ "Plague war: The 1979 anthrax leak". Frontline. PBS. Archived from the original on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
^ Michael C. Fishbein. "Anthrax – From Russia with Love". Infectious Diseases: Causes, Types, Prevention, Treatment and Facts. MedicineNet.com. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
^ ^a ^b Alibek, K. (1999). Biohazard. New York: Delta Publishing. ISBN 0-385-33496-6.
^ ^a ^b Meselson, M.; Guillemin, J.; Hugh-Jones, M.; Langmuir, A.; Popova, I.; Shelokov, A.; Yampolskaya, O. et al. (1994). "The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979". Science 266 (5188): 1202–1208. doi:10.1126/science.7973702. PMID 7973702.
^ Sternbach, G. (2002). "The History of Anthrax". Journal of Emergency Medicine 24 (4): 463–467. doi:10.1016/S0736-4679(03)00079-9. PMID 12745053.
^ Josh Barney (17 October 2012). "U.Va. Researchers Find Anthrax Can Grow and Reproduce in Soil". U. Va. Health System. University of Virginia site. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
^ Cole, Leonard A. (2009). The Anthrax Letters: A Bioterrorism Expert Investigates the Attacks That Shocked America—Case Closed?. SkyhorsePublishing. ISBN 978-1-60239-715-6.
^ Bohn, Kevin (6 August 2008). "U.S. officials declare researcher is anthrax killer". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 August 2008. Retrieved 7 August 2008.
^ "Cepheid, Northrop Grumman Enter Into Agreement for the Purchase of Anthrax Test Cartridges". Security Products. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
^ "Latest Facts Update". USPS. 12 February 2002. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
^ "Seventeen-year-old devises anthrax deactivator". NBC News. 23 February 2006.
^ Daw, Daniel (30 October 2014). "Anthrax outbreak causes quarantine of Indian village". BioPrepWatch (Chicago, Illinois). Retrieved 23 March 2015.
^ "Anthrax scare in Jharkhand's Simdega". The Times of India. 23 October 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
^ "About Us". HT Media. New Delhi, India: HT Media Limited. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
^ Herriman, Robert (31 October 2014). "India: Anthrax outbreak prompts quarantine of Simdega district village". Outbreak News Today (Tampa, Florida: The Global Dispatch, Inc.). Retrieved 23 March 2015.

External links

Anthrax, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
CDC Disease Info anthrax
US EPA National Homeland Security Research Center Publications
CDC - Anthrax - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
Q&A about Anthrax
Anthrax factsheet from European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
Louis Pasteur and the Anthrax Vaccine
Agent Fact Sheet: Anthrax, Center for Biosecurity
"Anthrax". CDC Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases. Retrieved 17 June 2005.
Bioterrorism Category A Agents – Information Resources
"Bacillus anthracis and anthrax". Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology (University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of Bacteriology). Archived from the original on 19 June 2005. Retrieved 17 June 2005.
"Focus on anthrax". Nature.com. Archived from the original on 12 July 2005. Retrieved 17 June 2005.
2008 Ivins Court Documents and DOJ Report in convenient form.
Bacillus anthracis genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID
3D electron microscopy structures of Anthrax toxin proteins at the EM Data Bank (EMDB)
Timeline resources and general review of anthrax in a security context at Biosecurity Commons, a wiki database

UpToDate Contents

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1. 炭疽の臨床症状および診断 clinical manifestations and diagnosis of anthrax
2. 炭疽菌の微生物学、病因、および疫学 microbiology pathogenesis and epidemiology of anthrax
3. 炭疽の治療 treatment of anthrax
4. 炭疽の予防 prevention of anthrax
5. 妊娠中の予防接種 immunizations during pregnancy

English Journal

A New Murine Model for Gastrointestinal Anthrax Infection.

Xie T1, Sun C, Uslu K, Auth RD, Fang H, Ouyang W, Frucht DM.Author information 1Laboratory of Cell Biology, Division of Monoclonal Antibodies, Office of Biotechnology Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, United States Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America.AbstractThe scientific community has been restricted by the lack of a practical and informative animal model of gastrointestinal infection with vegetative Bacillus anthracis. We herein report the development of a murine model of gastrointestinal anthrax infection by gavage of vegetative Sterne strain of Bacillus anthracis into the complement-deficient A/J mouse strain. Mice infected in this manner developed lethal infections in a dose-dependent manner and died 30 h-5 d following gavage. Histological findings were consistent with penetration and growth of the bacilli within the intestinal villi, with subsequent dissemination into major organs including the spleen, liver, kidney and lung. Blood cultures confirmed anthrax bacteremia in all moribund animals, with approximately 1/3 showing co-infection with commensal enteric organisms. However, no evidence of immune activation was observed during infection. Time-course experiments revealed early compromise of the intestinal epithelium, characterized by villus blunting and ulceration in the ileum and jejunum. A decrease in body temperature was most predictive of near-term lethality. Antibiotic treatment of infected animals 24 h following high-dose bacterial gavage protected all animals, demonstrating the utility of this animal model in evaluating potential therapeutics.
PloS one.PLoS One.2013 Jun 18;8(6):e66943. Print 2013.
The scientific community has been restricted by the lack of a practical and informative animal model of gastrointestinal infection with vegetative Bacillus anthracis. We herein report the development of a murine model of gastrointestinal anthrax infection by gavage of vegetative Sterne strain of Bac
PMID 23825096

Gastrointestinal anthrax: clinical experience in 5 cases.

Maddah G1, Abdollahi A, Katebi M.Author information 1Endoscopic and Minimally Invasive Surgery Research Center, Ghaem Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.AbstractBackground: Bacillus anthracis may usually cause three forms of anthrax: inhalation, gastrointestinal and cutaneous. The gastrointestinal (GI) anthrax develops after eating contaminated meat. Thus, in this paper were report 5 cases of intestinal anthrax. Case Presentation: We report a case series of intestinal anthrax, with history of consumption of raw or poorly cooked liver of sheep. One patient was female and 4 were males with the age range between 17 and 26 years. All patients were admitted with abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. Examination revealed abdominal distention on the right lower quadrant or diffuse tenderness. Laboratory examination in all patients showed leukocytosis with polymorphonuclear of >80%. Because of the unclear and questionable diagnosis, exploratory laparotomy was performed on several patients, invariably showing an abundant yellowish and thick ascitic fluid, soft hypertrophied mesenteric lymph nodes (3-5 cm) mostly in the ileocecal region, and substantial edema involving one segment of small bowel, cecum or ascending colon. Anthrax was diagnosed on the epidemiologic basis (ingestion history of half cooked liver of sheep) or microbiologic (microscopy with bacterial culture) and pathologic testing (post surgery in four patients or autopsy in one patient). With appropriate treatment, 4 survived and one patient died. Conclusion: Gastrointestinal anthrax is characterized by rapid onset, fever, ascitis and septicemia. The symptoms can mimic those seen in an acute surgical abdomen. Rapid diagnosis and prompt initiation of antibiotic therapy and then exploratory laparotomy (right hemicolectomy) are keys to survival.
Caspian journal of internal medicine.Caspian J Intern Med.2013 Spring;4(2):672-6.
Background: Bacillus anthracis may usually cause three forms of anthrax: inhalation, gastrointestinal and cutaneous. The gastrointestinal (GI) anthrax develops after eating contaminated meat. Thus, in this paper were report 5 cases of intestinal anthrax. Case Presentation: We report a case series of
PMID 24009958

In vivo murine and in vitro M-like cell models of gastrointestinal anthrax.

Tonry JH1, Popov SG, Narayanan A, Kashanchi F, Hakami RM, Carpenter C, Bailey C, Chung MC.Author information 1National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, 10650 Pyramid Place, Manassas, VA 20110, USA. jessica.chertow@nih.govAbstractBacillus anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax and is acquired by three routes of infection: inhalational, gastrointestinal and cutaneous. Gastrointestinal (GI) anthrax is rare, but can rapidly result in severe, systemic disease that is fatal in 25%-60% of cases. Disease mechanisms of GI anthrax remain unclear due to limited numbers of clinical cases and the lack of experimental animal models. Here, we developed an in vivo murine model of GI anthrax where spore survival was maximized through the neutralization of stomach acid followed by an intragastric administration of a thiabendazole paste spore formulation. Infected mice showed a dose-dependent mortality rate and pathological features closely mimicking human GI anthrax. Since Peyer's patches in the murine intestine are the primary sites of B. anthracis growth, we developed a human M (microfold)-like-cell model using a Caco-2/Raji B-cell co-culturing system to study invasive mechanisms of GI anthrax across the intestinal epithelium. Translocation of B. anthracis spores was higher in M-like cells than Caco-2 monolayers, suggesting that M-like cells may serve as an initial entry site for spores. Here, we developed an in vivo murine model of GI anthrax and an in vitro M-like cell model that could be used to further our knowledge of GI anthrax pathogenesis.
Microbes and infection / Institut Pasteur.Microbes Infect.2013 Jan;15(1):37-44. doi: 10.1016/j.micinf.2012.10.004. Epub 2012 Oct 26.
Bacillus anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax and is acquired by three routes of infection: inhalational, gastrointestinal and cutaneous. Gastrointestinal (GI) anthrax is rare, but can rapidly result in severe, systemic disease that is fatal in 25%-60% of cases. Disease mechanisms of GI anthr
PMID 23108317

Japanese Journal

Gastrointestinal anthrax : review of the literature

BEATTY ME
Arch Intern Med 163, 2527-2531, 2003
NAID 30005428588

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「腸炭疽」「胃腸炭疽」
関連記事	「gastrointestinal」

「腸炭疽」

Anthrax
	Photomicrograph of a Gram stain of the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, the cause of the anthrax disease
Classification and external resources
Specialty	Infectious disease
ICD-10	A22
ICD-9	022
DiseasesDB	1203
MedlinePlus	001325
eMedicine	med/148
Patient UK	Anthrax
MeSH	D000881

　　[★]

英: intestinal anthrax
同: 胃腸炭疽 gastrointestinal anthrax
関: 炭疽菌、炭疽

「胃腸炭疽」

　　[★]

英: gastrointestinal anthrax
関: 腸炭疽、炭疽、炭疽菌

「gastrointestinal」

　　[★]

adj.

胃腸の、胃腸管の、胃腸管系の
消化管の、消化器の、消化器系の

関: alimentary canal、alimentary system、alimentary tract、digestive organ、digestive system、digestive tract、gastrointestinal system、gastrointestinal tract、GI、GI tract、intestinal

[1] "Crossrail work stopped after human bones found on site". London Evening Standard.

[2] Hudson, JA; Daniel, RM; Morgan, HW (2006). "Acidophilic and thermophilic Bacillus strains from geothermally heated antarctic soil". FEMS Microbiology Letters 60 (3): 279–282. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1989.tb03486.x.

[3] Zilinskas, Raymond A. (1999), "Iraq's Biological Warfare Program: The Past as Future?", Chapter 8 in: Lederberg, Joshua (editor), Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat (1999), The MIT Press, pp. 137–158.

[Cherkasskiy1999-4] Cherkasskiy, B. L. (1999). "A national register of historic and contemporary anthrax foci". Journal of Applied Microbiology 87 (2): 192–195. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00868.x. PMID 10475946.

[5] David V. Cohn (11 February 1996). "Life and Times of Louis Pasteur". School of Dentistry, University of Louisville. Archived from the original on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.

[Mikesell1983-6] Mikesell, P.; Ivins, B. E.; Ristroph, J. D.; Vodkin, M. H.; Dreier, T. M.; Leppla, S. H. (1983). "Plasmids, Pasteur, and Anthrax" (PDF). ASM News 49: 320–2.

[7] "Robert Koch (1843–1910)". About.com. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.

[8] "Can Dogs Get Anthrax?" Canine Nation, 30 October 2001. Retrieved 17 February 2007.

[Dragon1999-9] Dragon, D. C.; Elkin, BT; Nishi, JS; Ellsworth, TR (1999). "A review of anthrax in Canada and implications for research on the disease in northern bison". Journal of Applied Microbiology 87 (2): 208–13. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00872.x. PMID 10475950.

[masta.edu.au-10] "Travel Health Brief". Masta.edu.au. 8 March 2013. Retrieved 2014-03-17.

[11] Guillemin 1999, p. 3

[:0-12] USAMRIID (2011). "USAMRIID's Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook" (PDF) (7th ed.). U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160900150. For the attacks of 2001, CFR was only 45%, while before this time CFRs for IA were >85% (Page 37)

[bravata-13] Bravata, DM; Holty, JE; Liu, H; McDonald, KM; Olshen, RA; Owens, DK (February 2006). "Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005". Annals of Internal Medicine 144 (4): 270–80. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009. PMID 16490913.

[kyriacou-14] Kyriacou, DN; Yarnold, PR; Stein, AC; Schmitt, BP; Soltysik, RC; Nelson, RR; Frerichs, RR; Noskin, GA et al. (February 2007). "Discriminating inhalational anthrax from community-acquired pneumonia using chest radiograph findings and a clinical algorithm". Chest 131 (2): 489–96. doi:10.1378/chest.06-1687. PMID 17296652.

[15] "Anthrax, Then and Now". MedicineNet.com. Retrieved 13 August 2008.

[16] "Gastrointestinal Anthrax". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 23 August 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2015.

[boston.com-17] Sarah Schweitzer (4 January 2010). "Drummer's anthrax case spurs a public health hunt". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 19 October 2014.

[nejm.com-18] "Case 25-2010 – A 24-year-old Woman with Abdominal Pain and Shock".

[cdc.gov-19] "Gastrointestinal Anthrax after an Animal-Hide Drumming Event --- New Hampshire and Massachusetts, 2009".

[CDC-Anthrax-20] "Anthrax Q & A: Signs and Symptoms". Emergency Preparedness and Response. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 19 April 2007.

[pages_277-310-21] Koch, R (1876). "Untersuchungen über Bakterien: V. Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus anthracis" (PDF). Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen 2 (2): 277–310. [Investigations into bacteria: V. The etiology of anthrax, based on the ontogenesis of Bacillus anthracis], Cohns

[Pimental04-22] Pimental, RA; Christensen, KA; Krantz, BA; Collier, RJ (September 2004). "Anthrax toxin complexes: heptameric protective antigen can bind lethal factor and edema factor simultaneously". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 322 (1): 258–62. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.07.105. PMID 15313199.

[23] Chvyrkova, I; Zhang, XC; Terzyan, S (August 2007). "Lethal Factor of Anthrax Toxin Binds Monomeric Form of Protective Antigen". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 360 (3): 690–5. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.06.124. PMC 1986636. PMID 17617379.

[Suffin1978-24] Suffin, S. C.; Carnes, W. H.; Kaufmann, A. F. (September 1978). "Inhalation anthrax in a home craftsman". Human Pathology 9 (5): 594–7. doi:10.1016/S0046-8177(78)80140-3. PMID 101438.

[25] "Man who breathed in anthrax dies". BBC News. 2 November 2008.

[26] "An Outbreak of Anthrax Among Drug Users in Scotland, December 2009 to December 2010. A report on behalf of the National Anthrax Outbreak Control Team" (PDF). HPS. December 2011. Retrieved 14 December 2013.

[27] McNeil Jr, Donald G. (12 January 2010). "Anthrax: In Scotland, Six Heroin Users Die of Anthrax Poisoning". The New York Times.

[promedmail.org-28] "PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire) 26 December 2009". Promedmail.org. Retrieved 2014-03-17.

[29] "PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire) 18 April 2010". Promedmail.org. Retrieved 2014-03-17.

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gastrointestinal anthrax