出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/03/09 11:32:24」(JST)
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| この項目では、一般的な概念としての教育について記述しています。その他の用法については「教育 (曖昧さ回避)」をご覧ください。 |
教育（きょういく、羅: educatio、英: education、仏: éducation, enseignement、独: Bildung, Erziehung、西: educación、葡: educação、露: Образование、亜: تعليم）は、教え育てることであり[1][2]、ある人間を望ましい状態にさせるために、こころとからだの両面に、意図的に働きかけることである[3]。教育を受ける人の知識を増やしたり、技能を身につけさせたり、人間性を養ったりしつつ、その人が持つ能力を引き出そうとすること[4]である。
そもそも教育とは何か? ということに関しては諸説があるが、 しばしば、教育とは理解を促したり技術を発展させるために、人が生まれたままの状態では持たない知識を伝播し、技能・態度などを身につけさせたり、教え育てたり訓練することである、などと説明される。また社会的機能に注目しつつ、それによって社会が維持・発展することを目指した活動である、と説明されることもある。また、人間に他から意図をもって働きかけ、望ましい姿に変化させ、価値を実現する活動である、とも説明される。教育を与える側が、ある価値観を是認し、支持し、内面化することを教育を受ける者に押し付けるように伝えることによって共通の価値観の維持強化を図ること、つまり、教育を与える側が望む共通の価値の実現を目指す活動のことを指す、ともされることがある。
狭義では、知識の伸張（知育）、道徳の伸張（徳育）、身体の伸長（体育）の3つを中核として捉え[要出典]、洗脳・訓練・条件づけなども含まれる。
教育の定義には諸説あるが大別すると以下のようになる[要出典]。
語源・語義からの定義の例を挙げると、「英語: education」や「フランス語: éducation」は、ラテン語: ducere（連れ出す・外に導き出す）という語に由来することから、「教育とは、人の持つ諸能力を引き出すこと」とする。
またリチャード・ピーターズは、「教育を受けた者」という概念の内在的な意味を探求し、自由教育（教養教育）の立場から「教育」を次の3つの基準を満たす活動として限定的に定義した[5]。
一般に教育は、行われる場に応じて学校教育・社会教育・家庭教育の3つに大きく分けて把握されている[6]。
上記のありがちな3分類以外にも、企業が従業員（社員）の職業人としての資質を高めるために行う教育・訓練や、（従業員の）人間性を高めたり市民性 en:citizenship（自分が社会・共同体の一員だとの自覚を持ちそれに貢献すること）を育てるために行っている教育は「企業内教育」と呼ばれている[6]。
ひとりの子供が、家庭教育と学校教育の両方を受けている[6]。
従来は、学校教育と社会教育は、行政上の制度としても別になっており、また教育を受ける人も教育を行う人も異なっていたため、それぞれ独自の方針を持つものとして機能したので上記のような概念枠で理解しても特には問題は無かったが、近年では社会が生涯学習社会へと方針を転換してきているため（つまり一旦学校を卒業した人々もその後に本格的に学習を行うようになってきたため）状況が変化してきている[6]。生涯学習が広まってきたことにより、学校が（例えば大学や大学院が）ある程度以上の年齢の人々の生涯学習の場として活用されることが増え、それに伴い、学校側も従来のような（20代までの）若い人だけを念頭に置いた教育では学び手の要求にこたえられなくなってきており[6]、変わりつつあるためである。
なお、離れた場所に居る者に対して行われる教育は、遠隔教育（遠隔地教育）・通信教育という。
教育の受け手は、児童・生徒（英: pupil）または学生（英: student）、あるいは学習者・学び手（英: learner）と言い、より堅い言葉では被教育者（英: educatee）とも呼ばれる[8][9]。
教育の受け手が乳児の場合には、その教育は乳児教育（保育）と呼ばれ、幼児の場合は幼児教育、児童の場合には児童教育、成人である場合は成人教育と呼ばれる。また、教育の対象が、障害者など学習や生活の上で特別な支援を必要とする者である場合は、特別支援教育という。
なお、教育の対象は他者であるとは限らず、自分自身であることもあり、その場合には自己教育（英: self-education, autodidacticism）と言うことがある。
教育を行う者のことを一般に教育者（英: educator）・教師（英: teacher）などという[10]。
多くの国において、国民に基礎的な教育を保証するために、公教育として数年にわたる義務教育が制度化しており、初等教育と中等教育の一部が、児童・生徒の権利であるとされたり、義務とされている。[11]日本でもこれは実施されている。
教育の目的（教育目的又は教育目標）をどうとらえるかで2つの立場が存在してきた。
道徳主義の教育目的では、伝統的に、個人の発達・幸福のためとするか、社会の維持・発展のためとするかで論争がある。前者は教養教育・自由教育の立場で、人が一人の人間として豊かで幅広い教養を身につけることで、人が人間らしく生きることができるという考えである。こうした考え方は、一部の中等教育・高等教育でリベラルアート教育として実現している。他方、教育の目的を社会的な必要という観点から捉え、実学を重視する立場もある。専門学校・専門職大学院などはこの現れである。
教育を行う理由のことを、教育の正当性と呼ぶことがある[要出典]。これには、教育の必要性と教育の可能性の二面から論じられることが多い。
なぜ教育が欠けてはならないのかという問題について、イマヌエル・カントは「人は教育によって人間になる」と述べ、人間らしく生きるために教育が必要であると論じた[14]。学びの意欲を喪失した若者が多いといわれる現代において、なぜ教育が必要かが改めて問われる状況にある。
しかし教育が必要であるとしても、それが人間にとって可能なものでなければ、教育はやはり正当性を失うことになる。例えば、プラトンは「徳は教えうるか？」と問い、哲人統治者としての自然的素養を重視した[15]。現在において教育可能性が問題となるのは、「教育がいかに可能か」という教育方法の問題や、「教育がどこまで可能か」という教育の限界の問題としてである場合が多い[要出典]。
「教育哲学」も参照
詳細は「教育史」を参照
教育に関する歴史を教育史と呼ぶ。家庭教育や社会教育も念頭に置けば、教育は人類の有史以来存在してきたものと考えることができる。
詳細は「西洋教育史」を参照
制度化された教育について、西洋では古代ギリシアまで遡ることが一般的である。近代国家による教育が普及したのは、産業革命以降の労働者の必要性からであり、多くの国で国民に対する一般教育が公教育として施行されるようになったのは、20世紀に入ってからである。
詳細は「日本教育史」を参照
日本で初めて教育制度が作られたのは、701年の大宝律令とされる。その後も貴族や武士を教育する場が存在し、江戸時代に入ると一般庶民の学ぶ寺子屋が設けられるようになった。初等教育から高等教育までの近代的な学校制度が確立するのは明治時代である。第二次世界大戦後の教育は、日本国憲法と教育基本法に基づいている。
詳細は「教育制度」を参照
教育に関する制度を教育制度といい、主に学校教育が中心となるが、社会教育など学校外の制度もある。教育制度は、学校制度や義務教育の年限など、国によって異なっている。
詳細は「教育行政」を参照
教育に関する行政を教育行政、教育に関する政策を教育政策と呼ぶ。日本の教育政策については、日本の教育政策と教育制度を参照。教育政策の課題は国によって大きく異なっているが、先進国においてはおおむね社会的格差の解消や国際的な経済競争・知識社会化への対応などが、発展途上国の多くでは識字率・就学率の向上が、求められている。
詳細は「教育法」を参照
教育に関する法律を教育法と言う。条例等も含める場合には、教育法令と呼ぶ。
詳細は「教育機関」を参照
教育の行われる施設を教育施設又は教育機関と呼ぶ。学校のみならず、図書館・博物館・美術館、公園、劇場、映画館のような娯楽施設も、広く社会において教育的な機能を果す施設を含めて考えられる。基本的な生活態度の養成という観点からは、家庭や地域社会での教育も含まれる。
詳細は「学校」を参照
教育施設の中でも専ら教育のために設立される施設を学校と呼ぶ。学校において行われる教育を学校教育と呼び、その就業年数や義務の有無など学校に関する制度を学校制度と言う。
教育のために用いられる素材は、教材と呼ばれる。伝統的な教科書や黒板や従来から語学学習などで用いられてきた音声教材に加えて、近年では科学技術の発達に伴い、コンピュータ、マルチメディア、インターネットなどを積極的に活用する動きが高まっている。また、電子黒板やインターラクティブ・ホワイトボードなどの最新機器も用いられ始めている。
詳細は「教育課程」を参照
教育において、その実践上の目的・内容・方法等をまとめたものを教育課程又はカリキュラムと呼ぶ。教育課程は、通例では初等教育・中等教育・高等教育の3段階に分け、この前に保育や幼児教育を位置づけることもある。
知育・徳育・体育の分野がある。正確な知識という共通基盤がなければ正しいコミュニケーションや共同生活すら図れないし、またそうした知識をいかに活用していくかという、思考力・コミュニケーション能力・創造力等の技能も不可欠である。さらに、知識や技能のみならず、社会生活を営む上での基本的な道徳を教育することに価値を置く見解や、社会で生き抜く体力を重視する見解もある。教育の内容について詳しくは、「教科」を参照。また、新しい教育内容として、人権教育、環境教育、国際理解教育、性教育がある。
教育方法に関しては大きく二つの立場が対立している。
一つは、学問の体系的な構造に従って系統的に教育を行うべきだという、系統学習の立場である。これは特に教育段階が上がるにつれて教育内容が学問の体系に近づく。
その一方で、特に幼児・児童への教育を中心として、こどもの自発的な学びを尊重すべきだとする問題解決学習（進歩主義・児童中心主義・経験主義）の考えも強い。日本の小学校における生活科や小中学校の総合的な学習の時間は、この考えに影響を受けたものであると言われている。
教育を行った結果としてどのようなことが起こるかについては、個人に与える影響と社会に与える影響の両面がある。エミール・デュルケームは、近代における教育の機能を「方法的社会化」であると捉え、政治社会と個々人の双方が必要とする能力・態度の形成であるとした[16]。なお、教育が適切な効果・機能を果していない場合には、「教育の機能不全」、教育がむしろ否定的な効果・機能を果している場合には「教育の逆機能」と呼ばれることがある。
教育を受けた個人に起こる変化を教育効果と呼ぶ。一般的には学力の向上が思い浮かべられることがある。現在の日本では、学校教育に関わる学力を紙面の試験で測定できるもの、とりわけ偏差値で計る傾向が強く、このことに対して強い批判が長年存在しつつも、受験現場では不可欠とされている実態がある。
教育効果に関する議論は、教育内容や教育方法などを改善する上で欠かせない一方、教育目的を測定可能なもののみに置き換えがちな点には注意が必要である。
教育が社会に及ぼす効果として、経済・政治・社会などに与えるものが議論されている。経済面においては、進学率の上昇による労働者の質的向上が経済成長を押し上げる効果があることが指摘されている（教育の経済効果）[17]。
学力以外でも収入面での効果が、比較的多くの人々の関心を集めている。例えば、”学歴が上がるほど生涯賃金も上がるだろう”との思い込みは多くの人が持っているが、実際のデータを見てみると学歴による生涯賃金の差は比較的小さい[24]。単年度の見かけの給与はともかくとして、学校に通うことで働いて収入を得る年数が減る分、生涯賃金があまり増えないのである。特に大学院などは、（全日制で）大学院まで進むと、統計的に見て大卒よりもかえって生涯賃金は下がる場合が多い、とのデータもある。一般論として言えば日本の企業は大学院修了者をあまり歓迎していないのである。日本においては、教育を投資と考える傾向は低い。また、現在の日本の社会では、「勉強して良い大学に入れば、良い企業に入れる」という仕組みはすでに崩れてきたことが幾人かの論者によって指摘されるている[25]。例えば関東圏で例を挙げると、今や東京大学や他の六大学などを卒業していてもフリーターになってしまう可能性もかなりあるのである。
詳細は「教育問題」を参照
教育に関わる問題、とりわけ教育が社会に関わる問題のことを教育問題という。特にその深刻さを強調する場合には、教育病理または教育危機とも呼ぶことがある。詳しくは教育社会学の項目も参照。
教育活動は複数の人間が集まって行われる以上、そこに必然的に社会が生まれる。学校や学級などはその例である。そこにおいて何らかの問題が生じることがあり、いじめ・不登校・学級崩壊、教員と児童・生徒・学生との権力関係などがここに含まれる。
政治・経済・地域社会・文化などは教育活動に大きな影響を与えているが、こうした影響が問題を生じさせることがある。例えば、国の諸政策やマスコミによる報道などは、学校教育はもちろん家庭教育や社会教育にも大きな影響を与えている。
学校教育を含む教育活動は、社会一般に対しても大きな影響を与える。狭義で教育問題とは、この局面で生じる問題を指すことがある。学歴・管理教育・偏差値・非行・少年犯罪・学力低下など学習者、特にこどもを通じて結果として社会に与える影響の他にも、教師のあり方や学校・大学のあり方、学閥などの問題として、教育問題は広く社会病理の一領域をなしている。
詳細は「教育学」を参照
教育を研究の対象とする学問を教育学と言う。教育学は、哲学・心理学・社会学・歴史学などの研究方法を利用して、教育とそれに関連する種々の事物・理念を研究する。教育哲学・教育社会学・教育心理学・教育史学などの基礎的な分野のほか、教育方法論・臨床教育学・教科教育学などの実践的分野がある。各国における教育学のあり方は、その国の教員養成のあり方とも密接に関わっている場合が多い。
高等動物では、教育またはしつけに近い行動が見られる例がある。猫などの肉食獣では子供に狩りの練習をさせるために弱らせた獲物をあてがうなどはその代表的なものである。詳細は調教を参照。
| ウィクショナリーに教育の項目があります。 |
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ここでは、教育全般に関わる文献のみ挙げる。
Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, and habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through teaching, training, or research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of others, but may also be autodidactic.[1] Any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. Education is commonly divided into stages such as preschool, primary school, secondary school and then college, university or apprenticeship.
A right to education has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Article 13 of the United Nations' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognises the right of everyone to an education.[2] Although education is compulsory in most places up to a certain age, attendance at school often isn't, and a minority of parents choose home-schooling, e-learning or similar for their children.
Etymologically, the word "education" is derived from the Latin ēducātiō ("A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing") from ēdūcō ("I educate, I train") which is related to the homonym ēdūcō ("I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect") from ē- ("from, out of") and dūcō ("I lead, I conduct").[3]
Education can take place in formal or informal educational settings.
Education began in the earliest prehistory, as adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom.[4]
Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe.[5] The city of Alexandria in Egypt, founded in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. There mathematician Euclid and anatomist Herophilus; constructed the great Library of Alexandria and translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476.[6]
In China, Confucius (551-479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was China's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan and Vietnam. He gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era.[citation needed]
After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities.[6] During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation;[7] and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research.[8] The University of Bologne is considered the oldest continually operating university.
Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.
The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilisations — as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating works from Europe like Euclid's Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe.
In most countries today, education is compulsory for all children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.[9]
Systems of schooling involve institutionalized teaching and learning in relation to a curriculum, which itself is established according to a predetermined purpose of the schools in the system. School systems are sometimes also based on religions, giving them different curricula.
Preschools provide education up to the age of between 4 and 8 when children enter primary education. Also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the USA, where kindergarten is a term used for primary education.
Preschool education is important because it can give a child the edge in a competitive world and education climate.[citation needed] While children who do not receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and designs when they begin their formal education they will be behind the children who already possess that knowledge. The true purpose behind kindergarten is "to provide a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them."[10]
This period of education is very important in the formative years of the child. Teachers with special skills and training are needed at this time to nurture the children to develop their potentials.[citation needed]
Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 5–7 years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.[11] Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school.
In India, compulsory education spans over twelve years, out of which children receive elementary education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training.
In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession.
The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both employers and employees, for the improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment.
In Europe, grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves have an even longer history.
Community colleges offer nonresidential junior college offering courses to people living in a particular area.
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.
University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be private and independent like Yale University; public and state-governed like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education; or independent but state-funded like the University of Virginia. A number of career specific courses are now available to students through the Internet.
A liberal arts institution can be defined as a "college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum."[12] Although what is known today as the liberal arts college began in Europe,[13] the term is more commonly associated with universities in the United States.[citation needed]
Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts.
In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. Special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities in its early years, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.[14]
While considered "alternative" today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling and unschooling. Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open classroom schools.
To a greater or lesser degree, ideas from these experiments and challenges to the system may in time be adopted by the mainstream, as to a large degree has happened with kindergarten, an experimental approach to early childhood education developed by Friedrich Fröbel in 19th century Germany. Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau; the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison and Ivan Illich.
Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students."[15]
Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners this includes language acquisition, cultural norms and manners. Informal learning for young people is an ongoing process that also occurs in a variety of places, such as out of school time, in youth programs at community centers and media labs.
Informal learning usually takes place outside educational establishments, does not follow a specified curriculum and may originate accidentally, sporadically, in association with certain occasions, from changing practical requirements. It is not necessarily planned to be pedagogically conscious, systematic and according to subjects, but rather unconsciously incidental, holistically problem-related, and related to situation management and fitness for life. It is experienced directly in its "natural" function of everyday life and is often spontaneous.
The concept of 'education through recreation' was applied to childhood development in the 19th century.[16] In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities.[17] L.P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, described education through recreation: "A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well."[18] Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of life's activities.[19] The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students.[19]
Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a contemplative, absorbing process, of "learning on your own" or "by yourself", or as a self-teacher. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. While some may have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician).
Higher education, in particular, is undergoing a transition towards open education; e-learning alone is currently growing at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.[20] Open education is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its efficiency and results compared to traditional methods.[21] Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Open education is generally significantly cheaper than traditional campus based learning and in many cases even free. Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX. Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U. Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, and Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press.[22] Many people despite favorable studies on effectiveness may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons.[23]
The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal "academic value" to traditional degrees.[24] Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials.[citation needed]
There has been a culture forming around distance learning for people who are looking to enjoy the shared social aspects that many people value in traditional on-campus education, which is not often directly offered from open education.[citation needed] Examples of this are people in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege.
Since 1909, the ratio of children in the developing world going to school has increased. Before then, a small minority of boys attended school. By the start of the 21st century, the majority of all children in most regions of the world attended school. There are 73 million children,[clarification needed] mostly female children in poor families, who did not start elementary school. There are more than 200 million children, mostly females from poor families, who did not go to secondary school.[25] Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain.[26] Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to receiving more funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue.[26] Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa.[27] Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the recurrent costs involved. There is economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education.[citation needed]
A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole.[28] Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principles:
Nearly every country now has Universal Primary Education.
Similarities — in systems or even in ideas — that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Program[29] facilitates exchanges across European universities. The Soros Foundation[30] provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes.
Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. There are charities dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials, for example, the One Laptop per Child project.
The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations.
In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an "e-school program" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years.[31] An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com,[32] started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.
India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students. In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organization launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the country's population at a greatly reduced cost.[33]
Research into low cost private schools found that over 5 years to July 2013, debate around low-cost private schools to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarised and finding growing coverage in international policy.[34] The polarisation was due to disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reaching disadvantaged groups, provide quality education, supporting or undermining equality, and are financially sustainable. The report examined the main challenges that development organisations which support LCPSs have encountered.[34] Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia and is attributed to excess demand. These surveys also found concern for:
The report said there were some cases of successful voucher and subsidy programmes; evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread.[34] Addressing regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge. Emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPSs, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor.
Individual purposes for pursuing education can vary. The understanding of the goals and means of educational socialization processes may also differ according to the sociological paradigm used.
In the early years of schooling, the focus is generally around developing basic interpersonal communication and literacy skills in order to further ability to learn more complex skills and subjects. After acquiring these basic abilities, education is commonly focused towards individuals gaining necessary knowledge and skills to improve ability to create value and a livelihood for themselves.[36] Satisfying personal curiosities (education for the sake of itself) and desire for personal development, to "better oneself" without career based reasons for doing so are also common reasons why people pursue education and use schools.[37]
Education is often understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Learners can also be motivated by their interest in the subject area or specific skill they are trying to learn. Learner-responsibility education models are driven by the interest of the learner in the topic to be studied.[38]
Education is often perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities[39] with the purpose of developing every individual to their full potential.
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities.
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
There has been much interest in learning modalities and styles over the last two decades. The most commonly employed learning modalities are:[40]
Other commonly employed modalities include musical, interpersonal, verbal, logical, and intrapersonal.
Dunn and Dunn[41] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli[42] recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner[43] identified a wide range of modalities in his Multiple Intelligences theories. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter, based on the works of Jung,[44] focus on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator[45] follows a similar but more simplified approach.
Some theories propose that all individuals benefit from a variety of learning modalities, while others suggest that individuals may have preferred learning styles, learning more easily through visual or kinesthetic experiences.[46] A consequence of the latter theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.[47] Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as VAK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning.[48][49] Recent research has argued "there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."[50]
As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its problems (...) its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy".[51] "The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline."[52] As such, it is both part of the field of education and a field of applied philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and the philosophical approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or analytic) to address questions in and about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as well as the process of learning, to name a few.[53] For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between education theory and practice.
In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.
An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university–or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences.[54]
Educational institutions may incorporate fine arts as part of K-12 grade curricula or within majors at colleges and universities as electives. The various types of fine arts are music, dance, and theater.[55]
Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are often called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professors, depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.[56][57] With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified. A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of teachers (SETS), but these evaluations have been criticized for being counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias.[38]
It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth.[58] Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital". Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions[59] and the role of cognitive skills.[60]
At the level of the individual, there is a large literature, generally related to the work of Jacob Mincer,[61] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling.[62][63] Some students who have indicated a high potential for learning, by testing with a high intelligence quotient, may not achieve their full academic potential, due to financial difficulties.[citation needed]
Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production on the other.[64]
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| リンク元 | 「教育」「educational」「teach」「teaching」「educate」 |