utter a characteristic sound; "The cat was crying"
shed tears because of sadness, rage, or pain; "She cried bitterly when she heard the news of his death"; "The girl in the wheelchair wept with frustration when she could not get up the stairs" (同)weep
bring into a particular state by crying; "The little boy cried himself to sleep"
a loud utterance; often in protest or opposition; "the speaker was interrupted by loud cries from the rear of the audience" (同)outcry, call, yell, shout, vociferation
a loud utterance of emotion (especially when inarticulate); "a cry of rage"; "a yell of pain" (同)yell
a fit of weeping; "had a good cry"
the characteristic utterance of an animal; "animal cries filled the night"
proclaim or announce in public; "before we had newspapers, a town crier would cry the news"; "He cried his merchandise in the market square" (同)blazon out
demand immediate action; "This situation is crying for attention"
conspicuously and outrageously bad or reprehensible; "a crying shame"; "an egregious lie"; "flagrant violation of human rights"; "a glaring error"; "gross ineptitude"; "gross injustice"; "rank treachery" (同)egregious, flagrant, glaring, gross, rank
the process of shedding tears (usually accompanied by sobs or other inarticulate sounds); "I hate to hear the crying of a child"; "she was in tears" (同)weeping, tears
"Cry" redirects here. For other uses, see Cry (disambiguation).
This article is about the human shedding of tears. For other uses, see Crying (disambiguation).
A two-year-old girl crying
Crying is the shedding of tears (or welling of tears in the eyes) in response to an emotional state, pain or a physical irritation of the eye. Emotions that can lead to crying include anger, happiness, or sadness. The act of crying has been defined as "a complex secretomotor phenomenon characterized by the shedding of tears from the lacrimal apparatus, without any irritation of the ocular structures", instead, giving a relief which protects from conjunctivitis.[1] A related medical term is lacrimation, which also refers to non-emotional shedding of tears. Various forms of crying are known as sobbing, weeping, wailing, whimpering, bawling, and blubbering.[2]
For crying to be described as sobbing, it usually has to be accompanied by a set of other symptoms, such as slow but erratic inhalation, occasional instances of breath holding and muscular tremor.
A neuronal connection between the lacrimal gland (tear duct) and the areas of the human brain involved with emotion has been established. Scientists debate over whether humans are the only animals that produce tears in response to emotional states.[3][4] Charles Darwin wrote in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals that the keepers of Indian elephants in the London Zoo told him that their charges shed tears in sorrow.
Tears produced during emotional crying have a chemical composition which differs from other types of tears. They contain significantly greater quantities of the hormones prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and Leu-enkephalin,[5] and the elements potassium and manganese.[3]
Contents
1Function
2Biological response
3Frequency of crying
4Types of crying in infants
5Categorizing dimensions
6Religious views on crying
7Lacrimal system
8Disorders related to crying
9References
10Further reading
11External links
Function
Two women weep at a funeral.
Two people cry reacting to the Ogatsutama powder mill explosion in 1953.
The question of the function or origin of emotional tears remains open. Theories range from the simple, such as response to inflicted pain, to the more complex, including nonverbal communication in order to elicit altruistic behavior from others.[6] Some have also claimed that crying can serve several biochemical purposes, such as relieving stress.[7] Crying is believed to be an outlet or a result of a burst of intense emotional sensations, such as agony, surprise or joy. This theory could explain why people cry during cheerful events, as well as very painful events.[8]
Individuals tend to remember the positive aspects of crying, and may create a link between other simultaneous positive events, such as resolving feelings of grief. Together, these features of memory reinforce the idea that crying helped the individual.[9]
In Hippocratic and medieval medicine, tears were associated with the bodily humors, and crying was seen as purgation of excess humors from the brain.[10] William James thought of emotions as reflexes prior to rational thought, believing that the physiological response, as if to stress or irritation, is a precondition to cognitively becoming aware of emotions such as fear or anger.
William H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel "better" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too high.[11] However, tears have a limited ability to eliminate chemicals, reducing the likelihood of this theory.[12]
Recent psychological theories of crying emphasize the relationship of crying to the experience of perceived helplessness.[13] From this perspective, an underlying experience of helplessness can usually explain why people cry. For example, a person may cry after receiving surprisingly happy news, ostensibly because the person feels powerless or unable to influence what is happening.
Emotional tears have also been put into an evolutionary context. One study proposes that crying, by blurring vision, can handicap aggressive or defensive actions, and may function as a reliable signal of appeasement, need, or attachment.[14] Oren Hasson, an evolutionary psychologist in the zoology department at Tel Aviv University believes that crying shows vulnerability and submission to an attacker, solicits sympathy and aid from bystanders, and signals shared emotional attachments.[15]
Another theory that follows evolutionary psychology is given by Paul D. MacLean, who suggests that the vocal part of crying was used first as a "separation cry" to help reunite parents and offspring. The tears, he speculates, are a result of a link between the development of the cerebrum and the discovery of fire. MacLean figures that since early humans must have relied heavily on fire, their eyes were frequently producing reflexive tears in response to the smoke. As humans evolved the smoke possibly gained a strong association with the loss of life and, therefore, sorrow.[16]
More recently, CVBellieni analysed the weeping behavior, and concluded that most animals can cry but only humans have psychoemotional shedding of tears, also known as “weeping”. Weeping is a behavior that induces empathy perhaps with the mediation of the mirror neurons network, and influences the mood through the release of hormones elicited by the massage effect made by the tears on the cheeks, or through the relief of the sobbing rhythm.[17]
Biological response
A child crying
It can be very difficult to observe biological effects of crying, especially considering many psychologists believe the environment in which a person cries can alter the experience of the crier. However, crying studies in laboratories have shown several physical effects of crying, such as increased heart rate, sweating, and slowed breathing. Although it appears that the type of effects an individual experiences depends largely on the individual, for many it seems that the calming effects of crying, such as slowed breathing, outlast the negative effects, which could explain why people remember crying as being helpful and beneficial.[18]
The most common side effect of crying is feeling a lump in the throat of the crier, otherwise known as a globus sensation.[19] Although many things can cause a globus sensation, the one experienced in crying is a response to the stress experienced by the sympathetic nervous system. When an animal is threatened by some form of danger, the sympathetic nervous system triggers several processes to allow the animal to fight or flee. This includes shutting down unnecessary body functions, such as digestion, and increasing blood flow and oxygen to necessary muscles. When an individual experiences emotions such as sorrow, the sympathetic nervous system still responds in this way.[20] Another function increased by the sympathetic nervous system is breathing, which includes opening the throat in order to increase air flow. This is done by expanding the glottis, which allows more air to pass through. As an individual is undergoing this sympathetic response, eventually the parasympathetic nervous system attempts to undo the response by decreasing high stress activities and increasing recuperative processes, which includes running digestion. This involves swallowing, a process which requires closing the fully expanded glottis to prevent food from entering the larynx. The glottis, however, attempts to remain open as an individual cries. This fight to close the glottis creates a sensation that feels like a lump in the individual's throat.[21]
Other common side effects of crying are quivering lips, a runny nose, and an unsteady, cracking voice.
Frequency of crying
According to the German Society of Ophthalmology, which has collated different scientific studies on crying, the average woman cries between 30 and 64 times a year, and the average man cries between 6 and 17 times a year.[22]
Men tend to cry for between two and four minutes, and women cry for about six minutes. Crying turns into sobbing for women in 65% of cases, compared to just 6% for men. Until adolescence, however, no difference between the sexes was found.[23][22]
Types of crying in infants
A newborn child crying.
Although crying is an infant's mode of communication, it is not limited to a monotonous sound. There are three different types of cries apparent in infants. The first of these three is a basic cry, which is a systematic cry with a pattern of crying and silence. The basic cry starts with a cry coupled with a briefer silence, which is followed by a short high-pitched inspiratory whistle. Then, there is a brief silence followed by another cry. Hunger is a main stimulant of the basic cry. An anger cry is much like the basic cry; however, in this cry, more excess air is forced through the vocal cords, making it a louder, more abrupt cry. This type of cry is characterized by the same temporal sequence as the basic pattern but distinguished by differences in the length of the various phase components. The third cry is the pain cry, which, unlike the other two, has no preliminary moaning. The pain cry is one loud cry, followed by a period of breath holding.[citation needed] Most adults can determine whether an infant's cries signify anger or pain.[24] Most parents also have a better ability to distinguish their own infant's cries than those of a different child.[25] A 2009 study found that babies mimic their parents' pitch contour. French infants wail on a rising note while German infants favor a falling melody.[26]
Carlo Bellieni found a correlation between the features of babies' crying and the level of pain, though he found no direct correlation between the cause of crying and its characteristics.[27]
T. Berry Brazelton has suggested that overstimulation may be a contributing factor to infant crying and that periods of active crying might serve the purpose of discharging overstimulation and helping the baby’s nervous system regain homeostasis.[28][29]
Sheila Kitzinger found a correlation between the mother's prenatal stress level and later amount of crying by the infant. She also found a correlation between birth trauma and crying. Mothers who had experienced obstetrical interventions or who were made to feel powerless during birth had babies who cried more than other babies. Rather than try one remedy after another to stop this crying, she suggested that mothers hold their babies and allow the crying to run its course.[30] Other studies have supported Kitzinger's findings. Babies who had experienced birth complications had longer crying spells at three months of age and awakened more frequently at night crying.[31][32]
Based on these various findings, Aletha Solter has proposed a general emotional release theory of infant crying. When infants cry for no obvious reason after all other causes (such as hunger or pain) are ruled out, she suggests that the crying may signify a beneficial stress-release mechanism. She recommends the "crying-in-arms" approach as a way to comfort these infants.[33][34][35] Another way of comforting and calming the baby is to mimics the familiarity and coziness of mother’s womb. Dr. Robert Hamilton developed a technique to parents where a baby can be calmed and stop crying in 5 seconds.[36]
Categorizing dimensions
A Frenchman sheds tears of patriotic grief (1941).
There have been many attempts to differentiate between the two distinct types of crying: positive and negative. Different perspectives have been broken down into three dimensions to examine the emotions being felt and also to grasp the contrast between the two types.[37]
Spatial perspective explains sad crying as reaching out to be "there", such as at home or with a person who may have just died. In contrast, joyful crying is acknowledging being "here." It emphasized the intense awareness of one's location, such as at a relative's wedding.[37]
Temporal perspective explains crying slightly differently. In temporal perspective, sorrowful crying is due to looking to the past with regret or to the future with dread. This illustrated crying as a result of losing someone and regretting not spending more time with them or being nervous about an upcoming event. Crying as a result of happiness would then be a response to a moment as if it is eternal; the person is frozen in a blissful, immortalized present.[37]
The last dimension is known as the public-private perspective. This describes the two types of crying as ways to imply details about the self as known privately or one's public identity. For example, crying due to a loss is a message to the outside world that pleads for help with coping with internal sufferings. Or, as Arthur Schopenhauer suggested, sorrowful crying is a method of self-pity or self-regard, a way one comforts oneself. Joyful crying, in contrast, is in recognition of beauty, glory, or wonderfulness.[37]
Religious views on crying
The Shia Ithna Ashari (Muslims who believe in twelve Imams after Muhammad) consider crying to be an important responsibility towards their leaders who were martyred.
They believe a true lover of Imam Hussain can feel the afflictions and oppressions Imam Hussain suffered; his feelings are so immense that they break out into tears and wail. The pain of the beloved is the pain of the lover. Crying on Imam Husain is the sign or expression of true love.
The Imams of Shias have encouraged crying especially on Imam Husaain and have informed about rewards for this act. They support their view through a tradition (saying) from Muhammad who said: (On the Day of Judgment, a group would be seen in the most excellent and honourable of states. They would be asked if they were of the Angels or of the Prophets. In reply they would state): "We are neither Angels nor Prophets but of the indigent ones from the ummah of Muhammad". They would then be asked: "How then did you achieve this lofty and honourable status?" They would reply: "We did not perform very many good deeds nor did we pass all the days in a state of fasting or all the nights in a state of worship but yes, we used to offer our (daily) prayers (regularly) and whenever we used to hear the mention of Muhammad, tears would roll down our cheeks".(Mustadrak al‑Wasail, vol 10, pg. 318)
In Orthodox and Catholic Christianity, tears are considered to be a sign of genuine repentance, and a desirable thing in many cases. Tears of true contrition are thought to be sacramental, helpful in forgiving sins, in that they recall the Baptism of the penitent.[38][39]
Lacrimal system
A diagram showing the lacrimal apparatus
There are three types of tears: basal tears, reflexive tears, and psychic tears. Basal tears are produced at a rate of about 1 to 2 microliters a minute, and are made in order to keep the eye lubricated and smooth out irregularities in the cornea. Reflexive tears are tears that are made in response to irritants to the eye, such as when chopping onions or getting poked in the eye. Psychic tears are produced by the lacrimal system and are the tears expelled during emotional states.[40]
The lacrimal system is made up of a secretory system, which produces tears, and an excretory system, which drains the tears. The lacrimal gland is primarily responsible for producing emotional or reflexive tears. As tears are produced, some fluid evaporates between blinks, and some is drained through the lacrimal punctum. The tears that are drained through the punctum will eventually be drained through the nose. Any excess fluid that did not go into the punctum will fall over the eyelid, which produces tears that are cried.[41]
Disorders related to crying
Baby colic, where an infant's excessive crying has no obvious cause or underlying medical disorder.
Bell's palsy, where faulty regeneration of the facial nerve can cause sufferers to shed tears while eating.[42]
Cri du chat, where the characteristic cry of affected infants, which is similar to that of a meowing kitten, is due to problems with the larynx and nervous system.
Familial dysautonomia, where there can be a lack of overflow tears (alacrima), during emotional crying.[43]
Pathological laughing and crying, where the patients experience uncontrollable episodes of laughing, crying, or in some cases both.
References
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^"List of 426 Sets of Synonyms and How they Differ in Meaning". Paulnoll.com. Retrieved 2014-08-04.
^ abWalter, Chip (December 2006). "Why do we cry?". Scientific American Mind. 17 (6): 44.
^Langseth, Muriel; Frey, William H. (1985). "Ch. 14: Do Animals Shed Emotional Tears?". Crying: the mystery of tears. Minneapolis, Minn: Winston Press. pp. 135–9. ISBN 0-86683-829-5.
^Skorucak A. "The Science of Tears." ScienceIQ.com.
^"On the Origin of Crying and Tears". Human Ethology Newsletter. 5 (10): 5–6. June 1989.
^Doheny, Kathleen. "Why We Cry: The Truth About Tearing Up". WebMD. Retrieved 23 June 2011.
^"Crying; The Mystery of Tears" personal page of Frey WH with quote from his book Archived 2008-05-21 at the Wayback Machine
^Carey, Benedict (2 February 2009). "The Muddled Tracks of All Those Tears". The New York Times. The New York Times. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
^Lutz (2001), 69ff.
^"Emotional Freedom". Retrieved 30 January 2015.
^Juan Murube, president of the Spanish Society of Ophthalmology, reports that the amount of blood passing through the lacrimal glands is tiny in comparison to the body's five liters of blood, and unlike other minor bodily excretion methods like breathing and perspiration, tears are mostly reabsorbed into the body. "Origin and types of emotional tearing" (PDF). Retrieved 20 March 2017.
^Miceli, M.; Castelfranchi, C. (2003). "Crying: discussing its basic reasons and uses". New Ideas in Psychology. 21 (3): 247–73. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2003.09.001.
^New Theory for Why We Cry
^"Why Cry? Evolutionary Biologists Show Crying Can Strengthen Relationships". Science Daily. Tel Aviv University. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
^Lutz, Tom (1999). Crying : the natural and cultural history of tears (1. ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. pp. 90–91. ISBN 0-393-04756-3.
^Bellieni CV (2017). "Meaning and importance of weeping". New Ideas in Psychology.
^"Cry Me A River: The Psychology of Crying". Science Daily. Association for :Psychological Science. 19 December 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
^"What Causes a Lump in the Throat Feeling? Globus Sensation". Heath Talk. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
^Glass, Don (15 January 2007). "A Lump in Your Throat". Moment of Science.
^Onken, Michael (16 February 1997). "What causes the 'lump' in your throat when you cry?". MadSci. Washington University Medical School. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
^ ab"Frauen und Männer weinen anders [German: Woman and Men Cry Differently]" (PDF). Pressearchiv 2009. Deutsche Ophtalmologische Gesellschaft. October 2009. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
^"Women cry more than men, and for longer, study finds". The Telegraph. London. 15 October 2009.
^Zeskind, P. S.; Klein, L.; Marshall, T. R. (Nov 1992). "Adults' perceptions of experimental modifications of durations of pauses and expiratory sounds in infant crying". Developmental Psychology. 28 (6): 1153–1162. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.6.1153. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
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^Mampe, B.; Friederici, A.D.; Christophe, A.; Wermke, K. (December 2009). "Newborns' cry melody is shaped by their native language". Curr. Biol. 19 (23): 1994–7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.09.064. PMID 19896378.
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^Brazelton, T.B. (1985). "Application of cry research to clinical perspectives." In B.M. Lester and C.F.Z. Boukydis (Eds.), Infant Crying: Theoretical and Research Perspectives. New York: Plenum Press.
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Cloning and characterization of a novel cry8Ab1 gene from Bacillus thuringiensis strain B-JJX with specific toxicity to scarabaeid (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) larvae.
Zhang Y, Zheng G, Tan J, Li C, Cheng L.SourceKey Lab of Integrated Crop Pest Management of Shandong Province, College of Agronomy and Plant Protection, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China.
Microbiological research.Microbiol Res.2013 Oct 1;168(8):512-7. doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2013.03.003. Epub 2013 Mar 28.
Isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) strain or its cry gene encoding insecticidal crystal protein (ICP) with specific toxicity is of great importance to biological control of insect pests. In this study, by screening 66 strains of Bt isolated from soil samples collected in Shandong Province, Chi
Muraro NI, Pírez N, Ceriani MF.SourceLaboratorio de Genética del Comportamiento, Fundación Instituto Leloir, IIB-BA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Neuroscience.Neuroscience.2013 Sep 5;247:280-93. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.05.036. Epub 2013 May 29.
Over the years it has become crystal clear that a variety of processes encode time-of-day information, ranging from gene expression, protein stability, or subcellular localization of key proteins, to the fine tuning of network properties and modulation of input signals, ultimately ensuring that phys
Cross-order and cross-phylum activity of Bacillus thuringiensis pesticidal proteins.
van Frankenhuyzen K.SourceGreat Lakes Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 1219 Queen Street East, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario P6A 2E5, Canada. Electronic address: kvanfran@nrcan.gc.ca.
Journal of invertebrate pathology.J Invertebr Pathol.2013 Sep;114(1):76-85. doi: 10.1016/j.jip.2013.05.010. Epub 2013 Jun 5.
The increasing number of Bacillus thuringiensis proteins with pesticidal activities across orders and phyla raises the question how widespread cross-activities are and if they are of sufficient biological significance to have implications for ecological safety of those proteins in pest control appli
Response of larval Ephestia kuehniella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) to individual Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki toxins mixed with Xenorhabdus nematophila.
Benfarhat D, Dammak M, Khedher SB, Mahfoudh S, Kammoun S, Tounsi S.SourceBiopesticides Team (LPIP), Centre of Biotechnology of Sfax, University of Sfax, P.O. Box "1177", 3018 Sfax, Tunisia.
Journal of invertebrate pathology.J Invertebr Pathol.2013 Sep;114(1):71-5. doi: 10.1016/j.jip.2013.05.009. Epub 2013 Jun 5.
Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki strain BNS3 produces parasporal crystals formed by Cry1Aa, Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa delta-endotoxins. In a previous work, we showed that the latter exhibited individually, a weak insecticidal activity against Ephestia kuehniella. In order to improve their toxicities, we stud
Ecotoxicology and environmental safety 84, 9-17, 2012-10-00
… Concentration of the trace endotoxin and Cryptomeria japonica pollen allergen (Cry j 1) were measured in YS extract. … This process depends on endotoxin, Cry j 1 and other allergen present in the YS extract. … This data suggest that low levels of endotoxin and Cry j 1 in YS may cause allergy during the ADSE. …
