出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2015/03/23 15:31:07」(JST)
世界銀行 | |
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各国語表記
World Bank(英語) |
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ワシントンD.C.の世界銀行本部
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概要 | 専門機関 |
略称 | WB |
代表 | ジム・ヨン・キム |
状況 | 活動中 |
活動開始 | 1946年 |
本部 | アメリカ合衆国ワシントンD.C. |
公式サイト | 世界銀行グループ |
Portal:国際連合 | |
テンプレートを表示 |
世界銀行(せかいぎんこう、英語: World Bank、略称:WB)は、各国の中央政府または同政府から債務保証を受けた機関に対し融資を行う国際機関。当初は国際復興開発銀行を指したが、1960年に設立された国際開発協会とあわせて世界銀行と呼ぶ。国際通貨基金と共に、第二次世界大戦後の金融秩序制度の中心を担う。本部はアメリカ合衆国ワシントンD.C.。加盟国は184ヶ国。
1944年7月、ブレトン・ウッズ会議において国際通貨基金とともに国際復興開発銀行の設立が決定され[1]、国際復興開発銀行は1946年6月から業務を開始した。設立当初、国際通貨基金は国際収支の危機に際しての短期資金供給、世界銀行は第二次世界大戦後の先進国の復興と発展途上国の開発を目的として、主に社会インフラ建設など開発プロジェクトごとに長期資金の供給を行う機関とされ、両者は相互に補完しあうよう設立された。ソヴィエト連邦は決定には賛成したものの条約を批准せず、出資金を払い込まなかったために加盟できず、冷戦終結にいたるまで世界銀行の社会主義圏における活動は低調なものとなった。
このころの世界銀行の主要貸し出し国のひとつは日本であった。1952年に世界銀行に加盟した後、1953年から日本の借り入れが始まり、合計8億6,000万ドルを借り入れ、その資金は東海道新幹線などのインフラの整備に充てられた[2]。やがて、1967年には経済成長によって投資適格国から卒業し、1971年には日本は5大出資国の1つとなって、1990年7月には世界銀行からの借金を全額返済することとなった[3]。
やがて、第二次世界大戦後の先進国復興が完了し復興資金需要がなくなるのに伴い、世界銀行は開発資金援助に特化した。また、国際通貨基金も1970年代以降為替変動相場制を採用する国が増加したのに伴い加盟国の国際収支から国内金融秩序安定へその監視助言業務の比重を次第に移した。この動きを積極的に進めたのが、1968年に第5代世界銀行総裁に就任したロバート・マクナマラである。彼は1968年の総会で融資の額を69年からの5年間で以前の5年間の倍にすると表明し[4]、彼の元で世界銀行は急速に貸付を拡大し、大きな影響力を持つようになった。それまでの財源の中心であった各国の拠出金に変わり、マクナマラは世界銀行債を積極的に発行することで市場から資金を調達することに成功し、以後世界銀行の独立性は高くなった。[5]1980年代以降、開発途上国で債務問題がしばしば発生し、また旧社会主義諸国が次々と市場経済制度に移行するに至り、開発途上国の金融制度に関する分野ではその業務に一部重複も見られるようになった。
開発途上国の債務問題に関しては、世界銀行は1980年からIMFと共同で経済危機に陥った途上国に対し、経済支援の条件として構造調整政策の実施を行うよう求めた。これは、肥大化した公的セクターの縮小や各種補助金や公務員の給与の削減によって支出の削減を行うとともに、経済を自由化させて自由競争の下で経済を成長させようというものだった。しかし、公的部門の縮小によって失業が増大し、教育や医療などの質的低下によって社会不安が増大するなどといった悪影響が大きく、特にアフリカにおいては多くの国で構造調整後も経済の沈滞は悪化する一方で、政策は必ずしも成果を挙げていない[6]。
世界銀行の規模が大きくなるにつれ、それを補完する機関が必要となっていき、その結果、1956年には世界銀行では融資できない民間企業に融資を行う国際金融公社が設立され、ついで1960年には世界銀行からの借り入れもできない貧しい発展途上国向け融資を目的とした国際開発協会ができ、さらに発展途上国と外国投資家との紛争を仲裁する国際投資紛争解決センターが1966年に、最後に途上国への投資に対し保証を与え、さらにサービスや助言をも与える多国間投資保証機関が1988年に設立されて、現在の世界銀行グループが形成された。
国際機関は5つあり、それを総称して世界銀行グループと呼ばれている。
世界銀行グループを形成する機関は、以下の5つである。
世界銀行の意思決定機関は、総務会である。総務会はすべての加盟国から総務1人と代理1人が参加する。総務と代理には、各国の蔵相や中央銀行総裁が選ばれることが多い。各国は出資比率にもとづき、保有する世界銀行株1株につき1票の投票権を持つ。2010年、もっとも票数が多いのはアメリカ合衆国で、総票数の15.85%を持つ。次いで票数が多いのは日本で6.84%を占め、以下、中国4.42%、ドイツ4.00%、イギリス3.75%、フランス3.75%、インド2.91%、ロシア2.77%、サウジアラビア2.77%、イタリア2.64%の順となっている。総務会は、国際復興開発銀行と国際開発協会、それに国際金融公社をまとめたものがひとつと、多国間投資保証機関のみを統括するものがひとつある。なお、各機構への出資額が違うため、同じ総務会でも機構ごとに各国の所持する票数は異なる。
総務会はIMFとともに年に一度総会を行い、ここで各種決定を行う。総会は3回のうち2回はIMFおよび世界銀行の所在地であるワシントンDCで行われ、1回、3年に1度はそれ以外の加盟国で行われるのが慣例となっている。2012年度の総会は開催されるはずであったエジプトでアラブの春による政情不安が起き開催を返上したため、東日本大震災からの復興をアピールするために日本が立候補し、2011年6月6日に日本開催が決定された。こうして、2012年の10月12日から10月14日にかけて東京で総会が行われることとなった[7]。
総務会は、権限のかなりを理事会に委任している。理事会は、最大出資国5カ国(2010年までは、アメリカ、日本、ドイツ、イギリス、フランス)から1人ずつと、そのほかの国から選ばれた19人のあわせて24人で構成される。この19人は加盟国を主に地域別にまとめた選挙区から選出される。中国やロシア、サウジアラビアといった拠出額の大きな国は単独の選挙区を持っているが、英語圏アフリカとフランス語圏アフリカはそれぞれひとつの選挙区となっているなど、出資額の少ない多くの国は大きな選挙区に属している。
世界銀行には各国が出資金を払い込んでいるが、実際には世界銀行は開発資金のほとんどすべてを金融市場にて世界銀行債を発行することで調達している。
総裁は、理事会によって選出される。総裁は世界銀行グループ5社のすべての総裁を兼任し、グループの実務をつかさどる。世界銀行の「President(総裁)」には米国出身者、国際通貨基金の専務理事には欧州出身者が選出されるのが暗黙の了解になっている[8]。世界銀行の副総裁には日本人の服部正也(日本人初)、西水美恵子が選ばれたことがある。
代 | 総裁 | 任期 | |
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1 | ユージン・メイアー | 1946年 | |
2 | ジョン・ジェイ・マクロイ | 1947年 - 1949年 | |
3 | ユージン・ロバート・ブラック | 1949年 - 1963年 | |
4 | ジョージ・デビッド・ウッズ | 1963年 - 1968年 | |
5 | ロバート・マクナマラ | 1968年 - 1981年 | |
6 | アルデン・ウィンシップ・クローセン | 1981年 - 1986年 | |
7 | バーバー・コナブル | 1986年 - 1991年 | |
8 | ルイス・トンプソン・プレストン | 1991年 - 1995年 | |
9 | ジェームズ・ウォルフェンソン | 1995年 - 2005年 | |
10 | ポール・ウォルフォウィッツ | 2005年 - 2007年 | |
11 | ロバート・ゼーリック | 2007年 - 2012年 | |
12 | ジム・ヨン・キム | 2012年 - (現職) |
ウィキメディア・コモンズには、世界銀行に関連するメディアがあります。 |
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座標: 北緯38度53分56秒 西経77度2分33秒 / 北緯38.89889度 西経77.04250度 / 38.89889; -77.04250
World Bank logo
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Motto | Working for a World Free of Poverty |
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Formation | July 1944; 70 years ago (1944-07) |
Type | International Financial Organization |
Legal status | Treaty |
Purpose | Crediting |
Headquarters | Washington D.C., United States |
Coordinates | 38°32′N 77°01′W / 38.53°N 77.02°W / 38.53; -77.02Coordinates: 38°32′N 77°01′W / 38.53°N 77.02°W / 38.53; -77.02 |
Region
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Worldwide |
Membership
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188 countries (IBRD)[1] 172 countries (IDA) |
Official language
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Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish |
President
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Jim Yong Kim |
Main organ
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Board of Directors[2] |
Parent organization
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World Bank Group |
Website | www |
The World Bank is a United Nations international financial institution that provides loans[3] to developing countries for capital programs. The World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group, and a member of the United Nations Development Group.
The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty. According to its Articles of Agreement, all its decisions must be guided by a commitment to the promotion of foreign investment and international trade and to the facilitation of capital investment.[4][5]
The World Bank World Bank Group, a member of the United Nations Economic and Social Council, and a family of five international organizations that make leveraged loans to poor countries:[6]
The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, along with three other institutions, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American.[8] The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D.C., and work closely with each other.
Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations.[9]:52–54
Before 1968, the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small. The Bank's staff was aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria.[9]:56–60
The first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Bank's president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile. The loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a balanced budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed. The French government complied with this diktat and removed the Communist coalition government. Within hours, the loan to France was approved.[10]:288, 290–291
When the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries. Until 1968, its loans were earmarked for the construction of income-producing infrastructure, such as seaports, highway systems, and power plants, that would generate enough income to enable a borrower country to repay the loan.
From 1968 to 1980, the bank concentrated on meeting the basic needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and other sectors.[11]
These changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson.[9]:60–63 McNamara imported a technocratic managerial style to the Bank that he had used as United States Secretary of Defense and President of the Ford Motor Company.[9]:62 McNamara shifted bank policy toward measures such as building schools and hospitals, improving literacy and agricultural reform. McNamara created a new system of gathering information from potential borrower nations that enabled the bank to process loan applications much faster. To finance more loans, McNamara told bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the northern banks that had been the primary sources of bank funding. Rotberg used the global bond market to increase the capital available to the bank.[12] One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rapid rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an average annual rate of 20%.[13][14]
In 1980, the World Bank Administrative Tribunal was established to decide on disputes between the World Bank Group and its staff where allegation of non-observance of contracts of employment or terms of appointment had not been honored.[15]
In 1980, McNamara was succeeded by US President Jimmy Carter's nominee, A.W. Clausen. Clausen replaced many members of McNamara's staff and instituted a new ideological focus. His 1982 decision to replace the bank's Chief Economist, Hollis B. Chenery, with Anne Krueger was an indication of this new focus. Krueger was known for her criticism of development funding and for describing Third World governments as "rent-seeking states."
During the 1980s, the bank emphasized lending to service Third-World debt, and structural adjustment policies designed to streamline the economies of developing nations. UNICEF reported in the late 1980s that the structural adjustment programs of the World Bank had been responsible for "reduced health, nutritional and educational levels for tens of millions of children in Asia, Latin America, and Africa".[16]
Beginning in 1989, in response to harsh criticism from many groups, the bank began including environmental groups and NGOs in its loans to mitigate the past effects of its development policies that had prompted the criticism.[9]:93–97 It also formed an implementing agency, in accordance with the Montreal Protocols, to stop ozone-depletion damage to the Earth's atmosphere by phasing out the use of 95% of ozone-depleting chemicals, with a target date of 2015. Since then, in accordance with its so-called "Six Strategic Themes," the bank has put various additional policies into effect to preserve the environment while promoting development. For example, in 1991, the bank announced that to protect against deforestation, especially in the Amazon, it would not finance any commercial logging or infrastructure projects that harm the environment.
In order to promote global public goods, the World Bank tries to control communicable disease such as malaria, delivering vaccines to several parts of the world and joining combat forces. In 2000, the bank announced a "war on AIDS", and in 2011, the Bank joined the Stop Tuberculosis Partnership.[17]
Less recently, a project in Seychelles to promote local tourism by the name of project MAGIC was launched in 2010. Its successor project TIME was scheduled to be launched in 2012.
Traditionally, based on a tacit understanding between the United States and Europe, the president of the World Bank has always been selected from candidates nominated by the United States. In 2012, for the first time, two non-US citizens were nominated.
On 23 March 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that the United States would nominate Jim Yong Kim as the next president of the Bank.[18] Jim Yong Kim was elected on 27 April 2012.
Various developments have brought the Millennium Development Goals targets for 2015 within reach in some cases. For the goals to be realized, six criteria must be met: stronger and more inclusive growth in Africa and fragile states, more effort in health and education, integration of the development and environment agendas, more and better aid, movement on trade negotiations, and stronger and more focused support from multilateral institutions like the World Bank.[19]
To make sure that World Bank-financed operations do not compromise these goals but instead add to their realisation, environmental, social and legal Safeguards were defined. However, these Safeguards have not been implemented entirely yet. At the World Bank's annual meeting in Tokyo 2012 a review of these Safeguards has been initiated which was welcomed by several civil society organisations.[20]
The President of the Bank is the president of the entire World Bank Group. The president, currently Jim Yong Kim, is responsible for chairing the meetings of the Boards of Directors and for overall management of the Bank. Traditionally, the President of the Bank has always been a US citizen nominated by the United States, the largest shareholder in the bank (the Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund having always been a European). The nominee is subject to confirmation by the Board of Executive Directors, to serve for a five-year, renewable term. While most World Bank presidents have had banking experience, some have not.[21][22]
The vice presidents of the Bank are its principal managers, in charge of regions, sectors, networks and functions. There are two Executive Vice Presidents, three Senior Vice Presidents, and 24 Vice Presidents.[23]
The Boards of Directors consist of the World Bank Group President and 25 Executive Directors. The President is the presiding officer, and ordinarily has no vote except a deciding vote in case of an equal division. The Executive Directors as individuals cannot exercise any power nor commit or represent the Bank unless specifically authorized by the Boards to do so. With the term beginning 1 November 2010, the number of Executive Directors increased by one, to 25.[24]
Name | Dates | Nationality | Background |
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Eugene Meyer | 1946–1946 | United States | Newspaper publisher and Chairman of the Federal Reserve |
John J. McCloy | 1947–1949 | United States | Lawyer and US Assistant Secretary of War |
Eugene R. Black, Sr. | 1949–1963 | United States | Bank executive with Chase and executive director with the World Bank |
George Woods | 1963–1968 | United States | Bank executive with First Boston Corporation |
Robert McNamara | 1968–1981 | United States | Former US Defense Secretary, business executive with Ford Motor Company |
Alden W. Clausen | 1981–1986 | United States | Lawyer, bank executive with Bank of America |
Barber Conable | 1986–1991 | United States | New York State Senator and US Congressman |
Lewis T. Preston | 1991–1995 | United States | Bank executive with J.P. Morgan |
Sir James Wolfensohn | 1995–2005 | United States Australia (prev.) |
Wolfensohn was a naturalised American citizen before taking office. Corporate lawyer and banker |
Paul Wolfowitz | 2005–2007 | United States | Various cabinet and government positions; US Ambassador to Indonesia, US Deputy Secretary of Defense |
Robert Zoellick | 2007–2012 | United States | Deputy Secretary of State and US Trade Representative |
Jim Yong Kim | 2012–present | United States South Korea (prev.) |
Former Chair of the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard, president of Dartmouth College |
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has 188 member countries, while the International Development Association (IDA) has 172 members. Each member state of IBRD should be also a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the Bank (such as IDA).[25]
In 2010, voting powers at the World Bank were revised to increase the voice of developing countries, notably China. The countries with most voting power are now the United States (15.85%), Japan (6.84%), China (4.42%), Germany (4.00%), the United Kingdom (3.75%), France (3.75%), India (2.91%),[26] Russia (2.77%), Saudi Arabia (2.77%) and Italy (2.64%). Under the changes, known as 'Voice Reform – Phase 2', countries other than China that saw significant gains included South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Singapore, Greece, Brazil, India, and Spain. Most developed countries' voting power was reduced, along with a few poor countries such as Nigeria. The voting powers of the United States, Russia and Saudi Arabia were unchanged.[27][28]
The changes were brought about with the goal of making voting more universal in regards to standards, rule-based with objective indicators, and transparent among other things. Now, developing countries have an increased voice in the "Pool Model," backed especially by Europe. Additionally, voting power is based on economic size in addition to International Development Association contributions.[29]
The following table are amounts for 20 largest countries by voting power in the following World Bank institutions as of October 2014: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Development Association (IDA), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA).[30][31]
Rank | Country | IBRD | Country | IFC | Country | IDA | Country | MIGA |
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World | 2,074,285 | World | 2,649,955 | World | 23,804,709 | World | 218,321 | |
1 | United States | 332,630 | United States | 570,178 | United States | 2,546,503 | United States | 32,792 |
2 | Japan | 166,056 | Japan | 163,333 | Japan | 2,044,447 | Japan | 9,207 |
3 | China | 107,206 | Germany | 129,707 | United Kingdom | 1,409,037 | Germany | 9,164 |
4 | Germany | 93,113 | France | 121,814 | Germany | 1,319,536 | France | 8,793 |
5 | France | 82,904 | United Kingdom | 121,814 | France | 908,581 | United Kingdom | 8,793 |
6 | United Kingdom | 82,904 | India | 103,652 | Saudi Arabia | 772,020 | China | 5,758 |
7 | India | 62,502 | Russia | 103,652 | India | 661,909 | Russia | 5,756 |
8 | Canada | 58,966 | Canada | 82,141 | Canada | 623,798 | Saudi Arabia | 5,756 |
9 | Italy | 51,564 | Italy | 82,141 | Italy | 573,632 | India | 5,599 |
10 | Russia | 46,443 | China | 62,392 | China | 495,213 | Canada | 5,453 |
11 | Saudi Arabia | 46,443 | Netherlands | 56,930 | Poland | 474,294 | Italy | 5,198 |
12 | Spain | 42,910 | Belgium | 51,409 | Netherlands | 464,187 | Netherlands | 4,050 |
13 | Netherlands | 42,310 | Australia | 48,128 | Sweden | 463,538 | Belgium | 3,805 |
14 | Brazil | 34,634 | Switzerland | 44,862 | Brazil | 389,780 | Australia | 3,247 |
15 | Switzerland | 33,258 | Brazil | 40,278 | Australia | 293,625 | Switzerland | 2,871 |
16 | Belgium | 33,026 | Argentina | 38,928 | Belgium | 258,893 | Brazil | 2,834 |
17 | Iran | 32,105 | Spain | 37,825 | Switzerland | 253,747 | Spain | 2,493 |
18 | South Korea | 31,574 | Indonesia | 30,892 | Norway | 242,552 | Argentina | 2,438 |
19 | Australia | 30,872 | Saudi Arabia | 30,861 | Denmark | 218,104 | Indonesia | 2,077 |
20 | Turkey | 26,255 | South Korea | 28,894 | Spain | 206,661 | Sweden | 2,077 |
For the poorest developing countries in the world, the bank's assistance plans are based on poverty reduction strategies; by combining a cross-section of local groups with an extensive analysis of the country's financial and economic situation the World Bank develops a strategy pertaining uniquely to the country in question. The government then identifies the country's priorities and targets for the reduction of poverty, and the World Bank aligns its aid efforts correspondingly.
Forty-five countries pledged US$25.1 billion in "aid for the world's poorest countries", aid that goes to the World Bank International Development Association (IDA) which distributes the loans to eighty poorer countries. While wealthier nations sometimes fund their own aid projects, including those for diseases, and although IDA is the recipient of criticism, Robert B. Zoellick, the former president of the World Bank, said when the loans were announced on 15 December 2007, that IDA money "is the core funding that the poorest developing countries rely on".[32]
World Bank organizes Development Marketplace Awards which is a competitive grant program that surfaces and funds innovative, development projects with high potential for development impact that are scalable and/or replicable. The grant beneficiaries are social enterprises with projects that aim to deliver a range of social and public services to the most underserved low-income groups.
The World Bank has been assigned temporary management responsibility of the Clean Technology Fund (CTF), focused on making renewable energy cost-competitive with coal-fired power as quickly as possible, but this may not continue after UN's Copenhagen climate change conference in December 2009, because of the Bank's continued investment in coal-fired power plants.[33]
Together with the WHO, the World Bank administers the International Health Partnership (IHP+). IHP+ is a group of partners committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development cooperation into practice in the health sector. IHP+ mobilizes national governments, development agencies, civil society and others to support a single, country-led national health strategy in a well-coordinated way.
World Bank President Jim Yong Kim said in 2012 that:
A World Bank report into Climate change in 2012 noted that (p. xiii): "Even with the current mitigation commitments and pledges fully implemented, there is roughly a 20 percent likelihood of exceeding 4°C by 2100." This is despite the fact that the "global community has committed itself to holding warming below 2°C to prevent 'dangerous' climate change"". Furthermore: "A series of recent extreme events worldwide highlight the vulnerability of all countries. ... No nation will be immune to the impacts of climate change." [35]
The World Bank doubled its aid for climate change adaptation from $2.3bn (£1.47bn) in 2011 to $4.6bn in 2012. The planet is now 0.8 °C warmer than in pre-industrial times. It says that 2 °C warming will be reached in 20 to 30 years.[36][37]
The World Bank Institute (WBI) creates learning opportunities for countries, World Bank staff and clients, and people committed to poverty reduction and sustainable development. WBI's work program includes training, policy consultations, and the creation and support of knowledge networks related to international economic and social development.
The World Bank Institute (WBI) can be defined as a "global connector of knowledge, learning and innovation for poverty reduction". It aims to inspire change agents and prepare them with essential tools that can help achieve development results. WBI has four major strategies to approach development problems: innovation for development, knowledge exchange, leadership and coalition building, and structured learning. World Bank Institute(WBI) was formerly known as Economic Development Institute (EDI), established on 11 March 1955 with the support of the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. The purpose of the institute was to serve as provide an open place where senior officials from developing countries could discuss development policies and programs. Over the years, EDI grew significantly and in 2000, the Institute was renamed as the World Bank Institute. Currently Sanjay Pradhan is the Vice President of the World Bank Institute.[38]
The Global Development Learning Network (GDLN) is a partnership of over 120 learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) in nearly 80 countries around the world. GDLN Affiliates collaborate in holding events that connect people across countries and regions for learning and dialogue on development issues.
GDLN clients are typically NGOs, government, private sector and development agencies who find that they work better together on subregional, regional or global development issues using the facilities and tools offered by GDLN Affiliates. Clients also benefit from the ability of Affiliates to help them choose and apply these tools effectively, and to tap development practitioners and experts worldwide. GDLN Affiliates facilitate around 1000 videoconference-based activities a year on behalf of their clients, reaching some 90,000 people worldwide. Most of these activities bring together participants in two or more countries over a series of sessions. A majority of GDLN activities are organized by small government agencies and NGOs.
The GDLN in the East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid growth and Distance Learning Centers now operate, or are planned in 20 countries: Australia, Mongolia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Thailand, Laos, Timor Leste, Fiji, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and New Zealand. With over 180 Distance Learning Centers, it is the largest development learning network in the Asia and Pacific region. The Secretariat Office of GDLN Asia Pacific is located in the Center of Academic Resources of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
GDLN Asia Pacific was launched at the GDLN's East Asia and Pacific regional meeting held in Bangkok from 22 to 24 May 2006. Its vision is to become "the premier network exchanging ideas, experience and know-how across the Asia Pacific Region". GDLN Asia Pacific is a separate entity to The World Bank. It has endorsed its own Charter and Business Plan and, in accordance with the Charter, a GDLN Asia Pacific Governing Committee has been appointed.
The committee comprises China (2), Australia (1), Thailand (1), The World Bank (1) and finally, a nominee of the Government of Japan (1). The organization is currently hosted by Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, founding member of the GDLN Asia Pacific.
The Governing Committee has determined that the most appropriate legal status for the GDLN AP in Thailand is a "Foundation". The World Bank is currently engaging a solicitor in Thailand to process all documentation in order to obtain this legal status.
GDLN Asia Pacific is built on the principle of shared resources among partners engaged in a common task, and this is visible in the organizational structures that exist, as the network evolves. Physical space for its headquarters is provided by the host of the GDLN Centre in Thailand – Chulalongkorn University; Technical expertise and some infrastructure is provided by the Tokyo Development Learning Centre (TDLC); Fiduciary services are provided by Australian National University (ANU) Until the GDLN Asia Pacific is established as a legal entity tin Thailand, ANU, has offered to assist the governing committee, by providing a means of managing the inflow and outflow of funds and of reporting on them. This admittedly results in some complexity in contracting arrangements, which need to be worked out on a case by case basis and depends to some extent on the legal requirements of the countries involved.
A Justice Sector Peer-Assisted Learning (JUSTPAL) Network was launched in April 2011 by the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) Department of the World Bank’s Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region. The JUSTPAL objective is to provide an online and offline platform for justice professionals to exchange knowledge, good practices and peer-driven improvements to justice systems and thereby support countries to improve their justice sector performance, quality of justice and service delivery to citizens and businesses.
The JUSTPAL Network includes representatives of judiciaries, ministries of justice, prosecutors, anti-corruption agencies and other justice-related entities from across the globe. The Network currently has active members from more than 50 countries.
To facilitate fruitful exchange of reform experiences and sharing of applicable good practices, the JUSTPAL Network has organized its activities under (currently) five Communities of Practice (COPs): (i) Budgeting for the Justice Sector; (ii) Information Systems for Justice Services; (iii) Justice Sector Physical Infrastructure; (iv) Court Management and Administration; and (v) Prosecution and Anti-Corruption Agencies.
As a guideline to the World Bank's operations in any particular country, a Country Assistance Strategy is produced, in cooperation with the local government and any interested stakeholders and may rely on analytical work performed by the Bank or other parties.
Clean Air Initiative (CAI) is a World Bank initiative to advance innovative ways to improve air quality in cities through partnerships in selected regions of the world by sharing knowledge and experiences. It includes electric vehicles.[39]
Based on an agreement between the United Nations and the World Bank in 1981, Development Business became the official source for World Bank Procurement Notices, Contract Awards, and Project Approvals.[40]
In 1998, the agreement was re-negotiated, and included in this agreement was a joint venture to create an electronic version of the publication via the World Wide Web. Today, Development Business is the primary publication for all major multilateral development banks, United Nations agencies, and several national governments, many of whom have made the publication of their tenders and contracts in Development Business a mandatory requirement.[40]
The World Bank or the World Bank Group is also a sitting observer in the United Nations Development Group.[41]
The World Bank collects and processes large amounts of data and generates them on the basis of economic models. These data and models have gradually been made available to the public in a way that encourages reuse,[42] whereas the recent publications describing them are available as open access under a Creative Commons Attribution License, for which the bank received the SPARC Innovator 2012 award.[43]
The World Bank hosts the Open Knowledge Repository (OKR) [44] as an official open access repository for its research outputs and knowledge products.
The World Bank's repository is listed in the Registry of Research Data Repositories re3data.org.[45]
The World Bank has long been criticized by non-governmental organizations, such as the indigenous rights group Survival International, and academics, including its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz, Henry Hazlitt and Ludwig Von Mises.[46][47][48] Henry Hazlitt argued that the World Bank along with the monetary system it was designed within would promote world inflation and "a world in which international trade is State-dominated" when they were being advocated.[49] Stiglitz argued that the so-called free market reform policies which the Bank advocates are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy"), in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive economies.[47][50]
One of the strongest criticisms of the World Bank has been the way in which it is governed. While the World Bank represents 188 countries, it is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These countries (which also provide most of the institution's funding) choose the leadership and senior management of the World Bank, and so their interests dominate the bank.[51]:190 Titus Alexander argues that the unequal voting power of western countries and the World Bank's role in developing countries makes it similar to the South African Development Bank under apartheid, and therefore a pillar of global apartheid.[52]:133–141
In the 1990s, the World Bank and the IMF forged the Washington Consensus, policies which included deregulation and liberalization of markets, privatization and the downscaling of government. Though the Washington Consensus was conceived as a policy that would best promote development, it was criticized for ignoring equity, employment and how reforms like privatization were carried out. Joseph Stiglitz argued that the Washington Consensus placed too much emphasis on the growth of GDP, and not enough on the permanence of growth or on whether growth contributed to better living standards.[48]:17
The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report criticized the World Bank and other international financial institutions for focusing too much "on issuing loans rather than on achieving concrete development results within a finite period of time" and called on the institution to "strengthen anti-corruption efforts".[53]
Criticism of the World Bank often takes the form of protesting as seen in recent events such as the World Bank Oslo 2002 Protests,[54] the October Rebellion,[55] and the Battle of Seattle.[56] Such demonstrations have occurred all over the world, even amongst the Brazilian Kayapo people.[57]
Another source of criticism has been the tradition of having an American head the bank, implemented because the United States provides the majority of World Bank funding. "When economists from the World Bank visit poor countries to dispense cash and advice," observed The Economist in 2012, "they routinely tell governments to reject cronyism and fill each important job with the best candidate available. It is good advice. The World Bank should take it."[58] Jim Yong Kim is the most recently appointed president of the World Bank.[59]
The effect of structural adjustment policies on poor countries has been one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank.[60] The 1979 energy crisis plunged many countries into economic crisis.[61]:68 The World Bank responded with structural adjustment loans which distributed aid to struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included encouraging production, investment and labour-intensive manufacturing, changing real exchange rates and altering the distribution of government resources. Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be implemented easily. For some countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, economic growth regressed and inflation worsened. The alleviation of poverty was not a goal of structural adjustment loans, and the circumstances of the poor often worsened, due to a reduction in social spending and an increase in the price of food, as subsidies were lifted.[61]:69
By the late 1980s, international organizations began to admit that structural adjustment policies were worsening life for the world's poor. The World Bank changed structural adjustment loans, allowing for social spending to be maintained, and encouraging a slower change to policies such as transfer of subsidies and price rises.[61]:70 In 1999, the World Bank and the IMF introduced the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach to replace structural adjustment loans.[62]:147 The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach has been interpreted as an extension of structural adjustment policies as it continues to reinforce and legitimize global inequities. Neither approach has addressed the inherent flaws within the global economy that contribute to economic and social inequities within developing countries.[62]:152 By reinforcing the relationship between lending and client states, many believe that the World Bank has usurped indebted countries' power to determine their own economic policy.[63]
Some critics,[64] most prominently the author Naomi Klein, are of the opinion that the World Bank Group's loans and aid have unfair conditions attached to them that reflect the interests, financial power and political doctrines (notably the Washington Consensus) of the Bank and, by extension, the countries that are most influential within it. Amongst other allegations, Klein says the Group's credibility was damaged "when it forced school fees on students in Ghana in exchange for a loan; when it demanded that Tanzania privatise its water system; when it made telecom privatisation a condition of aid for Hurricane Mitch; when it demanded labour "flexibility" in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the Asian tsunami; when it pushed for eliminating food subsidies in post-invasion Iraq."[65]
The World Bank requires sovereign immunity from countries it deals with.[66][67][68] Sovereign immunity waives a holder from all legal liability for their actions. It is proposed that this immunity from responsibility is a "shield which [The World Bank] wants to resort to, for escaping accountability and security by the people."[66] As the United States has veto power, it can prevent the World Bank from taking action against its interests.[66]
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