関: Bos taurus、cattle

WordNet

talk profusely; "she was yakking away about her grandchildren" (同)gab
large long-haired wild ox of Tibet often domesticated (同)Bos grunniens
noisy talk (同)yack, yakety-yak, chatter, cackle
domesticated bovine animals as a group regardless of sex or age; "so many head of cattle"; "wait till the cows come home"; "seven thin and ill-favored kine"- Bible; "a team of oxen" (同)cows, kine, oxen, Bos_taurus
travel in a small canoe; "we kayaked down the river"
a small canoe consisting of a light frame made watertight with animal skins; used by Eskimos
a member of the nomadic Ugrian people living in northwestern Siberia (east of the Urals) (同)Khanty
thin beef strips (or chicken or pork) cooked briefly at the table with onions and greens and soy sauce
butter made from yaks milk

PrepTutorEJDIC

ヤク(チベット・中央アジアの荷物運搬用の毛の長い牛)
のべつまくなしにおしゃべりする / のべめまくなしのむだ話(おしゃべり)
(家畜の)『牛』
カヤック(エスキモー人の用いる皮張りのカヌー;これに似たスポーツ用の小舟)
y-axis

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/08/25 14:56:20」(JST)

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

For the Nigerian footballer, see Yakubu Aiyegbeni. For the Russian footballer, see Pavel Pogrebnyak. For other uses, see Yak (disambiguation).

The yak (Bos grunniens for the domesticated, Bos mutus for the wild animal – but see below) is a long-haired bovine found throughout the Himalayan region of south Central Asia, the Tibetan Plateau and as far north as Mongolia and Russia. In addition to a large domestic population, there is a small, vulnerable wild yak population. In the 1990s, a concerted effort was undertaken to help save the wild yak population.

Etymology

The English word "yak" derives from the Tibetan (Tibetan: གཡག་, Wylie: g.yag), or gyag – in Tibetan this refers only to the male of the species, the female being called a dri or nak. In English, as in most other languages which have borrowed the word, "yak" is usually used for both sexes.

Taxonomy

Yaks belong to the genus Bos, and are therefore related to cattle (Bos primigenius taurus, Bos primigenius indicus). Mitochondrial DNA analyses to determine the evolutionary history of yaks have been somewhat ambiguous.

The yak may have diverged from cattle at any point between one and five million years ago, and there is some suggestion that it may be more closely related to bison than to the other members of its designated genus.^[2] Apparent close fossil relatives of the yak, such as Bos baikalensis, have been found in eastern Russia, suggesting a possible route by which yak-like ancestors of the modern American bison could have entered the Americas.^[3]

The species was originally designated as Bos grunniens ("grunting ox") by Linnaeus in 1766, but this name is now generally only considered to refer to the domesticated form of the animal, with Bos mutus ("mute ox") being the preferred name for the wild species. Although some authors still consider the wild yak to be a subspecies, Bos grunniens mutus, the ICZN made an official ruling in 2003^[4] permitting the use of the name Bos mutus for wild yaks, and this is now the more common usage. ^[1]^[3]^[5]

Except where the wild yak is considered as a subspecies of Bos grunniens, there are no recognised subspecies of yak.

Physical characteristics

Domestic yak at Yumdrok Yumtso Lake

Wild yaks are among the largest bovids and are second only to the gaur in shoulder height. Wild yak adults stand about 1.6 to 2.2 m (5.2 to 7.2 ft) tall at the shoulder and weigh 305–1,000 kg (670–2,200 lb). The head and body length is 2.5 to 3.3 m (8.2 to 11 ft), not counting the tail of 60 to 100 cm (24 to 39 in). The females are about one-third the weight and are about 30% smaller in their linear dimensions when compared to bull wild yaks.^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9] Domesticated yaks are much smaller, males weighing 350 to 580 kg (770 to 1,300 lb) and females 225 to 255 kg (500 to 560 lb).^[10]^[11]

Yaks are heavily built animals with a bulky frame, sturdy legs, and rounded cloven hooves. They are the only wild bovids of this size with extremely dense, long fur that hangs down lower than the belly. Wild yaks are generally dark, blackish to brown, in pelage coloration. However, domestic yaks can be quite variable in color, often having patches of rusty brown and cream. They have small ears and a wide forehead, with smooth horns that are generally dark in colour. In males, the horns sweep out from the sides of the head, and then curve forward; they typically range from 48 to 99 cm (19 to 39 in) in length. The horns of females are smaller, only 27 to 64 cm (11 to 25 in) in length, and have a more upright shape. Both sexes have a short neck with a pronounced hump over the shoulders, although this is larger and more visible in males.^[3] Yaks are highly friendly in nature and can easily be trained. There has been very little documented aggression from yaks towards human beings, although mothers can be extremely protective of their young and will bluff charge if they feel threatened.^{[citation needed]}

Both sexes have long shaggy hair with a dense woolly undercoat over the chest, flanks, and thighs to insulate them from the cold. Especially in males, this may form a long "skirt" that can reach the ground. The tail is long and horselike rather than tufted like the tails of cattle or bison. Wild yaks typically have black or dark brown hair over most of the body, with a greyish muzzle, although some wild golden-brown individuals have been reported. Domesticated yaks have a wider range of coat colours, with some individuals being white, grey, brown, roan or piebald. The udder in females and the scrotum in males are small and hairy, as protection against the cold. Females have four teats.^[3]

To the casual observer, yaks are easily confused with Highland cattle^{[citation needed]}, but upon closer examination, the physical differences are quite apparent. However, Highland cattle are shaggy, rather than long-haired, and have straight backs and tufted tails.

Physiology

Yak physiology is well adapted to high altitudes, having larger lungs and heart than cattle found at lower altitudes, as well as greater capacity for transporting oxygen through their blood^[12] due to the persistence of foetal haemoglobin throughout life.^[13] Conversely, yaks do not thrive at lower altitudes,^[14] and begin to suffer from heat exhaustion above about 15 °C (59 °F). Further adaptations to the cold include a thick layer of subcutaneous fat, and an almost complete lack of functional sweat glands.^[12]

Compared with domestic cattle, the rumen of yaks is unusually large, relative to the omasum. This likely allows them to consume greater quantities of low-quality food at a time, and to ferment it longer so as to extract more nutrients.^[12] Yak consume the equivalent of 1% of their body weight daily while cattle require 3% to maintain condition.^{[citation needed]}

Odor

Contrary to popular belief, yak and their manure have little to no detectable odor^[15] when maintained appropriately in pastures or paddocks with adequate access to forage and water. Yak wool is naturally odor resistant.^[16]

Reproduction and life history

A ten-day-old yak

Yaks mate in the summer, typically between July and September, depending on the local environment. For the remainder of the year, many males wander in small bachelor groups away from the large herds, but, as the rut approaches, they become aggressive and regularly fight amongst each other to establish dominance. In addition to non-violent threat displays, bellowing, and scraping the ground with their horns, male yaks also compete more directly, repeatedly charging at each other with heads lowered or sparring with their horns. Like bison, but unlike cattle, males wallow in dry soil during the rut, often while scent-marking with urine or dung.^[3] Females enter oestrus up to four times a year, and females are receptive only for a few hours in each cycle.^[17]

Gestation lasts between 257 and 270 days,^[12] so that the young are born between May and June, and results in the birth of a single calf. The female finds a secluded spot to give birth, but the calf is able to walk within about ten minutes of birth, and the pair soon rejoin the herd.^[12] Females of both the wild and domestic forms typically give birth only once every other year,^[3] although more frequent births are possible if the food supply is good.

Calves are weaned at one year and become independent shortly thereafter. Wild calves are initially brown in colour, and only later develop the darker adult hair. Females generally give birth for the first time at three or four years of age,^[18] and reach their peak reproductive fitness at around six years. Yaks may live for more than twenty years in domestication or captivity,^[3] although it is likely that this may be somewhat shorter in the wild.

Wild yaks

Domestic Yak at a zoo in Syracuse, New York

A herd of domestic yaks wandering in The Himalayas

Wild yaks (Bos grunniens mutus or Bos mutus, Tibetan: འབྲོང་, Wylie: 'brong) usually form herds of between ten and thirty animals. They are insulated by dense, close, matted under-hair as well as their shaggy outer hair.^[19] Yaks secrete a special sticky substance in their sweat which helps keep their under-hair matted and acts as extra insulation. This secretion is used in traditional Nepalese medicine.^[20] Many wild yaks are killed for food by hunters in China; they are now a vulnerable species.^[21]

The diet of wild yaks consists largely of grasses and sedges, such as Carex, Stipa, and Kobresia. They also eat a smaller amount of herbs, winterfat shrubs, and mosses, and have even been reported to eat lichen. Historically, the main natural predator of the wild yak has been the Tibetan wolf, but brown bears and snow leopards have also been reported as predators in some areas, likely of young or infirm wild yaks.^[3]

Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, reported on his journey from Kumbum in Amdo to Lhasa in 1950:

Before long I was to see the vast herds of drongs with my own eyes. The sight of those beautiful and powerful beasts who from time immemorial have made their home on Tibet's high and barren plateaux never ceased to fascinate me. Somehow these shy creatures manage to sustain themselves on the stunted grass roots which is all that nature provides in those parts. And what a wonderful sight it is to see a great herd of them plunging head down in a wild gallop across the steppes. The earth shakes under their heels and a vast cloud of dust marks their passage. At nights they will protect themselves from the cold by huddling up together, with the calves in the centre. They will stand like this in a snow-storm, pressed so close together that the condensation from their breath rises into the air like a column of steam. The nomads have occasionally tried to bring up young drongs as domestic animals, but they have never entirely succeeded. Somehow once they live together with human beings they seem to lose their astonishing strength and powers of endurance; and they are no use at all as pack animals, because their backs immediately get sore. Their immemorial relationship with humans has therefore remained that of game and hunter, for their flesh is very tasty.

—Thubten Norbu, Tibet is My Country^[22]

Distribution and habitat

Wild yaks are found primarily in northern Tibet and western Qinghai, with some populations extending into the southernmost parts of Xinjiang, and into Ladakh in India. Small, isolated populations of wild yak are also found farther afield, primarily in western Tibet and eastern Qinghai. In historic times, wild yaks were also found in Nepal and Bhutan, but they are now considered extinct in both countries, except as domesticated animals.^[1]

The primary habitat of wild yaks consists of treeless uplands between 3,000 and 5,500 m (9,800 and 18,000 ft), dominated by mountains and plateaus. They are most commonly found in alpine meadows with a relatively thick carpet of grasses and sedges, rather than the more barren steppe country.^[23]

Behaviour

Yaks are herd animals. Herds can contain several hundred individuals, although many are much smaller. The herds consist primarily of females and their young, with a smaller number of adult males. The remaining males are either solitary, or found in much smaller groups, averaging around six individuals. Although they can become aggressive when defending young, or during the rut, wild yaks generally avoid humans, and may rapidly flee for great distances if any approach.^[3]

Domesticated yaks

A Yak rider near Tsomgo Lake, east Himalayas (3700 m)

Nepali domestic transport goods on a trek to Mount Everest

Domesticated yaks have been kept for thousands of years, primarily for their milk, fibre and meat, and as beasts of burden. Their dried dung is an important fuel, used all over Tibet, and is often the only fuel available on the high treeless Tibetan plateau. Yaks transport goods across mountain passes for local farmers and traders as well as for climbing and trekking expeditions. "Only one thing makes it hard to use yaks for long journeys in barren regions. They will not eat grain, which could be carried on the journey. They will starve unless they can be brought to a place where there is grass."^[24] They also are used to draw ploughs. Yak milk is often processed to a cheese called chhurpi in Tibetan and Nepali languages, and byaslag in Mongolia. Butter made of Yaks' milk is an ingredient of the butter tea that Tibetans consume in large quantities,^[25] and is also used in lamps and made into butter sculptures used in religious festivities.^[26] Yaks grunt, and unlike cattle are not known to produce the characteristic bovine lowing sound.

Yak sports

Yak Racing in Shimshal Pass, Pakistan

In parts of Tibet and Karakorum yak racing is a form of entertainment at traditional festivals and is considered an important part of their culture. More recently, sports involving domesticated yaks, such as yak skiing, or yak polo, are being marketed as tourist attractions in Central Asian countries, including Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan.

Hybrid yak

In Nepal, Tibet and Mongolia, domestic cattle are crossbred with yaks. This gives rise to the infertile male dzo as well as fertile females known as dzomo or zhom, which may be crossed again with cattle. The "Dwarf Lulu" breed, "the only Bos primigenius taurus type of cattle in Nepal" has been tested for DNA markers and found to be a mixture of both taurine and zebu types of cattle (B. p. taurus and B. p. indicus) with yak.^[27] According to the International Veterinary Information Service, the low productivity of second generation cattle-yak crosses makes them suitable only as meat animals.^[28]

Crosses between yaks and domestic cattle (Bos primigenius taurus) have been recorded in Chinese literature for at least 2,000 years.^[3] Successful crosses have also been recorded between yak and American bison,^[28] gaur, and banteng, generally with similar results to those produced with domestic cattle.^[3]

Gallery

Yaks in Manali, Himachal Pradesh, India saddled for riding
A train of pack yaks at Litang monastery in Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan, China
Yaks plowing fields in Tibet
A domestic yak in Nepal
Cigarette advertising for the brand "Yak" in Bhaktapur, Nepal

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Harris, R.B.; Leslie, D. (2008). Bos mutus. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 29 March 2009. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of vulnerable.
^ Guo, S. et al. (2006). "Taxonomic placement and origin of yaks: implications from analyses of mtDNA D-loop fragment sequences". Acta Theriologica Sinica 26 (4): 325–330. http://english.mammal.cn/Magazine/show.aspx?id=2079.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Leslie, D.M. & Schaller, G.B. (2009). "Bos grunniens and Bos mutus (Artiodactyla: Bovidae)". Mammalian Species 836: 1–17. doi:10.1644/836.1.
^ International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (2003). "Opinion 2027. Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are predated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved". Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 60: 81–84. http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34357823.
^ Gentry, A. et al. (2004). "The naming of wild animals and their domestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (5): 645–651. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006.
^ Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, 6th Edition, Volume II. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press (quoted in Oliphant, M. 2003. "Bos grunniens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed 4 April 2009)
^ Boitani, Luigi, Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals. Simon & Schuster/Touchstone Books (1984), ISBN 978-0-671-42805-1
^ [1] (2011).
^ Burnie D and Wilson DE (Eds.), Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife. DK Adult (2005), ISBN 0789477645
^ Buchholtz, C. 1990. True Cattle (Genus Bos). Pp. 386–397 in S. Parker, ed. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, Volume 5. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. (quoted in Oliphant, M. 2003. "Bos grunniens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed 4 April 2009)
^ [2]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Wiener, Gerald; Jianlin, Han; Ruijun, Long. "4 The Yak in Relation to Its Environment", The Yak, Second Edition. Bangkok: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2003. ISBN 92-5-104965-3. Accessed 8 August 2008.
^ Sarkar, M. et al. (1999). "Fetal haemoglobin in pregnant yaks (Poephagus grunniens L.)". Veterinary Journal 158 (1): 68–70. doi:10.1053/tvjl.1999.0361.
^ Yak, Animal genetics training resources version II: Breed Information. Adopted from: Bonnemaire, J. "Yak". In: Mason, Ian L. (ed), Evolution of Domesticated Animals. London: Longman, 1984, pp. 39–45. ISBN 0-582-46046-8. Accessed 8 August 2008.
^ http://www.sherpatrek.com/culture/yak-dung.php
^ http://www.khunu.com/why-yak/superior-properties
^ Sarkar, M. & Prakash, B.S. (2005). "Timing of ovulation in relation to onset of estrus and LH peak in yak (Poephagus grunniens L.)". Animal Reproduction Science 86 (4): 353–362. doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2004.08.005.
^ Zi, X.D. (2003). "Reproduction in female yaks (Bos grunniens) and opportunities for improvement". Theriogenology 59 (5–6): 1303–1312. doi:10.1016/S0093-691X(02)01172-X.
^ Paul Massicot, Animal Info – Wild Yak, 5 March 2005. Accessed 8 August 2008.
^ Red Orbit Reference Library [3]
^ Yak, Alaska Zoo.
^ Tibet is My Country: Autobiography of Thubten Jigme Norbu, Brother of the Dalai Lama as told to Heinrich Harrer, p. 151. First published in German in 1960. English translation by Edward Fitzgerald, published 1960. Reprint, with updated new chapter, (1986): Wisdom Publications, London. ISBN 0-86171-045-2.
^ Schaller, G.B. & Wilin L. (1996). "Distribution, status, and conservation of wild yak Bos grunniens". Biological Conservation 76 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(96)85972-6.
^ Golden Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 16 p 1505b (Rockefeller Center, NY: Golden Press, 1959.)
^ Tibet and Tibetan Foods
^ Yaks, butter & lamps in Tibet, webexhibits.org
^ "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Nepalese domestic dwarf cattle Lulu", Animal Science Journal, Volume 75, Number 2, April 2004 , pp. 103–110(8). http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/asj/2004/00000075/00000002/art00003, Takeda, K.; Satoh, M.1; Neopane, S.P.2; Kuwar, B.S.2; Joshi, H.D.2; Shrestha, N.P.2; Fujise, H.3; Tasai, M.4; Tagami, T.4; Hanada, H., Animal Science Journal, Volume 75, Number 2, April 2004, pp. 103–110(8)
^ ^a ^b Zhang, R.C. (14 December 2000). "Interspecies Hybridization between Yak, Bos taurus and Bos indicus and Reproduction of the Hybrids". In: Recent Advances in Yak Reproduction, Zhao, X.X.; Zhang, R.C. (Eds.). International Veterinary Information Service. http://www.ivis.org/advances/Zhao/zhang3/IVIS.pdf.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Yak

Wikispecies has information related to: Yak

ARKive – images and movies of the wild yak (Bos grunniens)
h2g2 Yaks Edited Guide Entry
International Yak Association (IYAK)
European Yak Association (EYAK)
Article on Yak breeds in FAO archives
Yaks: The Official Animal of Tibet
AnimalInfo.Org: Animal Info – Wild Yak

English Journal

Species-specific expression of various proteins in meat tissue: Proteomic analysis of raw and cooked meat and meat products made from beef, pork and selected poultry species.

Montowska M, Pospiech E.SourceInstitute of Meat Technology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 31, 60-624 Poznań, Poland. Electronic address: magdalena.montowska@gmail.com.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2013 Feb 15;136(3-4):1461-9. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.09.072. Epub 2012 Oct 2.
The aim was to search for proteins differentiating the six species (cattle, pig, chicken, turkey, duck and goose) and relatively stable during the meat aging and only slightly degraded in ready-made products. The two-dimensional electrophoresis was used for analysis of the protein profiles from raw
PMID 23194549

Effect of canola oil emulsion injection on processing characteristics and consumer acceptability of three muscles from mature beef.

Pietrasik Z, Wang H, Janz JA.SourceFood Processing Development Centre, Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development, Leduc, AB, Canada T9E 7C5. Electronic address: zeb.pietrasik@gov.ab.ca.
Meat science.Meat Sci.2013 Feb;93(2):322-8. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.09.014. Epub 2012 Oct 2.
The study was undertaken to investigate the impact of the combined effect of blade tenderization and canola oil emulsion injection on processing yield and eating quality-related parameters of selected loin and hip muscles (longissimus lumborum, LL, biceps femoris, BF and semimembranosus, SM) from ov
PMID 23089241

Fusobacterium necrophorum, and not Dichelobacter nodosus, is associated with equine hoof thrush.

Petrov KK, Dicks LM.SourceDepartment of Microbiology, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa.
Veterinary microbiology.Vet Microbiol.2013 Jan 25;161(3-4):350-2. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.07.037. Epub 2012 Jul 27.
The aim of this study was to determine which of the two species, Fusobacterium necrophorum or Dichelobacter nodosus, are associated with hoof thrush in horses. Fourteen hoof samples, collected from eight horses with thrush and 14 samples collected from eight horses with healthy hooves, were examined
PMID 22909990

Japanese Journal

チベット高原南部高山野草地における暖季と寒季放牧地でのヤクの行動

曹旭敏,長谷川信美,宋仁徳 [他]
日本暖地畜産学会報 55(1), 9-15, 2012-03
NAID 40019361998

ヤクの季節放牧休牧利用方式がチベット南部高原高山野草地植生と植物種多様性に及ぼす影響

曹旭敏,長谷川信美,宋仁徳 [他]
日本暖地畜産学会報 54(1), 71-77, 2011-03
NAID 40018961659

16S ribosomal DNA analysis and characterization of lactic acid bacteria associated with traditional Tibetan Qula cheese made from yak milk

TAN Zhongfang,PANG Huili,DUAN Yuheng,QIN Guangyong,CAI Yimin
Animal science journal 81(6), 706-713, 2010-12-01
NAID 10027890258

Related Pictures

species: domestic and wild. Domestic yak Reywa Fibers – Luxury Yak Down Yarns Springridge Ranch Yak-Cross Beef yak call back yak callback yak fitness yak Yak Yak (Bos grunniens) Yak

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「cattle」「Bos taurus」
拡張検索	「Miyake paired word learning test」

「cattle」

Yak
	Domestic yak in Nepal, Annapurna Circuit
Conservation status
	; Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Artiodactyla
Family:	Bovidae
Genus:	Bos
Species:	B. grunniens
Binomial name
	Bos grunniens; Linnaeus, 1766
Synonyms
	Poephagus grunniens; Bos mutus Przewalski, 1883

　　[★] ウシ

関: Bos taurus、bovine、ox、oxen、yak

「Bos taurus」

　　[★]

ウシ

関: bovine、cattle、ox、oxen、yak

「Miyake paired word learning test」

　　[★] 三宅式対語記銘力検査

[iucn-0] Harris, R.B.; Leslie, D. (2008). Bos mutus. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 29 March 2009. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of vulnerable.

[Guo2006-1] Guo, S. et al. (2006). "Taxonomic placement and origin of yaks: implications from analyses of mtDNA D-loop fragment sequences". Acta Theriologica Sinica 26 (4): 325–330. http://english.mammal.cn/Magazine/show.aspx?id=2079.

[Leslie2009-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Leslie, D.M. & Schaller, G.B. (2009). "Bos grunniens and Bos mutus (Artiodactyla: Bovidae)". Mammalian Species 836: 1–17. doi:10.1644/836.1.

[iczn2027-3] International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (2003). "Opinion 2027. Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are predated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved". Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 60: 81–84. http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34357823.

[Gentry2004-4] Gentry, A. et al. (2004). "The naming of wild animals and their domestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (5): 645–651. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006.

[5] Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, 6th Edition, Volume II. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press (quoted in Oliphant, M. 2003. "Bos grunniens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed 4 April 2009)

[6] Boitani, Luigi, Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals. Simon & Schuster/Touchstone Books (1984), ISBN 978-0-671-42805-1

[7] [1] (2011).

[Burnie-8] Burnie D and Wilson DE (Eds.), Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife. DK Adult (2005), ISBN 0789477645

[9] Buchholtz, C. 1990. True Cattle (Genus Bos). Pp. 386–397 in S. Parker, ed. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, Volume 5. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. (quoted in Oliphant, M. 2003. "Bos grunniens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed 4 April 2009)

[10] [2]

[Wiener-11] Wiener, Gerald; Jianlin, Han; Ruijun, Long. "4 The Yak in Relation to Its Environment", The Yak, Second Edition. Bangkok: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2003. ISBN 92-5-104965-3. Accessed 8 August 2008.

[Sarkar1999-12] Sarkar, M. et al. (1999). "Fetal haemoglobin in pregnant yaks (Poephagus grunniens L.)". Veterinary Journal 158 (1): 68–70. doi:10.1053/tvjl.1999.0361.

[13] Yak, Animal genetics training resources version II: Breed Information. Adopted from: Bonnemaire, J. "Yak". In: Mason, Ian L. (ed), Evolution of Domesticated Animals. London: Longman, 1984, pp. 39–45. ISBN 0-582-46046-8. Accessed 8 August 2008.

[14] ttp://www.sherpatrek.com/culture/yak-dung.php

[15] ttp://www.khunu.com/why-yak/superior-properties

[Sarkar2005-16] Sarkar, M. & Prakash, B.S. (2005). "Timing of ovulation in relation to onset of estrus and LH peak in yak (Poephagus grunniens L.)". Animal Reproduction Science 86 (4): 353–362. doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2004.08.005.

[Zi2003-17] Zi, X.D. (2003). "Reproduction in female yaks (Bos grunniens) and opportunities for improvement". Theriogenology 59 (5–6): 1303–1312. doi:10.1016/S0093-691X(02)01172-X.

[18] Paul Massicot, Animal Info – Wild Yak, 5 March 2005. Accessed 8 August 2008.

[19] Red Orbit Reference Library [3]

[20] Yak, Alaska Zoo.

[21] Tibet is My Country: Autobiography of Thubten Jigme Norbu, Brother of the Dalai Lama as told to Heinrich Harrer, p. 151. First published in German in 1960. English translation by Edward Fitzgerald, published 1960. Reprint, with updated new chapter, (1986): Wisdom Publications, London. ISBN 0-86171-045-2.

[Schaller1996-22] Schaller, G.B. & Wilin L. (1996). "Distribution, status, and conservation of wild yak Bos grunniens". Biological Conservation 76 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(96)85972-6.

[23] Golden Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 16 p 1505b (Rockefeller Center, NY: Golden Press, 1959.)

[24] Tibet and Tibetan Foods

[25] Yaks, butter & lamps in Tibet, webexhibits.org

[26] "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Nepalese domestic dwarf cattle Lulu", Animal Science Journal, Volume 75, Number 2, April 2004 , pp. 103–110(8). http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/asj/2004/00000075/00000002/art00003, Takeda, K.; Satoh, M.1; Neopane, S.P.2; Kuwar, B.S.2; Joshi, H.D.2; Shrestha, N.P.2; Fujise, H.3; Tasai, M.4; Tagami, T.4; Hanada, H., Animal Science Journal, Volume 75, Number 2, April 2004, pp. 103–110(8)

[ivis.org-27] Zhang, R.C. (14 December 2000). "Interspecies Hybridization between Yak, Bos taurus and Bos indicus and Reproduction of the Hybrids". In: Recent Advances in Yak Reproduction, Zhao, X.X.; Zhang, R.C. (Eds.). International Veterinary Information Service. http://www.ivis.org/advances/Zhao/zhang3/IVIS.pdf.

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