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a body of troops in close array
any closely ranked crowd of people
any of the bones of the fingers or toes
situated nearest to point of attachment or origin; "the proximal end of a bone"

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方陣(古代ギリシアで,歩兵を密集させて方形に配置した陣形) / (人や物の)密集,集まり《+『of』+『名』》
(骨などが)近位の(体の中心に近いこと)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/11/14 22:34:42」(JST)

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The phalanges /fəˈlæŋdʒiːz/ (singular: phalanx /ˈfælæŋks/) are digital bones in the hands and feet of most vertebrates. In primates, the thumbs and big toes have two phalanges while the other digits have three phalanges. The phalanges are classed as long bones.

Structure

Bones of foot

The phalanges are the bones that make up the fingers of the hand and the toes of the foot. There are 56 phalanges in the human body, with fourteen on each hand and foot. Three phalanges are present on each finger and toe, with the exception of the thumb and large toe, which possess only two. The middle and far phalanges of the fourth and fifth toes are often fused together (symphalangism).^[1] The phalanges of the hand are commonly known as the finger bones. The phalanges of the foot differ from the hand in that they are often shorter and more compressed, especially in the proximal phalanges, those closest to the body.

The phalanges are named according to whether they are proximal, intermedial phalanges or distal, and according to the finger or toe they are in. The proximal phalanges are those that are closest to the hand or foot. In the hand, the prominent, knobby ends of the phalanges are known as knuckles. The proximal phalanges join with the metacarpals of the hand or metatarsals of the foot at the metacarpophalangeal joint or metatarsophalangeal joint. The intermediate phalanx is not only intermediate in location, but usually also in size. The thumb and large toe do not possess a middle phalanx. The distal phalanges are the bones at the tips of the fingers or toes. The proximal, intermediate, and distal phalanges articulate with one another through interphalangeal articulations.^[2]^:708–711^:708–711

Bone anatomy

Each phalanx consists of a central part, called the body, and two extremities.

The body is flat on either side, concave on the palmar surface, and convex on the dorsal surface. Its sides are marked with rough areas giving attachment to fibrous sheaths of flexor tendons. It tapers from above downwards.
The proximal extremities of the bones of the first row present oval, concave articular surfaces, broader from side to side than from front to back. The proximal extremity of each of the bones of the second and third rows presents a double concavity separated by a median ridge.
The distal extremities are smaller than the proximal, and each ends in two condyles (knuckles) separated by a shallow groove; the articular surface extends farther on the palmar than on the dorsal surface, a condition best marked in the bones of the first row.

In the foot, the proximal phalanges have a body that is compressed from side to side, convex above, and concave below. The base is concave, and the head presents a trochlear surface for articulation with the second phalanx. The middle are remarkably small and short, but rather broader than the proximal. The distal phalanges, as compared with the distal phalanges of the finger, are smaller and are flattened from above downward; each presents a broad base for articulation with the corresponding bone of the second row, and an expanded distal extremity for the support of the nail and end of the toe.

Distal phalanx

In the hand, the distal phalanges are flat on their palmar surface, small, and with a roughened, elevated surface of horseshoe form on the palmar surface, supporting the finger pulp.^[3]^{:6b. 3. The Phalanges of the Hand} The flat, wide expansions found at the tips of the distal phalanges are called apical tufts. They support the fingertip pads and nails.^[4] The phalanx of the thumb has a pronounced insertion for the flexor pollicis longus (asymmetric towards the radial side), an ungual fossa, and a pair of unequal ungual spines (the ulnar being more prominent). This asymmetry is necessary to ensure that the thumb pulp is always facing the pulps of the other digits, an osteological configuration which provides the maximum contact surface with held objects.^[5]

In the foot, the distal phalanges are flat on their dorsal surface. It is largest proximally and tapers to the distal end. The proximal part of the phalnx presents a broad base for articulation with the middle phalanx, and an expanded distal extremity for the support of the nail and end of the toe.^[3]^{:6b. 3. The Phalanges of the Foot} The phalanx ends in a crescent-shaped rough cap of bone epiphysis — the apical tuft (or ungual tuberosity/process) which covers a larger portion of the phalanx on the volar side than on the dorsal side. Two lateral ungual spines project proximally from the apical tuft. Near the base of the shaft are two lateral tubercles. Between these a V-shaped ridge extending proximally serves for the insertion of the flexor pollicis longus. Another ridge at the base serves for the insertion of the extensor aponeurosis.^[6] The flexor insertion is sided by two fossae — the ungual fossa distally and the proximopalmar fossa proximally.

Development

The number of phalanges in animals is often expressed as a "phalangeal formula" that indicates the numbers of phalanges in digits, beginning from the innermost medial or proximal. For example, humans have a 2-3-3-3-3 formula for the hand, meaning that the thumb has two phalanges, whilst the other fingers each have three.

In the distal phalanges of the hand the centres for the bodies appear at the distal extremities of the phalanges, instead of at the middle of the bodies, as in the other phalanges. Moreover, of all the bones of the hand, the distal phalanges are the first to ossify.^[3]^{:6b. 3. The Phalanges of the Hand}

Function

Thumb and index finger of right hand during pad-to-pad precision grasping in ulnar view.^[5]

The distal phalanges of ungulates carry and shape nails and claws and these in primates are referred to as the ungual phalanges.

History

The term phalanx or phalanges refers to an ancient Greek army formation in which soldiers stand side by side, several rows deep, like an arrangement of fingers or toes.

In animals

Most land mammals including humans have a 2-3-3-3-3 formula in both the hands (or paws) and feet. Primitive reptiles typically had the formula 2-3-4-4-5, and this pattern, with some modification, remained in many later reptiles and in the mammal-like reptiles. The phalangeal formula in the flippers of cetaceans (marine mammals) is 2-12-8-1.

In vertebrates, proximal phalanges have a similar placement in the corresponding limbs, be they paw, wing or fin. In many species, they are the longest and thickest phalanx ("finger" bone). The middle phalanx also a corresponding place in their limbs, whether they be paw, wing, hoof or fin.

The distal phalanges are cone-shaped in most mammals, including most primates, but relatively wide and flat in humans.

Primates

Morphological comparisons of pollical distal phalanges in African apes, extant humans and selected hominins. Note that, although with several morphological differences, all the features related to refined manipulation in modern humans are already present in the late Miocene Orrorin.^[5]

The morphology of the distal phalanges of human thumbs closely reflects an adaptation for a refined precision grip with pad-to-pad contact. This has traditionally been associated with the advent of stone tool-making. However, the intrinsic hand proportions of australopiths and the resemblance between human hands and the short hands of Miocene apes, suggest that human hand proportions are largely plesiomorphic (as found in ancestral species) — in contrast to the derived elongated hand pattern and poorly developed thumb musculature of other extant hominoids.^[5]

In Neanderthals, the apical tufts were expanded and more robust than in modern and early upper Paleolithic humans. A proposal that Neanderthal distal phalanges was an adaptation to colder climate (than in Africa) is not supported by a recent comparison showing that in hominins, cold-adapted populations possessed smaller apical tufts than do warm-adapted populations. ^[7]

In non-human, living primates the apical tufts vary in size, but they are never larger than in humans. Enlarged apical tufts, to the extent they actually reflect expanded digital pulps, may have played a significant role in enhancing friction between the hand and held objects during Neolithic toolmaking.^[4]

Among non-human primates phylogenesis and style of locomotion appear to play a role in apical tuft size. Suspensory primates and New World monkeys have the smallest apical tufts, while terrestrial quadrupeds and Strepsirrhines have the largest.^[7] A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species, indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and reduced flexor and extensor tubercles in distal phalanges and broadened distal parts of distal phalanges, coupled with expanded apical pads and developed epidermal ridges. This suggests that widened distal phalanges were developed in arboreal primates, rather than in quadrupedal terrestrial primates.^[8]

Other mammals

Skeleton of orangutan, dog, swine, cattle, tapir, and horse

In ungulates (hoofed mammals) the forelimb is optimized for speed and endurance by a combination of length of stride and rapid step; the proximal forelimb segments are short with large muscles, while the distal segments are elongated with less musculature. In two of the major groups of ungulates, odd-toed and even-toed ungulates, what remain of the "hands" — the metacarpal and phalangeal bones — are elongated to the extent that they serve little use beyond locomotion. The giraffe, the largest even-toed ungulate, has large terminal phalanges and fused metacarpal bones able to absorb the stress from running.^[9]

The sloth spends its life hanging upside-down from branches, and has highly specialized third and fourth digits for the purpose. They have short and squat proximal phalanges with much longer terminal phalanges. They have vestigial second and fifth metacarpals, and their palm extends to the distal interphalangeal joints. The arboreal specialization of these terminal phalanges makes it impossible for the sloth to walk on the ground where the animal has to drag its body with its claws.^[9]

Distal phalanges of a Masai giraffe

Three-fingered sloth

Terminal phalanx of a Scelidotherium ground sloth

Additional images

Phalanges.
Phalanges.

References

^ Williams, Lynda (June 22, 2012). "Two-phalange fifth toe a 'common variant'". news-medical.net. Retrieved 14 July 2014.
^ Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W. M. (2005). Gray's Anatomy for Students. Illustrations by Richard Mitchell and Paul Richardson. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2306-0.
^ ^a ^b ^c Gray, Henry (1918). Anatomy of the Human Body. ISBN 0-8121-0644-X.
^ ^a ^b "Apical Phalangeal Tufts". Center for Academic Research & Training in Anthropogeny. Retrieved January 28, 2017. The tufts support the fleshy volar pad (also known as the distal pulp) on the palmar (volar) surface of the finger, as well as the nail on the dorsal surface.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Almécija, Sergio; Moyà-Solà, Salvador; Alba, David M.; Strait, David S. (22 July 2010). "Early Origin for Human-Like Precision Grasping: A Comparative Study of Pollical Distal Phalanges in Fossil Hominins". PLoS ONE. 5 (7): e11727. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011727. PMC 2908684 . PMID 20661444.
^ Shrewsbury & Johnson 1975, p. 784
^ ^a ^b Mittra, ES; Smith, HF; Lemelin, P; Jungers, WL (Dec 2007). "Comparative morphometrics of the primate apical tuft". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 134 (4): 449–59. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20687. PMID 17657781.
^ Hamrick, MW (Jun 1998). "Functional and adaptive significance of primate pads and claws: evidence from New World anthropoids". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 106 (2): 113–27. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199806)106:2<113::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-R. PMID 9637179.
^ ^a ^b Gough-Palmer, Antony L.; Maclachlan, Jody; Routh, Andrew (March 2008). "Paws for Thought: Comparative Radiologic Anatomy of the Mammalian Forelimb". RadioGraphics. 28 (2): 501–510. doi:10.1148/rg.282075061. PMID 18349453.

External links

MedTerms.com Medical Dictionary

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. 基節骨骨折 proximal phalanx fractures
2. 指、手、および手首の骨折の概要 overview of finger hand and wrist fractures
3. 母指痛患者の評価 evaluation of the patient with thumb pain
4. 指脱臼の整復 digit dislocation reduction

English Journal

The morphology of Oreopithecus bambolii pollical distal phalanx.

Almécija S1, Shrewsbury M, Rook L, Moyà-Solà S.Author information 1Department of Anatomical Sciences, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-8081; Department of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History and NYCEP, New York, NY, 10024; Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, 08193, Spain.AbstractOreopithecus bambolii is a Late Miocene ape from Italy, first described in the late 19th century. Its interpretation is still highly controversial, especially in reference to its hand proportions and thumb morphology. In this study, the authors provide detailed descriptions of the available Oreopithecus pollical distal phalanx (PDP) specimens, as well as bivariate and multivariate morphometric analyses in comparison with humans, extant apes, selected anthropoid monkeys, and available Miocene PDP specimens. The multivariate results reveal two opposite poles on the hominoid PDP shape spectrum: on one side, a mediolaterally broad and dorsopalmarly short human PDP, and on the other side, the narrow and "conical" PDP of chimpanzees and orangutans. The authors contend that Oreopithecus exhibits intermediate PDP proportions that are largely primitive for hominoids because it shares morphological similarities with Proconsul. Furthermore, Oreopithecus displays a mediolaterally wide tuft for a hominoid, as well as a palmarly elevated attachment for a long tendon of a flexor muscle that is associated at its proximal edge with a proximal fossa and at its distal edge with an ungual fossa. These nonmetrical traits have been associated in humans with their capability to oppose and contact the proximal pads of the thumb and fingers, that is, pad-to-pad precision grasping. These traits reinforce previous studies that indicate a human-like thumb-to-hand length ratio compatible with pad-to-pad precision grasping in Oreopithecus. Although specific hand use is still unresolved in Oreopithecus, the results suggest enhanced manipulative skills (unrelated to stone tool-making) in this taxon relative to other (extant or fossil) hominoids. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:582-597, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
American journal of physical anthropology.Am J Phys Anthropol.2014 Apr;153(4):582-97. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.22458. Epub 2014 Jan 7.
Oreopithecus bambolii is a Late Miocene ape from Italy, first described in the late 19th century. Its interpretation is still highly controversial, especially in reference to its hand proportions and thumb morphology. In this study, the authors provide detailed descriptions of the available Oreopith
PMID 24395731

Fixation Updates for Hallux Valgus Correction.

Ben-Ad R.Author information University Foot and Ankle Institute, 2121 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 101, Santa Monica, CA 90403, USA. Electronic address: rbenad@gmail.com.AbstractFixation options for hallux valgus correction vary. Although some methods are newer and more advanced, even the older techniques are successful in appropriate situations. Kirschner wires and cerclage wiring have their place in proximal phalanx and first metatarsal osteotomies. They are useful for fusion procedures, depending on patient bone quality. Advancements with staple fixation allow the surgeon to apply compression with this device. One of the most stable forms of fixation is the bone screw. By providing a stable construct with good interfragmentary compression, primary bone healing is facilitated. The more recent use of rigid locking plates has allowed for earlier weight bearing following fusion procedures.
Clinics in podiatric medicine and surgery.Clin Podiatr Med Surg.2014 Apr;31(2):265-279. doi: 10.1016/j.cpm.2013.12.008. Epub 2014 Feb 11.
Fixation options for hallux valgus correction vary. Although some methods are newer and more advanced, even the older techniques are successful in appropriate situations. Kirschner wires and cerclage wiring have their place in proximal phalanx and first metatarsal osteotomies. They are useful for fu
PMID 24685192

Proximal Phalangeal Osteotomies for Hallux Abductovalgus Deformity.

Rettedal D1, Lowery NJ2.Author information 1University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Mercy Hospital, 1400 Locust Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA.2University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Mercy Hospital, 1400 Locust Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA. Electronic address: lowerynj@upmc.edu.AbstractThe primary indication for an osteotomy of the hallux proximal phalanx to correct hallux abductovalgus (HAV) deformities is increased hallux interphalangeus. The typical osteotomy is the Akin osteotomy or a variation. The Akin is a medial closing wedge osteotomy in the proximal phalanx. An Akin-type osteotomy is usually used as an adjunctive procedure for HAV to correct deformity within the great toe. When first metatarsal procedures and soft tissue balancing are not sufficient for realigning the first metatarsophalangeal joint, an Akin can be useful. A hallux proximal phalanx osteotomy is not indicated as the primary correction for HAV deformities.
Clinics in podiatric medicine and surgery.Clin Podiatr Med Surg.2014 Apr;31(2):213-220. doi: 10.1016/j.cpm.2013.12.003.
The primary indication for an osteotomy of the hallux proximal phalanx to correct hallux abductovalgus (HAV) deformities is increased hallux interphalangeus. The typical osteotomy is the Akin osteotomy or a variation. The Akin is a medial closing wedge osteotomy in the proximal phalanx. An Akin-type
PMID 24685188

Japanese Journal

示指基節骨粉砕開放骨折に対しdefinitiveに創外固定を使用した1例

村上裕樹,大石崇人,荻原弘晃
日本創外固定・骨延長学会雑誌 = The Journal of the Japanese Association of External Fixation and Limb Lengthening 30, 89-92, 2019
NAID 40021843134

日本獸醫學雜誌(The Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science)

MIZOBE Fumiaki,NOMURA Motoi,UENO Takanori,YAMADA Kazutaka
Ｔｈｅ　Ｊｏｕｒｎａｌ　ｏｆ　Ｖｅｔｅｒｉｎａｒｙ　Ｍｅｄｉｃａｌ　Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ 81(4), 593-597, 2019
… <p>This study focused on 8 Thoroughbred racehorses showing bone marrow oedema-type signal in the proximal sagittal groove of the proximal phalanx, with the aim of understanding its clinical significance. …
NAID 130007632972

Bone marrow oedema-type signal in the proximal phalanx of Thoroughbred racehorses

MIZOBE Fumiaki,NOMURA Motoi,UENO Takanori,YAMADA Kazutaka
Ｔｈｅ　Ｊｏｕｒｎａｌ　ｏｆ　Ｖｅｔｅｒｉｎａｒｙ　Ｍｅｄｉｃａｌ　Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ, 2019
… <p>This study focused on 8 Thoroughbred racehorses showing bone marrow oedema-type signal in the proximal sagittal groove of the proximal phalanx, with the aim of understanding its clinical significance. …
NAID 130007607417

Related Pictures

Skeleton of the Foot | Earth's Lab Appendicular Skeleton Proximal Phalanx Images, Stock Photos & Vectors | Shutterstock Easy Notes On 【Bones of the Hand】Learn in Just 3 Minutes! Bones of the Right Hand - Anterior (Palmar) - Anatomy Bio110 with Curtishammond at Proximal Phalanx: Definition, Location, Anatomy, Diagram フィットネスの勧め基節骨 - Proximal phalanges - JapaneseClass.jp

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「基節骨」
関連記事	「proximal」「phalanx」

「基節骨」

Phalanx bone
	Illustration of the phalanges
	The phalanges in a human hand
Details
Articulations	Metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, interphalangeal
Identifiers
Latin	Phalanges
TA	A02.4.10.001; A02.5.18.001
	Anatomical terms of bone [edit on Wikidata]

　　[★]

同: proximal phalanx
ラ: phalanx proximalis
関: 手根骨。中節骨、末節骨

底、体、頭からなる

「proximal」

　　[★]

adj.

近位の、基部の

関: basilar、basilaris、juxtaposition、proximal portion、proximal region、proximally、proximate、stem

「phalanx」

　　[★]

(pl.)phalanges

n.

(手の)指骨、(足の)趾骨

[1] Williams, Lynda (June 22, 2012). "Two-phalange fifth toe a 'common variant'". news-medical.net. Retrieved 14 July 2014.

[GRAYS2005-2] Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W. M. (2005). Gray's Anatomy for Students. Illustrations by Richard Mitchell and Paul Richardson. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2306-0.

[GRAYS1918-3] Gray, Henry (1918). Anatomy of the Human Body. ISBN 0-8121-0644-X.

[CARTA-4] "Apical Phalangeal Tufts". Center for Academic Research & Training in Anthropogeny. Retrieved January 28, 2017. The tufts support the fleshy volar pad (also known as the distal pulp) on the palmar (volar) surface of the finger, as well as the nail on the dorsal surface.

[PLOS-2010-5] Almécija, Sergio; Moyà-Solà, Salvador; Alba, David M.; Strait, David S. (22 July 2010). "Early Origin for Human-Like Precision Grasping: A Comparative Study of Pollical Distal Phalanges in Fossil Hominins". PLoS ONE. 5 (7): e11727. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011727. PMC 2908684 . PMID 20661444.

[Shrewsbury-Johnson-1975-6] Shrewsbury & Johnson 1975, p. 784

[Mittra-7] Mittra, ES; Smith, HF; Lemelin, P; Jungers, WL (Dec 2007). "Comparative morphometrics of the primate apical tuft". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 134 (4): 449–59. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20687. PMID 17657781.

[8] Hamrick, MW (Jun 1998). "Functional and adaptive significance of primate pads and claws: evidence from New World anthropoids". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 106 (2): 113–27. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199806)106:2<113::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-R. PMID 9637179.

[Gough-Palmer-9] Gough-Palmer, Antony L.; Maclachlan, Jody; Routh, Andrew (March 2008). "Paws for Thought: Comparative Radiologic Anatomy of the Mammalian Forelimb". RadioGraphics. 28 (2): 501–510. doi:10.1148/rg.282075061. PMID 18349453.

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proximal phalanx