親

関: parental

WordNet

an organism (plant or animal) from which younger ones are obtained
a father or mother; one who begets or one who gives birth to or nurtures and raises a child; a relative who plays the role of guardian
designating the generation of organisms from which hybrid offspring are produced
relating to or characteristic of or befitting a parent; "parental guidance" (同)maternal, paternal
either of two punctuation marks (or) used to enclose textual material
a parent of your father or mother
by parenteral means; "the drug is intended to be administered parenterally"
remove the edges from and cut down to the desired size; "pare ones fingernails"; "trim the photograph"; "trim lumber" (同)trim
decrease gradually or bit by bit (同)pare down
having a parent or parents or cared for by parent surrogates

PrepTutorEJDIC

〈C〉『親』(父または母);《複数形で》両親 / 〈C〉j代りの人,保護者 / 《複数形で》《文》先祖,祖先 / 〈C〉《文》源,起源,原因 / 親の(に関する);親のような
親の,親としての,親にふさわしい / 親のような
『挿入語句』 / 《複数形で》括弧(通例丸括弧()を資す)
祖父母;その一方
(通例刃物で)…‘の'皮をむく(peel) / 〈不ぞろいな部分など〉‘を'切り取る,削る(《+『away』(off』)+『名』+『away』(『off』)》 / (削るようにして)〈予算など〉‘を'減らす,切詰める《+『down』+『名,』+『名』+『down』》

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/11/25 10:24:51」(JST)

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[Wiki en表示]

For other uses, see Parent (disambiguation).

Under the Horse Chestnut Tree by Mary Cassatt, drypoint and aquatint print, 1898.

A parent (from Latin: parēns = parent) is a caretaker of the offspring in their own species. In humans, a parent is of a child (where "child" refers to offspring, not necessarily age). A biological parent consists of a person whose gamete resulted in a child, a male through his sperm, and a woman through her ovum. A woman can also become a parent through surrogacy. However, some parents may not be biologically related to their children. An adoptive parent is one who nurtures and raises the offspring of the biological parents but is not actually biologically related to the child. Children without adoptive parents can be raised by their grandparents or other family members.

A parent can also be elaborated as an ancestor removed one generation. With recent medical advances, it is possible to have more than two biological parents.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Biological and non-biological parentage[edit]

Like mothers, fathers may be categorized according to their biological, social or legal relationship with the child. Historically, the biological relationship paternity has been determinative of fatherhood. However, proof of paternity has been intrinsically problematic and so social rules often determined who would be regarded as a father e.g. the husband of the mother

Biological parents and parental testing[edit]

The term biological parent refers to a parent who is the biological mother or father of an individual. While an individual's parents are often also their biological parents, it is seldom used unless there is an explicit difference between who acted as a parent for that individual and the person from whom they inherit half of their genes. For example, a person whose father has remarried may call his new wife their step-mother and continue to refer to their mother normally, though someone who has had little or no contact with their biological mother may address their foster parent as their mother, and their biological mother as such, or perhaps by her first name.

Parental problems[edit]

Main article: Parental testing

A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a man is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of rights and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during childbirth and pregnancy, except in the case of a pregnancy involving embryo transfer or egg donation, it is obvious who the mother is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified.

Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several congenital traits such as attached earlobes, the widow's peak, or the cleft chin, may serve as tentative indicators of (non-) parenthood as they are readily observable and inherited via autosomal-dominant genes.

A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as genetic fingerprinting of individuals, although older methods have included ABO blood group typing, analysis of various other proteins and enzymes, or using human leukocyte antigens. The current techniques for paternity testing are using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). For the most part however, genetic fingerprinting has all but taken over all the other forms of testing.

Mother[edit]

Main article: Mother

A mother is a woman who has conceived, given birth to, or raised a child in the role of a parent.^[4] Because of the complexity and differences of a mother's social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The male equivalent is a father.

Father[edit]

Main article: Father

A father is defined as a male parent of any type of offspring.^[5] The adjective "paternal" refers to father, parallel to "maternal" for mother. The verb "to father" means to procreate or to sire a child from which also derives the gerund "fathering".

Grandparent[edit]

Main article: Grandparent

Grandparents are the parents of a person's own parent, whether that be a father or a mother. Every sexually reproducing creature who is not a genetic chimera has a maximum of four genetic grandparents, eight genetic great-grandparents, sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents, etc. Rarely, such as in the case of sibling or half-sibling incest, these numbers are lower.

Parent–offspring conflict[edit]

Main article: Parent–offspring conflict

Parent–offspring conflict describes the evolutionary conflict arising from differences in optimal fitness of parents and their offspring. While parents tend to maximize the number of offspring, the offspring can increase their fitness by getting a greater share of parental investment often by competing with their siblings. The theory was proposed by Robert Trivers in 1974 and extends the more general selfish gene theory and has been used to explain many observed biological phenomena.^[6] For example, in some bird species, although parents often lay two eggs and attempt to raise two or more young, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of the food brought by parents and will often kill the weaker sibling, an act known as siblicide.

David Haig has argued that human fetal genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, a hypothesis that has received empirical support. The placenta, for example, secretes allocrine hormones that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to insulin and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading enzymes which counteract this effect.^[7]

Optimal gender mix[edit]

While a child has a biological father and a biological mother, not every family is a traditional nuclear family. There are many variants, such as adoption, shared parenting, step-families, and LGBT parenting, over which there has been controversy.

The social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents or that children and adolescents with same-sex parents suffer any developmental disadvantages compared with those with two opposite-sex parents.^[8]^[9] The professionals and the major associations now agree there is a well-established and accepted consensus in the field that there is no optimal gender combination of parents.^[10] The family studies literature indicates that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting and relationships within the family) that contribute to determining children's well-being and "outcomes," rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and co-habitation status of parents.^[9]

References[edit]

^ UK government backs three-person IVF retrieved 30 June 2013
^ The Law of Sex Discrimination - Page 374, Nadine Taub, Beth Anne Wolfson, Carla M. Palumbo
^ Browne C. Lewis - 2012, Papa's Baby: Paternity and Artificial Insemination, Page 136
^ "Definition from". Allwords.com. 2007-09-14. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
^ "WordNet". Retrieved 2007-12-14. ^{[dead link]}
^ Trivers, R.L. (1974). "Parent–offspring conflict". Integrative and Comparative Biology 14: 249. doi:10.1093/icb/14.1.249. JSTOR 3881986.
^ Haig, D. (1993). "Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy". The Quarterly review of biology 68 (4): 495–532. doi:10.1086/418300. JSTOR 3037249. PMID 8115596.
^ Lamb, Michael (2009). Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts
^ ^a ^b Short, Elizabeth; Riggs, Damien W.; Perlesz, Amaryll; Brown, Rhonda and Kane, Graeme. "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society". Retrieved 2011-11-04.
^ "In The Supreme Court of Iowa No. 07–1499". Retrieved 2011-11-04.

External links[edit]

Look up parent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

National Educational Network, Inc. (NENI) – free online resources for parent education, curriculum. They also have a parent blog with information about child care, afterschool, trends in education, tutoring, college, grants, etc.
"Parents". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. – A Roman Catholic view of the position of parents.

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

Pectic polysaccharides of the fresh plum Prunus domestica L. isolated with a simulated gastric fluid and their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.

Popov SV, Ovodova RG, Golovchenko VV, Khramova DS, Markov PA, Smirnov VV, Shashkov AS, Ovodov YS.SourceInstitute of Physiology, Komi Science Centre, The Urals Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 50, Pervomaiskaya Str., Syktyvkar 167982, Russia. Electronic address: popov@physiol.komisc.ru.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2014 Jan 15;143:106-13. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.07.049. Epub 2013 Jul 26.
A pectic polysaccharide, designated as PD, was extracted from fresh plums (Prunus domestica L.) with a simulated gastric fluid. Galacturonan, which was partially substituted with methyl and O-acetyl ester groups, and rhamnogalacturonan were the main constituents of the linear regions of the sugar ch
PMID 24054219

Parent and teen agreement on driving expectations prior to teen licensure.

Hamann CJ, Ramirez M, Yang J, Chande V, Peek-Asa C.SourceInjury Prevention Research Center, The University of Iowa, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Iowa City, IA, USA. cara-hamann@uiowa.edu.
American journal of health behavior.Am J Health Behav.2014 Jan;38(1):13-21. doi: 10.5993/AJHB.38.1.2.
OBJECTIVES: To examine pre-licensure agreement on driving expectations and predictors of teen driving expectations among parent-teen dyads.METHODS: Cross-sectional survey of 163 parent-teen dyads. Descriptive statistics, weighted Kappa coefficients, and linear regression were used to examine expecta
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Photocatalytic degradation of agricultural antibiotics using a UV-LED light source.

Malkhasian AY, Izadifard M, Achari G, Langford CH.Sourcea Department of Chemistry , King Abdulaziz University , Jeddah , Saudi Arabia.
Journal of environmental science and health. Part. B, Pesticides, food contaminants, and agricultural wastes.J Environ Sci Health B.2014;49(1):35-40. doi: 10.1080/03601234.2013.836871.
With a view to developing a UV-LED photocatalytic reactor for small and remote water systems, the degradation of three representative agriculturally produced contaminants, two antibiotics and an endocrine disruptor hormone, was evaluated in a bench 365 nm LED photoreactor using a slurry of the well
PMID 24138466

Engineering Peptide Therapeutics Using MIMETIBODY™ Technology.

Picha K, Huang C, Bugelski P, O'Neil K.SourceCentocor Research and Development, Inc., A Division of Johnson & Johnson Company, Radnor, PA, USA.
Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.).Methods Mol Biol.2014;1088:125-45. doi: 10.1007/978-1-62703-673-3_9.
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Japanese Journal

関わりの難しい保護者像と保育者のバーンアウトの実態 : 保育者へのサポート要因を探る

黒川祐貴子,青木紀久代,山﨑玲奈
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NAID 40020140294

親子の愛と絆の脳科学 (特集愛と性の科学) -- (科学でとらえる愛のすがた)

黒田公美
科学 84(7), 720-726, 2014-07
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Usefulness of C-stopper coil for neurointervention

Hayashi Kentaro,Horie Nobutaka,Morikawa Minoru,Nagata Izumi
Neurologia medico-chirurgica 54(6), 450-456, 2014-06-17
… Intervention procedures were TAE for dural arteriovenous fistula (AVF) (n = 15), transvenous embolization for dural AVF (n = 4), parent artery occlusion for cerebral aneurysm, dissection and carotidcavernous fistula (n = 8), TAE for epistaxis (n = 2), and preoperative embolization for tumor (n = 2). … CSCs were successfully placed into the lesion namely feeding artery, venous sinus, parent artery of aneurysm, or dissection. …
NAID 120005462480