WordNet

befitting a mother; warm and nurturing
care for like a mother; "She fusses over her husband" (同)fuss, overprotect
a stringy slimy substance consisting of yeast cells and bacteria; forms during fermentation and is added to cider or wine to produce vinegar
a woman who has given birth to a child (also used as a term of address to your mother); "the mother of three children" (同)female parent
a condition that is the inspiration for an activity or situation; "necessity is the mother of invention"
a term of address for a mother superior
a term of address for an elderly woman

PrepTutorEJDIC

母の / 母のような,母らしい
祖母の;祖母のような / こまごまと世話をやく
『母』 / 〈C〉母親のような人 / 〈U〉《the ~》(…の)源(みなもと),原因《+『of』+『名』》 / ・・・‘を'生む,‘の'母親になる / ・・・‘を'母のように世話する
酢母(酢の表面にできる薄皮)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/03/17 01:55:22」(JST)

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Sweet Dreams, by Belgian artist Firmin Baes

A mother and child

Mothers (or mum/mom/mam(s)) are women who inhabit or perform the role of bearing some relation to their children, who may or may not be their biological offspring. Thus, dependent on the context, women can be considered mothers by virtue of having given birth, by raising their child(ren), supplying their ovum for fertilization, or some combination thereof. Such conditions provide a way of delineating the concept of motherhood, or the state of being a mother. Women who meet the third and first categories usually fall under the terms 'birth mother' or 'biological mother', regardless of whether the individual in question goes on to parent their child. Accordingly, a woman who meets only the second condition may be considered an adoptive mother, and those who meet only the third a surrogacy mother.

The above concepts defining the role of mother are neither exhaustive, nor universal as any definition of 'mother' may differ based on how social, cultural, and religious roles are defined. The parallel conditions and terms for males: those who are (typically biologically) fathers do not, by definition, take up the role of fatherhood. It should also be noted that mother and fatherhood are not limited to those who are or have parented. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be, though such applications tend to be less readily applied to (biological) fathers or adoptive parents.^[1]^[2]

1 Etymology
2 Biological mother
3 Non-biological mother
- 3.1 Surrogate mother
- 3.2 Motherhood in same-sex relationships
4 Social role
5 Health and safety issues
6 Religious
7 Mother-offspring conflict
8 Mothers in art
9 Synonyms and translations
10 Famous motherhood figures
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links

§Etymology

Mother with her child

The modern English word is from Middle English moder, from Old English mōdor, from Proto-Germanic *mōdēr (cf. East Frisian muur, Dutch moeder, German Mutter), from Proto-Indo-European *méh₂tēr (cf. Irish máthair, Tocharian A mācar, B mācer, Lithuanian mótė). Other cognates include Latin māter, Greek μήτηρ, Common Slavic *mati (thence Russian мать (mat’)), Persian مادر (madar), and Sanskrit मातृ (mātṛ).

§Biological mother

Biological motherhood for humans, as in other mammals, occurs when a pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum (the "egg"). Typically a fetus develops from the viable zygote, resulting in an embryo. Gestation occurs in the woman's uterus until the fetus (assuming it is carried to term) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of anti-bodies for the infant's immune system and commonly the sole source of nutrition for the first year or more of the child's life.^[3]^[4]^[5]

§Non-biological mother

Mother can often apply to a woman other than the biological parent, especially if she fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother (the biologically unrelated partner of a child's father). The term "othermother" or "other mother" is also used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the child's primary mother.

Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history.^[6] Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations. In recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common.

Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries).^[7] In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the US accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide.^[8]

§Surrogate mother

A surrogate mother is, commonly, a woman who bears an embryo, that is from another woman's fertilized ovum, to term for a couple biologically unable to have children. Thus, she carries and gives birth to a child that is she not the biological mother of. Note that this is different from a woman who becomes pregnant via in vitro fertilization.

Currently, with advances in reproductive technologies, the function of biological motherhood can be split between the genetic mother (who provides the ovum) and the gestational (commonly known as a surrogate) mother (who carries the pregnancy).

§Motherhood in same-sex relationships

The possibility for lesbian and bisexual women in same-sex relationships (and/or women without a partner) to become mothers has increased over the past few decades^[when?] due to technological developments. Modern lesbian parenting (a term that somewhat erases the bisexual case) originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships. Another way for such women to become mothers is through adopting and/or foster parenting. There is also the option of self-insemination and clinically assisted donor insemination, forms of artificial insemination. As fertility technology has advanced, more women not in a heterosexual relationship have become mothers through in vitro fertilization.^[9]^[10]

§Social role

Sikkimese mother with child

Monumento a la Madre in Mexico City. The inscription translates as "To her who loves us before she meets us".

Historically, the role of women was confined to some extent to being a mother and wife, with women being expected to dedicate most of their energy to these roles, and to spend most of their time taking care of the home. In many cultures, women received significant help in performing these tasks from older female relatives, such as mothers in law or their own mothers.^[11]

Mother and child in Cambodia

Mothers have historically fulfilled the primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the father in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries.^[12]^[13] The 20th century also saw more and more women entering paid work.

The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children.^[14] Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation.^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18] The way mothers speak to their children ("motherese") is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers.^[15]

Since the 1970s, in vitro fertilization has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant changes in the social meaning of motherhood.^[19]^[20] This is, however a position highly biased by Western world locality: outside the Western world, in-vitro fertilization has far less prominence, importance or currency compared to primary, basic healthcare, women's basic health, reducing infant mortality and the prevention of life-threatening diseases such as polio, typhus and malaria.

Traditionally, and still in most parts of the world today, a mother was expected to be a married woman, with birth outside of marriage carrying a strong social stigma. Historically, this stigma not only applied to the mother, but also to her child. This continues to be the case in many parts of the developing world today, but in many Western countries the situation has changed radically, with single motherhood being much more socially acceptable now. For more details on these subjects, see legitimacy (law) and single parent.

The total fertility rate (TFR), that is, the number of children born per woman, differs greatly from country to country. The TFR in 2013 was estimated to be highest in Niger (7.03 children born per woman) and lowest in Singapore (0.79 children/woman).^[21]

In the United States, the TFR was estimated for 2013 at 2.06 births per woman.^[21] In 2011, the average age at first birth was 25.6 and 40.7% of births were to unmarried women.^[22]

§Health and safety issues

Sub-Saharan African countries carry the highest risks in terms of maternal and infant mortality and health.

A maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes".^[23]

About 56% of maternal deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa and another 29% in South Asia.^[24]

In 2006, the organization Save the Children has ranked the countries of the world, and found that Scandinavian countries are the safest places to give birth, whereas countries in sub-Saharan Africa are the least safe to give birth.^[25] This study argues a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is over 750 times more likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth, compared to a mother in the top ten ranked countries, and a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is 28 times more likely to see her child die before reaching their first birthday.

The most recent data suggests that Italy, Sweden and Luxembourg are the safest countries in terms of maternal death and Afghanistan, Central African Republic and Malawi are the most dangerous.^[26]^[27]

Childbirth is an inherently dangerous and risky procedure, subject to many complications. The "natural" mortality rate of childbirth—where nothing is done to avert maternal death—has been estimated as being 1500 deaths per 100,000 births.^[28] Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western countries the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births.^[29]

§Religious

The Hindu mother goddess Parvati feeding her son, the elephant-headed wisdom god Ganesha

Nearly all world religions define tasks or roles for mothers through either religious law or through the glorification of mothers who served in substantial religious events. There are many examples of religious law relating to mothers and women.

Major world religions which have specific religious law or scriptural canon regarding mothers include: Christianity,^[30] Judaism,^[31] and Islam.^[32] Some examples of honoring motherhood include the Madonna or Blessed Virgin Mother Mary for Catholics, and the multiple positive references to active womanhood as a mother in the book of Proverbs.

Hindu's Mother Goddess and Demeter of ancient Greek pre-Christian belief are also mothers.

§Mother-offspring conflict

In early human history there have been many instances of mother-offspring conflicts. For example:

Amastris, queen of Heraclea, was drowned by her two sons in 284 BC.
Cleopatra III of Egypt was assassinated in 101 BC by order of her son, Ptolemy X, for her conspiring.
In AD 59, the Roman Emperor Nero is said to have ordered the murder of his mother Agrippina the Younger, supposedly because she was conspiring against him.
Mary Ann Lamb, the mentally ill sister of essayist Charles Lamb, killed their invalid mother during an episode of mania in 1796.

In modern history here have also been cases of mother-offspring conflicts. Mothers are more likely to commit filicide (murder of their offspring) than the father when the child is 8 years old or younger.^[33] Examples of offspring killing their :

Kip Kinkel (1982- ), an Oregon boy who was convicted of killing both parents as well as killing two students at his school on May 20, 1998.
Dr. I. Kathleen Hagen, a prominent urologist, killed her mother and her father in August 2000 and was acquitted on the grounds of insanity.
Yukio Yamaji, a 16 year old living in Japan, killed his mother in 2000. After his release, he raped and murdered a woman and her sister in 2005. He was executed by hanging in 2009.
Dipendra of Nepal (1971–2001) reportedly massacred much of his family at a royal dinner on June 1, 2001, including his mother Queen Aiswarya, father, brother, and sister.
Erika di Nardo killed her mother and brother in 2001. See Novi Ligure Murder
Sarah Marie Johnson (1987- ), an Idaho girl who was convicted of killing both parents on the morning of 2 September 2003.

§Mothers in art

Charity, by French painter William-Adolphe Bouguereau

Throughout history mothers with their children have often been the subject of artistic works, such as paintings, sculptures or writings.

Fourth century grave reliefs on the island of Rhodos depicted mothers with children.^[34]

Paintings of mothers with their children have a long tradition in France. In the 18th century, these works embodied the Enlightenment's preoccupation with strong family bonds and the relation between mothers and children.^[35]

At the end of the nineteenth century, Mary Cassatt was a painter well known for her portraits of mothers.

Many contemporary movies portray mothers.

§Synonyms and translations

Amerindian woman with child in Peru

The proverbial "first word" of an infant often sounds like "ma" or "mama". This strong association of that sound with "mother" has persisted in nearly every language on earth, countering the natural localization of language.

Familiar or colloquial terms for mother in English are:

Aama, Mata used in Nepal
Mom and mommy are used in the United States, Canada, South Africa, Philippines, India and parts of the West Midlands including Birmingham in the United Kingdom.
Mum and mummy are used in the United Kingdom, Canada, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, Hong Kong and Ireland. Charles, Prince of Wales publicly addressed his mother Queen Elizabeth II as "Mummy" on the occasion of her Diamond Jubilee.^[36]
Ma, mam, and mammy are used in Netherlands, Ireland, the Northern areas of the United Kingdom, and Wales; it is also used in some areas of the United States.

In many other languages, similar pronunciations apply:

Maa, aai, amma, and mata are used in languages of India like Assamese, Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu etc.
Mamá, mama, ma, and mami in Spanish
Mama in Polish, German, Russian and Slovak
Māma (妈妈/媽媽) in Chinese
Máma in Czech and in Ukrainian
Maman in French and Persian
Ma, mama in Indonesian
Mamaí, mam in Irish
Mamma in Italian, Icelandic, Latvian and Swedish
Māman or mādar in Persian
Mamãe or mãe in Portuguese
Mā̃ (ਮਾਂ) in Punjabi
Mama in Swahili
Em (אם) in Hebrew
A'ma (ܐܡܐ) in Aramaic
Má or mẹ in Vietnamese
Mam in Welsh
Eomma (엄마, pronounced [ʌmma]) in Korean
In many south Asian cultures and the Middle East, the mother is known as amma, oma, ammi or "ummi", or variations thereof. Many times, these terms denote affection or a maternal role in a child's life.

§Famous motherhood figures

Bachue
Bithiah
Demeter
Yashoda
Dewi Sri
Eve
Gaia
Isis
Jocasta
Juno
Kwan Yin
Mary
Parvati
Queen Maya
Sita
Venus

§See also

Attachment parenting
Blessed Virgin Mary
Breastfeeding
Jungian archetypes
Lactation
Maternal bond
Matriarch
Matricide
Matrilocal residence
Mother goddess
Mother Goose
Mother insult
Mother ship
Mother's Day
Mothers in space
Mothers rights
Nuclear family
Oedipus complex
Othermother
Parenting
Single-parent

§References

^ "definition of mother from Oxford Dictionaries Online". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press.
^ "Define Mother at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com.
^ "Dhushara.com". Dhushara.com. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
^ Growth and Development
^ Chapter 46 Animal Reproduction
^ Barbara Melosh, the American Way of Adoption page 10
^ Jardine, Cassandra (31 Oct 2007). "Why adoption is so easy in America". Telegraph.
^ http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/policy/child-adoption.pdf
^ "Lesbian parenting: issues, strengths and challenges". Retrieved 2011-01-25.
^ Mezey, Nancy J (2008). New Choices, New Families: How Lesbians Decide about Motherhood. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9000-0.
^ http://biology.unm.edu/fasmith/Web_Page_PDFs/Smith_Brown_1996.pdf
^ "In most Western countries the family model of a sole male breadwinner is in full retreat." Accessed 19 September 2007.
^ Why Are Fathers Important? Interview with Dr. Ross Parke, professor of psychology at the University of California at Riverside, author of Fatherhood (1966) and co-author of Throwaway Dads (1999). Accessed 19 September 2007.
^ Ann M. Berghout Austin1 and T.J. Braeger2 (1990-10-01). "Gendered differences in parents' encouragement of sibling interaction: implications for the construction of a personal premise system". Fla.sagepub.com. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
^ ^a ^b "Fathers' speech to their children: perfect pitch or tin ear?". Thefreelibrary.com. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
^ Hladik, E., & Edwards, H. (1984). A comparison of mother-father speech in the naturalistic home environment. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 13, 321–332.
^ Leaper, C., Anderson, K., & Sanders, P. (1998). Moderators of gender effects on parents' talk to their children: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 34, 3–27.
^ Mannle, S., & Tomasello, M. (1987). Fathers, siblings, and the bridge hypothesis. In K.E. Nelson & A. vanKleeck (Eds.), Children's language, Vol. 6, (pp. 23–42). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
^ Motherhood: Is It Ever Too Late?, July 15, 2009
^ Getting Pregnant After 50: Risks, Rewards July 17, 2009
^ ^a ^b https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html
^ http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htm
^ http://www.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/indmaternalmortality/en/
^ http://data.worldbank.org/news/over-99-percent-of-maternal-deaths-occur-in-developing-countries
^ Save the Children, State of the World's Mothers Report 2006.
^ http://www.newser.com/story/86023/safest-place-to-give-birth-italy.html
^ Rogers, Simon (2010-04-13). "Maternal mortality: how many women die in childbirth in your country?". The Guardian.
^ Van Lerberghe W, De Brouwere V. Of blind alleys and things that have worked: history’s lessons on reducing maternal mortality. In: De Brouwere V, Van Lerberghe W, eds. Safe motherhood strategies: a review of the evidence. Antwerp, ITG Press, 2001 (Studies in Health Services Organisation and Policy, 17:7–33). "Where nothing effective is done to avert maternal death, “natural” mortality is probably of the order of magnitude of 1,500/100,000."
^ ibid, p10
^ "What The Bible Says About Mother". Mothers Day World. Retrieved 2008-11-24.
^ Katz, Lisa. "Religious Obligations of Jewish women". About.com. Retrieved 2008-11-24.
^ 'Ali Al-Hashimi, Muhammad. The Ideal Muslimah: The True Islâmic Personality of the Muslim Woman as Defined in the Qur'ân and Sunnah. Wisdom Enrichment Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2008-11-24. ^{[dead link]}
^ Greenfeld, Lawrence A., Snell, Tracy L. (1999-02-12, updated 2000-03-10). "Women Offenders". NCJ 175688. US Department of Justice
^ http://books.google.ro/books?id=3fnsWhZkq74C&pg=PA234&hl=ro&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false
^ http://books.google.ro/books?id=DQ_8S3iJPa4C&pg=PA87&hl=ro&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false
^ "Prince Charles pays tribute to 'Mummy'". ITN website. 5 June 2012. Retrieved 5 June 2012.

§Further reading

Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W. The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality.
Manne, Anne. Motherhood – How should we care for our children?.
Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer. Mother nature: maternal instincts and how they shape the human species.

§External links

Media related to Mothers at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of mother at Wiktionary

English Journal

[The role of playful interactions in the development of the early mother-child relationship--factors of risk and protection].

Eigner B1.
Psychiatria Hungarica : A Magyar Pszichiátriai Társaság tudományos folyóirata.Psychiatr Hung.2015;30(1):35-49.
BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The early mother-child relationship is taking shape and evolving during the series of their everyday interactions. The main aim of the research that focus on the risks at the beginning, and the future mother infant interactions are factors that have influence on the quality of t
PMID 25867887

Strengthening Incarcerated Families: Evaluating a Pilot Program for Children of Incarcerated Parents and Their Caregivers.

Miller AL1, Perryman J2, Markovitz L3, Franzen S2, Cochran S4, Brown S2.
Family relations.Fam Relat.2013 Oct 1;62(4). doi: 10.1111/fare.12029.
Parental incarceration can be devastating for families. Children may experience difficulties, and the stress on caregivers who take on unexpected childrearing is high. We implemented and evaluated a family-level intervention with caregivers and children experiencing parental (typically maternal) inc
PMID 24353363

The social construction of identity in HIV/AIDS home-based care volunteers in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

Naidu T1, Sliep Y, Dageid W.
SAHARA J : journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS Research Alliance / SAHARA , Human Sciences Research Council.SAHARA J.2012;9(2):113-26. doi: 10.1080/17290376.2012.683585.
Home-based care volunteer (HBCV) identity and how it is shaped was the main focus of the study. Fifteen HBCVs were interviewed about their work and personal life stories and then interviewed reflectively using a narrative interviewing style. Specific attention was paid to contextual meta-narratives
PMID 23237046

Japanese Journal

フォーラム発表母なる川「紋別川」を汚さないで--紋別における産業廃棄物処理センターとアイヌの権利[含英語文] (特集先住民族サミットinあいち2010)

畠山敏
共生の文化研究 (5), 192-194, 2011-03
NAID 40018904981

子育て不安の実態と保健師の支援の課題

原田春美,小西美智子,寺岡佐和
人間と科学 11(1), 53-62, 2011-03
報告Reports本研究の目的は，第1子の母親の子育て不安の実態とソーシャルサポートの現状を明らかにし，支援について検討することである。A市に在住し，平成18年4月～ 9月に第1子を出産した母親に対し，新生児訪問指導時(以下訪問時) と4か月児健康診査時(以下健診時) に質問紙調査を行った。健診時は訪問時に比べて子育て不安「有り」の割合や一人の母親が抱える不安の数は減少し，多くの項目 …
NAID 40018754079

Related Pictures

Motherly Embrace by DemonstratiRegimine on Motherly Joy Picture > Animal Motherly love animals Motherly Love Google Themes, Zerg Motherly Motherly Scootaloo SFM Gmod pony by Motherly Figure by dumbass333 on Not Quite Motherly Love - Photos - Coast Motherly Love by ArthurT2013 on deviantART

★リンクテーブル★

「mother」

　　[★]

n.

母、母親

関: motherhood

[1] "definition of mother from Oxford Dictionaries Online". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press.

[2] "Define Mother at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com.

[3] "Dhushara.com". Dhushara.com. Retrieved 2011-10-27.

[4] Growth and Development

[5] Chapter 46 Animal Reproduction

[6] Barbara Melosh, the American Way of Adoption page 10

[7] Jardine, Cassandra (31 Oct 2007). "Why adoption is so easy in America". Telegraph.

[8] ttp://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/policy/child-adoption.pdf

[9] "Lesbian parenting: issues, strengths and challenges". Retrieved 2011-01-25.

[hooks2000-10] Mezey, Nancy J (2008). New Choices, New Families: How Lesbians Decide about Motherhood. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9000-0.

[11] ttp://biology.unm.edu/fasmith/Web_Page_PDFs/Smith_Brown_1996.pdf

[12] "In most Western countries the family model of a sole male breadwinner is in full retreat." Accessed 19 September 2007.

[13] Why Are Fathers Important? Interview with Dr. Ross Parke, professor of psychology at the University of California at Riverside, author of Fatherhood (1966) and co-author of Throwaway Dads (1999). Accessed 19 September 2007.

[14] Ann M. Berghout Austin1 and T.J. Braeger2 (1990-10-01). "Gendered differences in parents' encouragement of sibling interaction: implications for the construction of a personal premise system". Fla.sagepub.com. Retrieved 2011-10-27.

[speech-15] "Fathers' speech to their children: perfect pitch or tin ear?". Thefreelibrary.com. Retrieved 2011-10-27.

[16] Hladik, E., & Edwards, H. (1984). A comparison of mother-father speech in the naturalistic home environment. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 13, 321–332.

[17] Leaper, C., Anderson, K., & Sanders, P. (1998). Moderators of gender effects on parents' talk to their children: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 34, 3–27.

[18] Mannle, S., & Tomasello, M. (1987). Fathers, siblings, and the bridge hypothesis. In K.E. Nelson & A. vanKleeck (Eds.), Children's language, Vol. 6, (pp. 23–42). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

[19] Motherhood: Is It Ever Too Late?, July 15, 2009

[20] Getting Pregnant After 50: Risks, Rewards July 17, 2009

[cia.gov-21] ttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html

[22] ttp://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htm

[23] ttp://www.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/indmaternalmortality/en/

[24] ttp://data.worldbank.org/news/over-99-percent-of-maternal-deaths-occur-in-developing-countries

[25] Save the Children, State of the World's Mothers Report 2006.

[26] ttp://www.newser.com/story/86023/safest-place-to-give-birth-italy.html

[27] Rogers, Simon (2010-04-13). "Maternal mortality: how many women die in childbirth in your country?". The Guardian.

[vanlerberghe-28] Van Lerberghe W, De Brouwere V. Of blind alleys and things that have worked: history’s lessons on reducing maternal mortality. In: De Brouwere V, Van Lerberghe W, eds. Safe motherhood strategies: a review of the evidence. Antwerp, ITG Press, 2001 (Studies in Health Services Organisation and Policy, 17:7–33). "Where nothing effective is done to avert maternal death, “natural” mortality is probably of the order of magnitude of 1,500/100,000."

[29] ibid, p10

[30] "What The Bible Says About Mother". Mothers Day World. Retrieved 2008-11-24.

[31] Katz, Lisa. "Religious Obligations of Jewish women". About.com. Retrieved 2008-11-24.

[32] 'Ali Al-Hashimi, Muhammad. The Ideal Muslimah: The True Islâmic Personality of the Muslim Woman as Defined in the Qur'ân and Sunnah. Wisdom Enrichment Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2008-11-24. ^{[dead link]}

[33] Greenfeld, Lawrence A., Snell, Tracy L. (1999-02-12, updated 2000-03-10). "Women Offenders". NCJ 175688. US Department of Justice

[34] ttp://books.google.ro/books?id=3fnsWhZkq74C&pg=PA234&hl=ro&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false

[35] ttp://books.google.ro/books?id=DQ_8S3iJPa4C&pg=PA87&hl=ro&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false

[36] "Prince Charles pays tribute to 'Mummy'". ITN website. 5 June 2012. Retrieved 5 June 2012.

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