| Leafhoppers |
|
| Adult of two-lined gum treehopper (Eurymeloides bicincta, Eurymelinae) demonstrating a symbiotic relationship with meat ants |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: |
Animalia |
| Phylum: |
Arthropoda |
| Class: |
Insecta |
| Order: |
Hemiptera |
| Suborder: |
Auchenorrhyncha |
| Infraorder: |
Cicadomorpha |
| Superfamily: |
Membracoidea |
| Family: |
Cicadellidae
Latreille, 1802 |
| Subfamilies |
|
Almost 40, see text
|
Leafhopper is a common name applied to any species from the family Cicadellidae. These minute insects, colloquially known as hoppers, are plant feeders that suck plant sap from grass, shrubs, or trees. Their hind legs are modified for jumping, and are covered with hairs that facilitate the spreading of a secretion over their bodies that acts as a water repellent and carrier of pheromones.[1] They undergo an incomplete metamorphosis, and have various host associations, varying from very generalized to very specific. Some species have a cosmopolitan distribution, or occur throughout the temperate and tropical regions. Some are pests or vectors of plant viruses and phytoplasmas.[1] The family is distributed all over the world, and constitutes the second-largest hemipteran family, with at least 20,000 described species.
They belong to a lineage traditionally treated as infraorder Cicadomorpha in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha, but as the latter taxon is probably not monophyletic, many modern authors prefer to abolish the Auchenorrhyncha and elevate the cicadomorphs to a suborder Clypeorrhyncha. Members of the tribe Proconiini of the subfamily Cicadellinae are commonly known as sharpshooters.
Contents
- 1 Description and ecology
- 2 Systematics
- 3 See also
- 4 References
- 5 Further reading
- 6 External links
Description and ecology
The Cicadellidae combine the following features:
- The thickened part of the antennae is very short and ends with a bristle (arista).
- Two ocelli (simple eyes) are present on the top or front of the head.
- The tarsi are made of three segments.
- The femora are at front with, at most, weak spines.
- The hind tibiae have one or more distinct keels, with a row of movable spines on each, sometimes on enlarged bases.
- The base of the middle legs is close together where they originate under the thorax.
- The front wings not particularly thickened.
An additional and unique character of leafhoppers is the production of brochosomes, which are thought to protect the animals, and particularly their egg clutches, from predation and pathogens.
Nymph of an unidentified Typhlocybinae species
Like other Exopterygota, the leafhoppers undergo direct development from nymph to adult without a pupal stage. While many leafhoppers are drab little insects as is typical for the Membracoidea, the adults and nymphs of some species are quite colorful. Some – in particular Stegelytrinae – have largely translucent wings and resemble flies at a casual glance.
Leafhoppers have piercing-sucking mouthparts, enabling them to feed on plant sap. A leafhoppers' diet commonly consists of sap from a wide and diverse range of plants, but some are more host-specific. Leafhoppers mainly are herbivores, but some are known to eat smaller insects, such as aphids, on occasion. A few species are known to be mud-puddling, but as it seems, females rarely engage in such behavior. Leafhoppers can transmit plant pathogens, such as viruses, phytoplasmas[2] and bacteria. Cicadellidae species that are significant agricultural pests include the beet leafhopper (Circulifer tenellus), potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae), two-spotted leafhopper (Sophonia rufofascia), glassy-winged sharpshooter (Homalodisca vitripennis), the common brown leafhopper (Orosius orientalis), the maize streak virus vector Cicadulina mbila, and the white apple leafhopper (Typhlocyba pomaria). The beet leafhopper (Circulifer tenellus) can transmit the beet curly top virus to various members of the nightshade family, including tobacco, tomato, or eggplant, and is a serious vector of the disease in chili pepper in the Southwestern United States.
In some cases, the plant pathogens distributed by leafhoppers are also pathogens of the insects themselves, and can replicate within the leafhoppers' salivary glands. Leafhoppers are also susceptible to various insect pathogens, including Dicistroviridae viruses, bacteria and fungi; numerous parasitoids attack the eggs and the adults provide food for small insectivores.
Some species such as the Australian Kahaono montana Evans build silk nest under the leaves of trees they live in, to protect them from predators.[3]
Systematics
In the now-obsolete classification that was used throughout much of the 20th century, the leafhoppers were part of the Homoptera, a paraphyletic assemblage uniting the less advanced lineages of Hemiptera and ranked as suborder. The splitting of the Homoptera is likely to be repeated for the Auchenorrhyncha for similar reasons, as the Auchenorrhyncha simply seem to group the moderately advanced Hemiptera, regardless of the fact the highly apomorphic Coleorrhyncha and Heteroptera (typical bugs) evolved from auchenorrhynchans. Hence, a recent trend treats the most advanced hemipterans as three or four lineages, namely Archaeorrhyncha (Fulgoromorpha if included in Auchenorrhyncha), Coleorrhyncha and Heteroptera (sometimes united as Prosorrhyncha) and Clypeorrhyncha.[4][5][6]
Within the latter, the three traditional superfamilies – Cercopoidea (froghoppers and spittlebugs), Cicadoidea (cicadas) and Membracoidea – appear to be monophyletic. The leafhoppers are the most basal living lineage of Membracoidea, which otherwise include the families Aetalionidae (aetalionid treehoppers), Membracidae (typical treehoppers and thorn bugs), Melizoderidae and the strange Myerslopiidae.[4][5][6]
Aphrodes makarovi in copula (Aphrodinae)
Mating pair of
Bothrogonia ferruginea (Cicadellinae), known as
tsumaguro-ōyokobai in Japan
Adult
Eupteryx aurata (Typhlocybinae)
Subfamilies
The leafhoppers are divided into a high number (about 40) of subfamilies, which are listed here alphabetically, as too little is known about the family's internal phylogeny. Some notable genera and species are also listed.
- Acostemminae
- Agalliinae
- Aphrodinae
- Arrugadinae
- Austroagalloidinae
- Bythoniinae
- Cicadellinae
- Bothrogonia
- Graphocephala
- Homalodisca
- Zyzzogeton
- Coelidiinae
- Deltocephalinae
- Anoplotettix (Ferrari, 1882)
- Circulifer
- Graminella
- Hecalusina He, Zhang & Webb, 2008
- Errhomeninae
- Euacanthellinae
- Eupelicinae
- Eurymelinae
- Euscelinae
- Evacanthinae
- Evansiolinae
- Gyponinae
- Hylicinae
- Iassinae
- Idiocerinae
- Ledrinae
- Macropsinae
- Makilingiinae
- Megophthalminae
- Membracidae
- Mileewinae
- Mukariinae
- Neobalinae
- Neocoelidiinae
- Neopsinae
- Nioniinae
- Nirvaninae
- Phereurhininae
- Selenocephalinae
- Signoretiinae
- Stegelytrinae
- Aculescutellaris
- Cyrta Melichar, 1902 (including Placidus)
- Doda
- Paracyrta Wei, Webb & Zhang, 2008
- Pseudododa
- Tartessinae
- Tinterominae
- Typhlocybinae
- Dziwneono
- Empoasca
- Erasmoneura Young, 1952
- Eupteryx
- Sweta Viraktamath & Dietrich, 2011[8]
- Typhlocyba
- Ulopinae
- Xestocephalinae
- incertae sedis
- Mesojassoides (extinct, late Cretaceous)
See also
- Planthopper
- Treehopper
- List of animals that produce silk
References
- ^ a b Stiller, Michael (October–December 2009). "Biosystematics: Leafhoppers associated with grasslands of South Africa – Grassland Biome endemics". Plant Protection News (Plant Protection Research Institute) 82: 6.
- ^ Ing-Ming Lee, Robert E. Davis & Dawn E. Gundersen-Rindal (2000). "Phytoplasma: phytopathogenic mollicutes". Annual Review of Microbiology 54: 221–255. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.54.1.221. PMID 11018129.
- ^ "Silk production by the Australian endemic leafhopper Kahaono montana Evans (Cicadellidae: Typhlocybinae: Dikraneurini) provides protection from predators - Gurr - 2011 - Australian Journal of Entomology - Wiley Online Library". Onlinelibrary.wiley.com. Retrieved 2014-07-09.
- ^ a b David R. Maddison (January 1, 1995). "Hemiptera. True bugs, cicadas, leafhoppers, aphids, etc.". Tree of Life Web Project. Retrieved August 24, 2010.
- ^ a b "Auchenorrhyncha". Tree of Life Web Project. January 1, 1995. Retrieved August 24, 2010.
- ^ a b "Membracoidea". Tree of Life Web Project. January 1, 1995. Retrieved August 24, 2010.
- ^ animals, animals, animals. Animalworld.tumblr.com (2010-11-26). Retrieved on 2013-02-09.
- ^ Viraktamath, C.A. & Dietrich, C.H. (2011). "A remarkable new genus of Dikraneurini (Hemiptera: Cicadomorpha: Cicadellidae: Typhlocybinae) from Southeast Asia". Zootaxa 2931: 1–7.
Further reading
- Carver, M, FG. Gross, and TE. Woodward. 1991. Hemiptera (bugs, leafhoppers, cicadas, aphids, scale insects, etc.) In: The Insects of Australia – a Textbook for Students and Research Workers Volume 1. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, Australia".
External links
|
Wikispecies has information related to: Cicadellidae |
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cicadellidae. |
- Cicadellidae Taxonomy Site
- Red-banded leafhopper Graphocephala coccinea – diagnostic photographs and information
- Illinois Natural History Survey:leafhoppers
- Leafhoppers of North and South America
- Sharpshooter Leafhoppers of the World (Hemiptera: Cicadellinae) – Online Database with color photos of nearly all described species.
- Leafhoppers Pinellas County Florida
- NMSU Entomology Plant Pathology and Weed Science. "New Mexico State University Carol Sutherland leafhopper collection". Retrieved 2013-07-15.
- Auchenorrhyncha keys, Australia and neighbouring areas
- DrMetcalf: a resource on cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, spittlebugs, and treehoppers
|
Extant Hemiptera families
|
|
- Kingdom: Animalia
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Class: Insecta
- Subclass: Pterygota
- Infraclass: Neoptera
- Superorder: Paraneoptera
|
|
|
Suborder Auchenorrhyncha
|
|
|
Cicadomorpha
|
|
Cercopoidea
(froghoppers)
|
- Aphrophoridae
- Cercopidae
- Clastopteridae
- Epipygidae
- Machaerotidae
|
|
|
Cicadoidea
(cicadas)
|
- Cicadidae
- Tettigarctidae (hairy cicadas)
|
|
|
Membracoidea
|
- Aetalionidae
- Cicadellidae (leafhoppers)
- Melizoderidae
- Membracidae (typical treehoppers, thorn bugs)
- Myerslopiidae
|
|
|
|
Fulgoromorpha
(planthoppers)
|
|
Fulgoroidea
|
- Acanaloniidae
- Achilidae
- Achilixiidae
- Cixiidae
- Delphacidae
- Derbidae
- Dictyopharidae
- Eurybrachyidae
- Flatidae
- Fulgoridae (lanternflies)
- Gengidae
- Hypochthonellidae
- Issidae
- Kinnaridae
- Lophopidae
- Meenoplidae
- Nogodinidae
- Ricaniidae
- Tettigometridae
- Tropiduchidae
|
|
|
|
|
|
Suborder Sternorrhyncha
|
|
|
Aleyrodoidea
|
|
|
|
Aphidoidea
(aphids)
|
- Anoeciidae
- Aphididae
- Drepanosiphidae
- Greenideidae
- Hormaphididae
- Lachnidae
- Mindaridae
- Pemphigidae
- Phloeomyzidae
- Thelaxidae
|
|
|
Coccoidea
(scale insects)
|
- Aclerdidae
- Asterolecaniidae (pit scales)
- Beesoniidae (beesoniids)
- Carayonemidae (carayonemids)
- Cerococcidae (ornate pit scales)
- Coccidae (soft scales)
- Conchaspididae
- Dactylopiidae (cochineals)
- Diaspididae (armored scales)
- Eriococcidae (felt scales)
- Halimococcidae (pupillarial palm scales)
- Kermesidae
- Kerriidae (lac scales)
- Lecanodiaspididae (false pit scales)
- Margarodidae (cottony cushion scales, giant coccids, ground pearls)
- Micrococcidae (Mediterranean scales)
- Monophlebidae (giant scales)
- Ortheziidae (ensign scales)
- Phenacoleachiidae (phenacoleachiids)
- Phoenicococcidae (palm scales)
- Pseudococcidae (mealybugs)
- Putoidae (giant mealybugs)
- Stictococcidae (stictococcids)
|
|
|
Phylloxeroidea
|
- Adelgidae (woolly conifer aphids)
- Phylloxeridae (phylloxerans)
|
|
|
Psylloidea
|
- Aphalaridae
- Calophyidae
- Carsidaridae
- Homotomidae
- Phacopteronidae
- Psyllidae (jumping plant lice)
- Triozidae
|
|
|
|
|
Suborder Heteroptera (including Coleorrhyncha)
|
|
|
Dipsocoromorpha
|
- Ceratocombidae
- Dipsocoridae
- Hypsipterygidae
- Schizopteridae
- Stemmocryptidae
|
|
|
|
Enicocephalomorpha
|
|
Enicocephaloidea
|
- Aenictopecheidae
- Enicocephalidae (unique-headed bugs, gnat bugs)
|
|
|
|
Gerromorpha
(semiaquatic bugs)
|
|
Gerroidea
|
- Gerridae (water striders)
- Hermatobatidae
- Veliidae (riffle bugs)
|
|
|
Hebroidea
|
- Hebridae (velvet water bugs)
|
|
|
Hydrometroidea
|
- Hydrometridae (marsh treaders or water measurers)
- Macroveliidae
- Paraphrynoveliidae
|
|
|
Mesovelioidea
(water treaders)
|
- Madeoveliidae
- Mesoveliidae
|
|
|
|
Leptopodomorpha
|
- Saldidae (shore bugs)
- Leptopodidae (spiny shore bugs)
- Omaniidae
- Aepophilidae
|
|
|
|
Nepomorpha
(true water bugs)
|
|
Corixoidea
|
- Corixidae (water boatmen)
|
|
|
Nepoidea
|
- Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)
- Nepidae (water scorpions, needle bugs)
|
|
|
Ochteroidea
|
- Gelastocoridae (toad bugs)
- Ochteridae (velvety shore bugs)
|
|
|
Aphelocheiroidea
|
- Aphelocheiridae
- Potamocoridae
|
|
|
Naucoroidea
|
- Naucoridae (creeping water bugs)
|
|
|
Notonectoidea
|
- Notonectidae (backswimmers)
|
|
|
Pleoidea
|
- Helotrephidae
- Pleidae (pygmy backswimmers)
|
|
|
|
Peloridiomorpha
(Coleorrhyncha)
|
|
|
|
|
Cimicomorpha
|
|
Cimicoidea
|
- Anthocoridae (minute pirate bugs or flower bugs)
- Cimicidae (bed bugs, bat bugs)
- Curaliidae (Curalium cronini)
- Joppeicidae
- Lasiochilidae
- Lyctocoridae
- Medocostidae
- Microphysidae
- Miridae (plant bugs, leaf bugs, grass bugs)
- Nabidae (damsel bugs)
- Pachynomidae
- Plokiophilidae
- Polyctenidae (old world bat bugs)
- Reduviidae (assassin bugs, wheel bugs, thread-legged bugs)
- Thaumastocoridae (royal palm bugs)
- Tingidae (lace bugs)
- Velocipedidae
|
|
|
|
Pentatomomorpha
|
|
Aradoidea
|
- Aradidae (flat bugs)
- Termitaphididae (termite bugs)
|
|
|
Pentatomoidea
(shield bugs)
|
- Urostylididae
- Acanthosomatidae (shield bugs)
- Tessaratomidae (giant shield bugs and relatives)
- Dinidoridae
- Cydnidae (burrowing bugs)
- Thaumastellidae
- Parastrachiidae
- Corimelaenidae (includes ebony bugs)
- Lestoniidae
- Phloeidae
- Scutelleridae (jewel bugs or metallic shield bugs)
- Plataspididae
- Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
- Canopidae
- Megarididae
|
|
|
Coreoidea
|
- Alydidae (broad-headed bugs)
- Coreidae (squash bugs, leaf-footed bugs)
- Hyocephalidae
- Rhopalidae (scentless plant bugs)
- Stenocephalidae
|
|
|
Lygaeoidea
|
- Artheneidae
- Berytidae (stilt bugs)
- Blissidae
- Colobathristidae
- Cryptorhamphidae
- Cymidae
- Geocoridae
- Henicocoridae
- Heterogastridae
- Idiostolidae
- Lygaeidae (milkweed bugs, true seed bugs)
- Malcidae
- Ninidae
- Oxycarenidae
- Pachygronthidae
- Rhyparochromidae (atypical seed bugs)
- Piesmatidae (ash-grey leaf bugs)
|
|
|
Pyrrhocoroidea
|
- Pyrrhocoridae (red bugs, cotton stainers)
- Largidae (bordered plant bugs)
|
|
|
|
Note: traditionally Coleorrhyncha not included in Heteroptera. Heteroptera including Coleorrhyncha also referred to as Prosorrhyncha.
|
|
|
|
