n.

遺伝、遺産

関: asset、hereditary、heredity、heritage、inherit、legacy、will

WordNet

that which is inherited; a title or property or estate that passes by law to the heir on the death of the owner (同)heritage
(genetics) attributes acquired via biological heredity from the parents (同)hereditary pattern
any attribute or immaterial possession that is inherited from ancestors; "my only inheritance was my mothers blessing"; "the worlds heritage of knowledge" (同)heritage
hereditary succession to a title or an office or property (同)heritage
determine by choice; "This action was willed and intended"
a legal document declaring a persons wishes regarding the disposal of their property when they die (同)testament
a fixed and persistent intent or purpose; "where theres a will theres a way"
decree or ordain; "God wills our existence"
receive from a predecessor; "The new chairman inherited many problems from the previous chair"
obtain from someone after their death; "I inherited a castle from my French grandparents"
receive by genetic transmission; "I inherited my good eyesight from my mother"
the biological process whereby genetic factors are transmitted from one generation to the next
the total of inherited attributes (同)genetic endowment
practices that are handed down from the past by tradition; "a heritage of freedom"
a useful or valuable quality (同)plus
hereditary pattern in which a dominant gene on the X chromosome causes a characteristic to be manifested in the offspring
(biology) a theory of how characteristics of one generation are derived from earlier generations

PrepTutorEJDIC

〈U〉『相続』,継承 / 〈C〉『遺産』,相続財産 / 〈C〉(両親・前任者・前代などから)受け継いだもの
《単純未来》 / 《平叙文で》…『だろう』,でしょう,する[予定である] / 《疑問文で》…『だろう[か]』 / 《will be+限在分詞の形で》a)《未来のある時点における進行(継続)中の動作を表して》…『しているだろう』,しているでしょう b)《当然の成り行きとして魅来のでき事を表して》…『することになるだろう』,するでしょう,することになる / 《will have+過去分詞の形で》…『してしまっているだろう』,したことになるだろう / 《意志未来》 / 《一人称主語の平叙文で,話者の意志》…『するつもりである』,しよう / 《一・三人称主語の平叙文で,隠やかな命令》…『しなさい』,していただきます / 《二・三人称主語の平叙文で,主語の意志》…『するつもりである』,する意志がある / 《二人称主語の疑問文で》a)《相手の意志を聞いて》…『するつもりです[か]』,します[か]b)《依頼・勧誘》…『してくれませんか』,しませんか / 《想像・推測》…『だろう』,でしょう / 《主語の強い意志・固執》『どうしても』…『しようとする』,必ず…する / 《習慣》『よく…する』 / 《習性・傾向》『…するものである』,する傾向がある / 《無生物主語を伴って》《可能・能力》『できる』 / 《間接話法の被伝達部において,直接話法のwillをそのまま受け継いで》
〈U〉〈C〉《しばしばthe ~》(行動を選択する)『意志』,意思 / 〈U〉《時にa ~》(身心を抑制する)『意志力』 / 〈C〉〈U〉(…する)『決意』,意図《+to do》 / 〈U〉《one's will》『願い』,望み / 〈U〉(人・物などに対して抱く)『気持ち』,意向,感情 / 〈C〉(特に正式の)『遺言書』 / 《古》…‘を'『望む』,願う / …‘を'意図する,決意する / 《will+名+名=will+名+to+名》(…に)〈遺産など〉‘を'遺贈する
(…から)〈財産・権利・称号など〉‘を'『相続する』《+『名』+『from』+『名』》 / (…から)〈体質・性質など〉‘を'『受け継ぐ』《+『名』+『from』+『名』》 / (前任者・前代から)…‘を'受け継ぐ,継承ぐ,継承する《+『名』+『from』+『名』》 / 財産を相続する
遺伝 / 遺伝形質
世襲財産 / 祖先から伝えられたもの,(有形・無形の)遺産,伝統
価値のあるもの,宝 / 《複数形で》資産,財産

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/12/15 16:16:52」(JST)

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From William Hogarth's A Rake's Progress. "The Young Heir Takes Possession Of The Miser's Effects".

Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, rights and obligations upon the death of an individual. It has long played an important role in human societies. The rules of inheritance differ between societies and have changed over time.

Terminology

In law, an heir is a person who is entitled to receive a share of the deceased's (the person who died) property, subject to the rules of inheritance in the jurisdiction where the deceased (decedent) died or owned property at the time of death. A person does not become an heir before the death of the deceased, since the exact identity of the persons entitled to inherit is determined only then. Members of ruling noble or royal houses expected to become heirs are called heirs apparent if first in line and incapable of being displaced from inheriting by another claim; otherwise, they are heirs presumptive. There is a further concept of joint inheritance, pending renunciation by all but one, which is called coparceny.

In modern law, the terms inheritance and heir refer exclusively to succession to property by descent from a deceased dying intestate. Takers in property succeeded to under a will are termed generally beneficiaries, and specifically devisees for real property, bequestees for personal property, or legatees for money.

History

Detailed anthropological and sociological studies have been made about customs of patrilineal inheritance, where only male children can inherit. Some cultures also employ matrilineal succession, where property can only pass along the female line, most commonly going to the sister's sons of the decedent; but also, in some societies, from the mother to her daughters. Some ancient societies and most modern states employ egalitarian inheritance, without discrimination based on gender and/or birth order.

Islamic laws of inheritance

The Quran introduced a number of different rights and restrictions on matters of inheritance, including general improvements to the treatment of women and family life compared to the pre-Islamic societies that existed in the Arabian Peninsula at the time.^[1] The Quran also presented efforts to fix the laws of inheritance, and thus forming a complete legal system. This development was in contrast to pre-Islamic societies where rules of inheritance varied considerably.^[1] Furthermore, the Quran introduced additional heirs that were not entitled inheritance in pre-Islamic times, mentioning nine relatives specifically of which six were female and three were male. In addition to the above changes, the Quran imposed restrictions on testamentary powers of a Muslim in disposing his or her property. In their will, a Muslim can only give out a maximum of one third of their property.

The Quran contains only three verses that give specific details of inheritance and shares, in addition to few other verses dealing with testamentary. ^{[Quran 4:11,12,176]}^[2]But this information was used as a starting point by Muslim jurists who expounded the laws of inheritance even further using Hadith, as well as methods of juristic reasoning like Qiyas. Nowadays, inheritance is considered an integral part of Sharia law and its application for Muslims is mandatory, though many peoples (see Historical inheritance systems), despite being Muslim, have other inheritance customs.

Jewish laws of inheritance

The inheritance is patrilineal. The father —that is, the owner of the land— bequeaths only to his male descendants, so the Promised Land passes from one Jewish father to his sons.

If there were no living sons and no descendants of any previously living sons, daughters could inherit. In Numbers 27:1-4, the daughters of Zelophehad (Mahlah, Noa, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah) of the tribe of Manasseh come to Moses and ask for their father's inheritance, as they have no brothers. The order of inheritance is set out in Numbers 27:7-11: a man's sons inherit first, daughters if no sons, brothers if he has no children, and so on.

Later, in Numbers 36, some of the heads of the families of the tribe of Manasseh come to Moses and point out that, if a daughter inherits and then marries a man not from her paternal tribe, her land will pass from her birth-tribe's inheritance into her marriage-tribe's. So a further rule is laid down: if a daughter inherits land, she must marry someone within her father's tribe. (The daughters of Zelophehad marry the sons' of their father's brothers. There is no indication that this was not their choice.)

The tractate Baba Bathra, written during late Antiquity in Babylon, deals extensively with issues of property ownership and inheritance according to Jewish Law. Other works of Rabbinical Law, such as the Hilkhot naḥalot : mi-sefer Mishneh Torah leha-Rambam,^[3] and the Sefer ha-yerushot: ʻim yeter ha-mikhtavim be-divre ha-halakhah be-ʻAravit uve-ʻIvrit uve-Aramit^[4] also deal with inheritance issues. The first, often abbreviated to Mishneh Torah, was written by Maimonides and was very important in Jewish tradition.

All these sources agree that the firstborn son is entitled to a double portion of his father's estate: Deuteronomy 21:17. This means that, for example, if a father left five sons, the firstborn receives a third of the estate and each of the other four receives a sixth. If he left nine sons, the firstborn receives a fifth and each of the other eight receive a tenth.^[3]^[5] If the eldest surviving son is not the firstborn son, he is not entitled to the double portion.

Philo of Alexandria^[6] and Josephus^[7] also comment on the Jewish laws of inheritance, praising them above other law codes of their time. They also agreed that the firstborn son must receive a double portion of his father's estate.

Inheritance inequality

The distribution of the inherited wealth is often unequal. The majority might receive little while only a small number inherit a larger amount, with the lesser amount given to daughter in the family. The amount of inheritance is often far less than the value of a business initially given to the son, especially when a son takes over a thriving multimillion-dollar business, yet the daughter is given the balance of the actual inheritance amounting to far less than the value of business that was initially given to the son. This is especially seen in old world cultures, but continues in many families to this day.^[8]

Arguments for eliminating the disparagement of inheritance inequality include the right to property and the merit of individual allocation of capital over government wealth confiscation and redistribution, but this does not resolve the problem of unequal inheritance. In terms of inheritance inequality, some economists and sociologists focus on the inter generational transmission of income or wealth which is said to have a direct impact on one's mobility (or immobility) and class position in society. Nations differ on the political structure and policy options that govern the transfer of wealth.^[9]

According to the American federal government statistics compiled by Mark Zandi, currently of "Moody's Economy.com", back in 1985, the average US inheritance was $39,000. In subsequent years, the overall amount of total annual inheritance was more than doubled, reaching nearly $200 billion. By 2050, there is an estimated $25 trillion average inheritance transmitted across generations.^[10] Some researchers have attributed this rise to the baby boomer generation. Historically, the baby boomers were the largest influx of children conceived after WW2. For this reason, Thomas Shapiro suggests that this generation "is in the midst of benefiting from the greatest inheritance of wealth in history."^[11]

Inherited wealth may help explain why many Americans who have become rich may have had a "substantial head start".^[12]^[13] In September 2012, according to the Institute for Policy Studies, "over 60 percent" of the Forbes richest 400 Americans "grew up in substantial privilege".^[14]

Inheritance and social stratification

Inheritance inequality has a significant effect on stratification. Inheritance is an integral component of family, economic, and legal institutions, and a basic mechanism of class stratification. It also affects the distribution of wealth at the societal level. The total cumulative effect of inheritance on stratification outcomes takes three forms. The first form of inheritance is the inheritance of cultural capital (i.e. linguistic styles, higher status social circles, and aesthetic preferences).^[15] The second form of inheritance is through familial interventions in the form of inter vivos transfers (i.e. gifts between the living), especially at crucial junctures in the life courses. Examples include during a child's milestone stages, such as going to college, getting married, getting a job, and purchasing a home.^[15] The third form of inheritance is the transfers of bulk estates at the time of death of the testators, thus resulting in significant economic advantage accruing to children during their adult years.^[16] The origin of the stability of inequalities is material (personal possessions one is able to obtain) and is also cultural, rooted either in varying child-rearing practices that are geared to socialization according to social class and economic position. Child-rearing practices among those who inherit wealth may center around favoring some groups at the expense of others at the bottom of the social hierarchy.^[17]

Sociological and economic effects of inheritance inequality

The degree to which economic status and inheritance is transmitted across generations determines one's life chances in society. Although many have linked one's social origins and educational attainment to life chances and opportunities, education cannot serve as the most influential predictor of economic mobility. In fact, children of well-off parents generally receive better schooling and benefit from material, cultural, and genetic inheritances.^[18] Likewise, schooling attainment is often persistent across generations and families with higher amounts of inheritance are able to acquire and transmit higher amounts of human capital. Lower amounts of human capital and inheritance can perpetuate inequality in the housing market and higher education. Research reveals that inheritance plays an important role in the accumulation of housing wealth. Those who receive an inheritance are more likely to own a home than those who do not regardless of the size of the inheritance.^[19]

Often, minorities and individuals from socially disadvantaged backgrounds receive less inheritance and wealth. As a result, mixed races might be excluded in inheritance privilege and are more likely to rent homes or live in poorer neighborhoods, as well as achieve lower educational attainment compared with whites in America. Individuals with a substantial amount of wealth and inheritance often intermarry with others of the same social class to protect their wealth and ensure the continuous transmission of inheritance across generations; thus perpetuating a cycle of privilege.

Nations with the highest income and wealth inequalities often have the highest rates of homicide and disease (such as obesity, diabetes, and hypertension)^{[citation needed]}. A New York Times article reveals that the U.S. is the world's wealthiest nation, but "ranks twenty-ninth in life expectancy, right behind Jordan and Bosnia." This has been regarded as highly attributed to the significant gap of inheritance inequality in the country,^[20] although there are clearly other factors such as the healthcare system.^{[dubious – discuss]}

When social and economic inequalities centered on inheritance are perpetuated by major social institutions such as family, education, religion, etc., these differing life opportunities are transmitted from each generation. As a result, this inequality becomes part of the overall social structure.^[21]

Taxation

Many states have inheritance taxes or death duties, under which a portion of any estate goes to the government.

References

^ ^a ^b C.E. Bosworth et al, eds. (1993). "Mīrāth". Encyclopaedia of Islam 7 (second ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09419-9.
^ http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php#002.11
^ ^a ^b http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1170531/jewish/Chapter-2.htm
^ http://archive.org/details/seferhayerushot00mlgoog
^ [1]
^ Spec. Leg. 2.130
^ Ant. 4.249
^ Davies, James B. "The Relative Impact of Inheritance and Other Factors on Economic Inequality". The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 97, No. 3, pp. 471
^ Angel, Jacqueline L. Inheritance in Contemporary America: The Social Dimensions of Giving across Generations. p. 35
^ Marable, Manning. "Letter From America: Inheritance, Wealth and Race." Google pages.com
^ Shapiro, Thomas M. The Hidden Cost of Being African American: How Wealth Perpetuates Inequality. Oxford University Press. 2004. p. 5
^ Bruenig, Matt (March 24, 2014). "You call this a meritocracy? How rich inheritance is poisoning the American economy". Salon. Retrieved August 24, 2014.
^ Staff (March 18, 2014). "Inequality - Inherited wealth". The Economist. Retrieved August 24, 2014.
^ Pizzigati, Sam (September 24, 2012). "The 'Self-Made' Hallucination of America's Rich". Institute for Policy Studies. Retrieved August 24, 2014.
^ ^a ^b (Edited By) Miller, Robert K., McNamee, Stephen J. Inheritance and Wealth in America. p. 2
^ (Edited By) Miller, Robert K., McNamee, Stephen J. Inheritance and Wealth in America. p. 4
^ Clignet, Remi. Death, Deeds, and Descendants: Inheritance in Modern America. p. 3
^ Bowles, Samuel; Gintis, Herbert, "The Inheritance of Inequality." Journal of Economic Perspectives Vol. 16, No. 3, 2002, p. 4
^ Flippen, Chenoa A. "Racial and Ethnic Inequality in Homeownership and Housing Equity." The Sociological Quarterly, Volume 42, No. 2 p. 134
^ Dubner, Stephen. "How Big of a Deal Is Income Inequality? A Guest Post". The New York Times. August 27, 2008.
^ Rokicka, Ewa. "Local policy targeted at reducing inheritance of inequalities in European countries." May 2006. Lodz.pl (Polish)

External links

Quotations related to Inheritance at Wikiquote
USA Today article on dilemma the rich face when leaving wealth to children

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. 単一遺伝子性疾患の非メンデル遺伝のパターン non mendelian inheritance patterns of monogenic diseases
2. メンデル遺伝の概要 overview of mendelian inheritance
3. 先天異常の遺伝学的および環境的原因 genetic and environmental causes of birth defects
4. 複合形質の遺伝の原則 principles of complex trait genetics
5. 遺伝性疾患の基本原則 basic principles of genetic disease

English Journal

The human microbiome and autoimmunity.

Proal AD, Albert PJ, Marshall TG.SourceaAutoimmunity Research Foundation, Sunnyside, New York bWeill Cornell Medical College, New York, USA cMurdoch University, Murdoch, Australia.
Current opinion in rheumatology.Curr Opin Rheumatol.2013 Mar;25(2):234-240.
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To demonstrate how dysbiosis of the human microbiome can drive autoimmune disease.RECENT FINDINGS: Humans are superorganisms. The human body harbors an extensive microbiome, which has been shown to differ in patients with autoimmune diagnoses. Intracellular microbes slow innate im
PMID 23370376

Transgenerational epigenetic effects on brain functions.

Bohacek J, Gapp K, Saab BJ, Mansuy IM.SourceBrain Research Institute, University of Zurich/Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland.
Biological psychiatry.Biol Psychiatry.2013 Feb 15;73(4):313-20. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.08.019. Epub 2012 Oct 9.
Psychiatric diseases are multifaceted disorders with complex etiology, recognized to have strong heritable components. Despite intense research efforts, genetic loci that substantially account for disease heritability have not yet been identified. Over the last several years, epigenetic processes ha
PMID 23062885

Focal facial dermal dysplasia, type IV, is caused by mutations in CYP26C1.

Slavotinek AM, Mehrotra P, Nazarenko I, Tang PL, Lao R, Cameron D, Li B, Chu C, Chou C, Marqueling AL, Yahyavi M, Cordoro K, Frieden I, Glaser T, Prescott T, Morren MA, Devriendt K, Kwok PY, Petkovich M, Desnick RJ.AbstractFocal facial dermal dysplasia (FFDD) Type IV is a rare syndrome characterized by facial lesions resembling aplasia cutis in a preauricular distribution along the line of fusion of the maxillary and mandibular prominences. To identify the causative gene(s), exome sequencing was performed in a family with two affected siblings. Assuming autosomal recessive inheritance, two novel sequence variants were identified in both siblings in CYP26C1-a duplication of seven base pairs, which was maternally inherited, c.844_851dupCCATGCA, predicting p.Glu284fsX128 and a missense mutation, c.1433G>A, predicting p.Arg478His, that was paternally inherited. The duplication predicted a frameshift mutation that led to a premature stop codon and premature chain termination, whereas the missense mutation was not functional based on its in vitro expression in mammalian cells. The FFDD skin lesions arise along the sites of fusion of the maxillary and mandibular prominences early in facial development, and Cyp26c1 was expressed exactly along the fusion line for these facial prominences in the first branchial arch in mice. Sequencing of four additional, unrelated Type IV FFDD patients and eight Type II or III TWIST2-negative FFDD patients revealed that three of the Type IV patients were homozygous for the duplication, whereas none of the Type II or III patients had CYP26C1 mutations. The seven base pairs duplication was present in 0.3% of healthy controls and 0.3% of patients with other birth defects. These findings suggest that the phenotypic manifestations of FFDD Type IV can be non-penetrant or underascertained. Thus, FFDD Type IV results from the loss of function mutations in CYP26C1.
Human molecular genetics.Hum Mol Genet.2013 Feb 15;22(4):696-703. doi: 10.1093/hmg/dds477. Epub 2012 Nov 16.
Focal facial dermal dysplasia (FFDD) Type IV is a rare syndrome characterized by facial lesions resembling aplasia cutis in a preauricular distribution along the line of fusion of the maxillary and mandibular prominences. To identify the causative gene(s), exome sequencing was performed in a family
PMID 23161670

Role of metabotropic glutamate receptor 7 in autism spectrum disorders: A pilot study.

Yang Y, Pan C.SourceShanghai Children's Medical Center of Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Shanghai, China. Electronic address: yangyou@shsmu.edu.cn.
Life sciences.Life Sci.2013 Feb 7;92(2):149-53. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2012.11.010. Epub 2012 Nov 28.
AIMS: The presence of genetic variants for autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) was investigated for the metabotropic glutamate receptor 7 (GRM7) gene in a case-control study.MAIN METHODS: Employing Affymetrix SNP microarrays, 297 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) covering the GRM7 gene were select
PMID 23201551

Japanese Journal

コピー操作を伴う連続的素性継承

菅野悟
北海道教育大学紀要. 人文科学・社会科学編 64(1), 77-92, 2013-09-00
NAID 120005317631

コピー操作を伴う連続的素性継承

菅野悟
北海道教育大学紀要. 人文科学・社会科学編 64(1), 77-92, 2013-09-00
NAID 110009605370

共同相続における預金債権の取扱い(松浦好治教授退職記念論文集)

伊藤栄寿
名古屋大學法政論集 250, 155-181, 2013-07-18
NAID 110009599019

Production of androgenetic diploid loach by cold-shock of eggs fertilized with diploid sperm

Hou Jilun,Fujimoto Takafumi,Yamaha Etsuro,Arai Katsutoshi
Theriogenology 80(2), 125-130, 2013-07-15
… Five independent microsatellite DNA markers were genotyped to confirm all-male inheritance of the resultant diploid larvae. …
NAID 120005311813